part i: identifying research topics part ii: frequency ......frequency distribution 4. using the...
TRANSCRIPT
Part I: Identifying Research Topics Part II: Frequency Distribution
Brandé Flamez Rick Balkin September 9, 2009
Five Main Components
1. Identifying research topics 2. Specifying research questions and
hypotheses 3. Formulating operational definitions 4. Identifying research variables 5. Collecting and analyzing data
Identifying Research Topics Identify some topic that may:
Contribute to the profession’s knowledge base in a meaningful way
Stimulate and motivate students to explore and learn more about the topic
According to Heppner, Wampold, & Kivlighan (2008) good first step: 1. Collect information about previous research
both within and outside of counseling Read professional journals
Identifying Research Topic Cont.
2. Look for literature reviews on specific topic
3. Spend at least 5 hrs a wk reading and exploring journals for 6wks or more
4. Use faculty and student resources on campus. Your advisor-great resource
Specifying Research Questions and Hypotheses
After identifying a possible research topic: Become knowledgeable about previous research
on topic May write your own formal review paper Examine key studies
Pay attention to discussion section Authors discuss future research needs, next logical
step
Pay attention to constructs used in previous research
Specifying Research Questions and Hypotheses Cont.
Research questions: Research hypothesis:
Three useful categories of research: 1. Descriptive questions 2. Difference questions 3. Relationship questions
Specifying Research Questions and Hypotheses Cont.
1. Descriptive questions What some phenomena or events are
like Experimental manipulations typically not
used Collect info on surveys, interviews to
describe events
Specifying Research Questions and Hypotheses Cont.
2. Difference questions Are there differences between groups of
people or within individual participants? Tend to focus on groups of individuals
Groups may differ or receive different treatment
Ex:
Specifying Research Questions and Hypotheses Cont.
3. Relationship questions Explore the degree to which two or more
constructs vary together Often use correlational statistics or
regression analysis Ex:
Specifying Research Questions and Hypotheses Cont.
What makes a testable research question? According to Kerlinger and Lee (2000):
1. worded clearly and unambiguously in question form
2. should inquire into a relationship between two or more constructs (is construct A related to construct B)
Formulating Operational Definitions
Operationally define each construct Operationally defined
means___________________________. The primary purpose of an operational
definition:
Identifying Research Variables The effect of ______ variable (varied, altered, what
you are manipulating) on the ______ variable (what you are measuring, observing, changed).
Other names for independent variable: 1. 2. 3.
Other names for dependent variable: 1. 2. 3.
Collecting and Analyzing Data
Process of data collection depends on the design of the experiment
Frequency Distribution
A way to present information on scores for a group
Scores are listed from highest to lowest
Percentiles can be easily calculated
Frequency Distribution
Exam Scores 98 85 80 76 67 97 85 80 76 67 95 85 80 75 64 93 84 80 73 60 90 82 78 72 57
88 82 78 70
87 82 78 70
87 80 77 70
Frequency Distribution 1. Order all of the scores in a single column
This is known as the raw score
2. Identify the number of people who made that actual score This is known as the frequency
3. Starting from the lowest score, identify all of the participants who made that score or below This is known as the cumulative frequency
Frequency Distribution 4. Using the frequency (2nd column)
identify the percent of people who made that particular score by dividing the frequency by the total number of participants
5. Starting from the lowest percent, identify all of the participants who made that percent or below This is known as the cumulative percent
See Handout
Score Frequency cf percent cum percent
98 1 37 2.70% 100%
97 1 36 2.70% 97%
95 1 35 2.70% 95%
93 1 34 2.70% 92%
90 1 33 2.70% 89%
88 1 32 2.70% 86%
87 2 31 5.41% 84%
85 3 29 8.11% 78%
84 1 26 2.70% 70%
82 3 25 8.11% 68%
80 5 22 13.51% 59%
78 3 17 8.11% 46%
77 1 14 2.70% 38%
76 2 13 5.41% 35%
75 1 11 2.70% 30%
73 1 10 2.70% 27%
72 1 9 2.70% 24%
70 3 8 8.11% 22%
67 2 5 5.41% 14%
64 1 3 2.70% 8%
60 1 2 2.70% 5%
57 1 1 2.70% 3%
100%
Score Frequency cf percent cum percent
98 1 37 2.70% 100%
97 1 36 2.70% 97%
95 1 35 2.70% 95%
93 1 34 2.70% 92%
90 1 33 2.70% 89%
88 1 32 2.70% 86%
87 2 31 5.41% 84%
85 3 29 8.11% 78%
84 1 26 2.70% 70%
82 3 25 8.11% 68%
80 5 22 13.51% 59%
78 3 17 8.11% 46%
77 1 14 2.70% 38%
76 2 13 5.41% 35%
75 1 11 2.70% 30%
73 1 10 2.70% 27%
72 1 9 2.70% 24%
70 3 8 8.11% 22%
67 2 5 5.41% 14%
64 1 3 2.70% 8%
60 1 2 2.70% 5%
57 1 1 2.70% 3%
100%
Score Frequency cf percent cum percent
98 1 37 2.70% 100%
97 1 36 2.70% 97%
95 1 35 2.70% 95%
93 1 34 2.70% 92%
90 1 33 2.70% 89%
88 1 32 2.70% 86%
87 2 31 5.41% 84%
85 3 29 8.11% 78%
84 1 26 2.70% 70%
82 3 25 8.11% 68%
80 5 22 13.51% 59%
78 3 17 8.11% 46%
77 1 14 2.70% 38%
76 2 13 5.41% 35%
75 1 11 2.70% 30%
73 1 10 2.70% 27%
72 1 9 2.70% 24%
70 3 8 8.11% 22%
67 2 5 5.41% 14%
64 1 3 2.70% 8%
60 1 2 2.70% 5%
57 1 1 2.70% 3%
100%
Score Frequency cf percent cum percent
98 1 37 2.70% 100%
97 1 36 2.70% 97%
95 1 35 2.70% 95%
93 1 34 2.70% 92%
90 1 33 2.70% 89%
88 1 32 2.70% 86%
87 2 31 5.41% 84%
85 3 29 8.11% 78%
84 1 26 2.70% 70%
82 3 25 8.11% 68%
80 5 22 13.51% 59%
78 3 17 8.11% 46%
77 1 14 2.70% 38%
76 2 13 5.41% 35%
75 1 11 2.70% 30%
73 1 10 2.70% 27%
72 1 9 2.70% 24%
70 3 8 8.11% 22%
67 2 5 5.41% 14%
64 1 3 2.70% 8%
60 1 2 2.70% 5%
57 1 1 2.70% 3%
100%
Score Frequency cf percent cum percent
98 1 37 2.70% 100%
97 1 36 2.70% 97%
95 1 35 2.70% 95%
93 1 34 2.70% 92%
90 1 33 2.70% 89%
88 1 32 2.70% 86%
87 2 31 5.41% 84%
85 3 29 8.11% 78%
84 1 26 2.70% 70%
82 3 25 8.11% 68%
80 5 22 13.51% 59%
78 3 17 8.11% 46%
77 1 14 2.70% 38%
76 2 13 5.41% 35%
75 1 11 2.70% 30%
73 1 10 2.70% 27%
72 1 9 2.70% 24%
70 3 8 8.11% 22%
67 2 5 5.41% 14%
64 1 3 2.70% 8%
60 1 2 2.70% 5%
57 1 1 2.70% 3%
100%
Raw Score distribution
Frequency Distribution
Interval Frequency cf percent cum
percent 96-100 2 37 5.41% 100.00% 91-95 2 35 5.41% 94.60% 86-90 4 33 10.81% 89.19% 81-85 7 29 18.92% 78.38% 76-80 11 22 29.73% 59.46% 71-75 3 11 8.11% 29.73% 66-70 5 8 13.51% 21.62% 61-65 1 3 2.70% 8.11% 56-60 2 2 5.41% 5.41%
Interval Distribution
Group Exercise Create a frequency distribution using the
same data in intervals of 10.
98 85 80 76 67 97 85 80 76 67 95 85 80 75 64 93 84 80 73 60 90 82 78 72 57 88 82 78 70 87 82 78 70 87 80 77 70
One possible answer
Interval Frequency cf percent cum
percent 90-99 5 37 13.51% 100.00% 80-89 15 32 40.54% 86.48% 70-79 12 17 32.43% 45.94% 60-69 4 5 10.81% 13.51% 50-59 1 1 2.70% 2.70%
SPSS Frequency Distribution Tables pg. 62
in GW Frequency Distribution Histogram or
Bar Graph pg. 63 Let’s practice using SPSS: problem 1
pg 66. Scores are: 4, 6, 2, 9, 8, 6, 5, 7, 7, 3, 6,
6, 7, 3, 7, 4, 5, 8, 6, 5 Make a frequency table and histogram
Non-Normal (Skewed) Distributions
Positively Skewed Distribution: the majority of scores fall on the low end of the distribution; many low scores, few high scores
Non-Normal (Skewed) Distributions
Negatively Skewed Distribution: the majority of scores fall on the high end of the distribution; many high scores, few low scores
A very difficult exam would probably produce a ______ skewed distribution. (Hint: Draw)
A very easy exam would probably produce a ______ skewed distribution.