part 3: western views of islam and africa · - can easily trace how stereotypes of ‘black...

Part 3: Western Views of Islam and Africa

Oct 13: “Medieval, Early Modern Perspectives”

European Views: Islam, Africa

Robinson: traditions shaping European views

1) “Climes” of Greek Ptolemy2) Atlantic Slave Trade3) Association Islam with Arabic/Arab4) “Islamdom” vs “Christendom”5) Racialization of ‘civilization’

Ancient/Medieval Muslim Views

Robinson:- notes ancient Greeks’ understanding of ‘climes’ as articulated by Ptolemy but…- notes Europe’s first ‘knowledge’ of Africa filtered through Muslim World- Arab/Arabic travellers, merchants, ‘compilers’ provided information on geography, flora/fauna, ethnography, wealth of Sahara and biladas-Sudan (West Africa); Swahili City-States (East African coast) to cosmopolitan Muslim Spain- translated by scholars, moved into medieval ‘Europe’ intellectual sphere- connection with Ptolemy probably 12th C. writer Al-Idrisi


Medieval ‘Arab’ views of Sahara predicated on belief that:- ‘river’ (‘large body of flowing water’) linked Atlantic to Nile- rich sources of gold lay beyond it- (from 9th C): Africans (in and south of Sahara) converting to Islam.- importance: what these realities meant for commerce

Origin appears to have been:- 10th C. map (al-Masudi) - 12th C. text (al-Idrisi) tried to fit ‘new’ information into existing Ptolemaic conceptual framework -postulated ‘divided’ Nile: one flowing north into Egypt, other across Sudan- imagined all major towns lie along the river

Historians realize confusion, do not always factor it into textual reading


Neither Muslim writers nor Europeans had means to challenge ‘perceived wisdom’:

- both either lacked knowledge of African interior [Portuguese – until late 15th C] - or saw it through Islamic prism, strongly shaped by pre-existing views of ‘climes’ (eg Ibn Battuta)- reflected in maps 10th-15th centuries

10th C. View of Africa

‘Map of World’ (African-Iranian part) from al-Masudi (916)[note: view is from north to south]


‘T’ and ‘O’ map with Jerusalem at the center.

This reflected the Church’s view of God’s World.

[“Book of Kells”]

Arabs’ Concept Africa: 13th C.

From Robinson, p.75

Medieval Mapamundi (c.1485-1500)

Genoa Chart of North Africa (c.1490)

[The Work of Christopher Columbus?]

European Views of Islam

Robinson: also shaped by European ‘understanding’ Islam:

- presented by Christians as ‘heresy’- Mohamed last of prophets, Abraham, Jesus and others predecessors- therefore, they too were ‘Muslims’ (those who submit to God) - clearly ‘heresy’ from point of view Church

Following arrival Muslims North Africa (7th C) , Almoravids in Spain (11th C), two events ‘key’ in shaping views between 1100-1500:

- 1055 Christian re-conquest Toledo (Spain) - Crusades (began 1099)/Saladin (Muslim leader who took Jerusalem, 1187)

Argues: led to ‘demonizing’ of Islamic religion: Prophet and Qur’an


Need to add : role of Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople (1453)

- mentions (later) in context of role of Ottomans in Africa- crucial in process of ‘demonizing’- Constantinople: capital former ‘Eastern Roman Empire’- then centre Eastern Orthodox Christianity in ‘Byzantine Empire’- 1453 Sultan Mehmet II carried out successful siege, using rapidly built fortress, navy, army of janissaries, clever strategies…- several European ‘eyewitnesses’: awed by military power, authority of Sultan, taking of ‘booty’ (property, jewels, slaves…)- reported back to Europe- reactions: ‘darkest day in the history of the world’


“From the moment when Constantinople fell, Europeans regarded theTurks with a mixture of horror and fascination. They were outside the bounds of society, and almost beyond the real of humanity. John Lyly described the Turk as "vile and brutish". Other authors made much of the Turks' supposed addiction to unnatural vice...an image of the "Terrible Turk" who ate children alive -- a stereotype which rapidly was becoming universal in the West and which mothers found useful for terrifying naughty children.”

[Andrew Wheatcroft, The Ottomans (1994) - contemporary secondary source, 'reporting' on European response to news of Fall of Constantinople; see ‘Wheatcroft’, Additional Readings]


“Legend of Prester John”

- aspect of ‘beliefs’ about Islam was collaborating belief that Christian King continued to rule wealthy kingdom ‘hidden’ behind Dar al-Islam- was awaiting European assistance to ‘fight back the evil Muslims’and retake Holy Land (as well as trade with East)- geographical location varied but by medieval era, believed to be situated in Horn of Africa- when Portuguese accepted invitation Christian ‘King’ Ethiopia (early-mid16th C.), believed they had found Prester John - disappointed when ‘battle’ was for local power, not destruction Muslim World

[refer back to lecture on ‘Islamization: Horn of Africa, Ethiopia]


Robinson: after 1500, these European views did not change (in terms of their essential beliefs) in spite of experiences in dealing with Islamic Regimes (Morocco, Ottoman Empire)

Robinson himself comments upon two additional factors arising from these:

- ‘Orientalism’ [from late 18th C.]- ‘Abolition’ [of the slave trade – mostly 18th-19th centuries]

Each of these ‘experiences’ continued to shape European views of Islam and Muslim Societies – including in Africa

We will look at each in turn during the next two lectures.

European Views 1500-1700

Robinson: rise of Atlantic Slave Trade

- shifted European focus- can easily trace how stereotypes of ‘black Africa’ developed in context of legitimizing Atlantic Trade- makes point: process not applicable to Muslim Africans (in other words, Islamic Africa ‘left out’ of Europe’s developing vision of Africa)- implication: therefore ‘left out’, period [until late 18th C.]

Argument can (should) be nuanced.


Important:

- where were the Europeans?- why were they there?- what were they ‘seeing’ of Islamic Africa?


Where were they?

- Horn (Ethiopia – see earlier lecture on ‘Islamization’)- North Africa (Morocco – Portuguese; Egypt –Venetians)- East Africa (Portuguese – coast, islands)- Sahara (Portuguese)- Senegambia (region surrounding Senegal and Gambia Rivers –French, British)

European Views: North Africa

North Africa: from 16th C. Europeans ‘encountered’ Ottomans- Venice major trading partner with Ottomans, Mamluk Egypt (paid each ‘tribute’ to ensure peaceful trade)- ties between Venetians (oligarchy, nobility, merchants) and Mamluks particularly strong - closest years prior to Ottoman conquest Egypt (1517)- longest reigning doge of Venice (1423–57) born in Mamluk Egypt - Venetian physician, member of nobility (Nicolo Barbaro) one of most important eye-witnesses to fall of Constantinople- account one of those referred to by Wheatcroft: long, detailed description military power ‘evil, wicked, faithless’ Turks- ‘fed back’ into European impressions of, relations with Ottomans in North Africa:

European Views: North Africa

Ottomans, underSuleiman ‘theMagnificent’,controlled most ofNorth Africa fromEgypt to Algiers1517 - 1566

NorthAfrica

European Views: East Africa

Portuguese: part of ‘Gold, Glory and God’ exploration of Prince Henry (‘the Navigator’)- monopoly of Arab knowledge Muslim Africa challenged

East Africa:- Vasco da Gama 1498 (in search of India)- ‘discovered’ wealthy Swahili City States [Davidson video “Caravans of Gold –Swahili Coast]- next expedition returned 1505, sacked Kilwa and other cities- ‘claimed’ coast 1515 [lecture, Sept. 20]- as in West Africa: goal to intercept gold trade (from southern Africa [also in Davidson… Swahili Coast]- built Fort Jesus (off Mozambique)- failed to establish control


East Africa‘Dar al-Islam’according toal-Idrisi (12th C.)

European Views: East Africa

Frustrated by military weakness, inability to access wealth the saw:

- presented descriptions of East African "Moors" as if they were still engaged in Crusades- women were victims of these infidels ('proof' of Islam's oppression) - and potential Christian converts -(Malindi women ‘resisted’, those of Mombasa ‘embraced’)

[Davidson video ‘Caravans of Gold’ – narration sacking of Kilwa; McDougall ‘Women in African Muslim Societies’, Resources]

European Views: Morocco

North Africa:

- Portuguese drawn into Morocco 1415, Ceuta- hoped to attract trans-Saharan trade – failed- 1490s, established Santa Cruz on coast- hoped to ‘intercept’ trade- generated powerful Moroccan opposition, rise of new dynastic state ‘Sa’adiens’, based in Sahara (looked South to Sudan and East to Tafilelt)- 1541 Moroccans forced Portuguese out- took over ‘fort’ overlooking harbour: renamed ‘Agadir’ (meaning ‘fort/fortress’)

European Views: Mauritania

- Meanwhile established Arguin (trading factory) Mauritanian coast- information about Sahara, its peoples now filtered through Portuguese lens - was acquired initially from coastal raids (random kidnappings of Saharans along the coast)- subsequently from commercial exchanges at Arguin- ‘explorations’ along the extensive Senegal-Gambian coast (named for two rivers)- Alvise de Ca da Mosto, Valentim Fernandes and Pacheco Pereiramost important sources of information trade, people


- highlighted operations of gold, salt and slave trades- reported that gold and slaves crossing the desert taken to entrepot

of Wadan- Cargoes divided: some diverted towards Arguin, most continues

north to ‘Barbary coasts’- Impact of information: 1487 Portuguese establish trading factory at

Wadan (presumably to ‘intercept’ more of northern trade)- Short-lived - Local tradition: Portuguese ‘driven out’- Pereira: ‘hostile reception’ forced them to leave- First (and last) attempt at establishing inland in Sahara failure

.Wadan.Arguin

Hodges

‘Tarra’


- knowledge thereafter generated from coastal exploration- Continued interest in commerce, described ‘tribal’ participation

different Saharan groups- Also: conflict between indigenous ‘Muslim Sanhaja’ clerics (zawaya)

and immigrant ‘Muslim Arab’ warriors (hassan)- formed base of European understanding Saharan society from the

sixteenth century onwards

[as argued more generally by Robinson]

European Views: West Africa ‘interior’

But not end of ‘knowledge’ of Muslim interior:

- 1690 representative Royal African Society, Cornelius Hodges, sent via Gambia river to interior- aim: ‘intercept’ slave trade oriented to French (Senegal)- find out why ‘Moors’ do not want to trade- described active desert-side trade in region near ancient Awdaghust [recently confirmed by archaeological work]- also ‘insight’ into evolving relations between Morocco – West Africa (apart from traditional focus on ‘conquest’ of Niger Bend 1591)


His men reported, they were directed to a large town named ‘Tarra’, “verry neare as bigg as ye Citty of London with ye walls… [in] ye Moores Countrey” said to be “the only mart for slaves in all those western parts of Africa”.

Any merchants carrying European goods, wishing to purchase slaves here, had first to turn their goods into cloth and with cloth purchase the “Salt of ye Moores who bring it above 1100 miles on Camellsand will Truck it for no othr soart of commodities than Cloathes, Gold and Slaves”. After acquiring the salt, merchants could “truck it for slaves … wch is ye Reason yt many times before they can dispatch ye goods of 4 or 5 slaves yt costs ym ½ as much for Lodgin and Provisions. But it goes with 500 ozs of gold, pays no customes and may turn it into what commodity he pleasethe, In less yn two DayesIf he pleaseth”

.Wadan.Arguin

Hodges

‘Tarra’


Also recounted that three days after their arrival in ‘Tarra’, some “40000 horsemen and camels [arrived] to Lay siege to It. “Ye Emperor drew

his forces and incamped without ye towne to receive ym there”Hodges men were drawn into assisting ‘ye Moores’: “it pleased God to give ym such good success, they being all very good firemen, ytthe Emperor attributed ye victory and safeguard of his country wholely to Mahamit”.

- believe Hodges’ men saw army of Moroccan Sultan sent to ‘Tarra’to assist Saharan clan allied with him, resist demands for tribute from local inhabitants – insight into Muslim society and economy


Why is this information not part of Robinson’s discussion?

- rise of Atlantic Slave trade- not only shifted contemporary European focus away from Muslim Africa (as Robinson argues), subsequently shifted historians’attention as well- ‘triumph of caravel over caravan’ [see McDougall, Resources]- assumption that Atlantic Slave trade overshadowed economy of interior made desert-side commercial activities and societies ‘invisible’- clear that end of 17th century ‘ye Moores’ dominated economy- also that Sahara and ‘sub-Saharan’ region ancient Awdaghustconsidered part of larger Moroccan ‘empire’ from Morocco’s point of view


Europeans aware:- shaped commercial strategies- 18th C. French archival report notes ‘Moors still obstructing trade’along Senegal river: ongoing ‘problem’

But in 18th century, new ‘influences’ began to shape reports, interact with pre-existing ideas of ‘Moors’ and ‘Turks’:

- account by Christian Slave Thomas Pellow (Morocco)- Napoleon’s ‘conquest’ of Egypt, growth ‘Orientalism’

[to be explored further, next day]

part 3: western views of islam and africa · - can easily trace how stereotypes of ‘black...

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