part 2 – methods for qualitative research dr janice whatley september 2014

Part 2 – Methods for Qualitative Research

Dr Janice Whatley

September 2014

Agenda Strategies for qualitative studies

Action Research Case Study Research Ethnography Grounded Theory

Methods for data collection Questionnaires Interviews Focus Groups Observation Document analysis

Dr J Whatley September 2014

Method or Methodology


A research method is a strategy of inquiry which moves from the underlying philosophical assumptions to research design and data collection

The research method is a strategy of inquiry leading to choices of research design and data collection A procedure, technique, or way of doing something, especially in

accordance with a definite plan: e.g. there are three possible methods of repairing this motor.

A manner of procedure, especially an orderly, logical, or systematic way of instruction, inquiry, investigation, experiment, presentation etc.

Order or system in doing anything Orderly or systematic arrangement, sequence, or the like

Methodology: A set or system of methods, principles and rules for regulating a

given discipline, as in the arts or sciences Philosophy:the underlying principles and rules of organisation of a

philosophical system or inquiry procedure

Research Onion (Saunders, 2003)


Action Research


“Action research aims to contribute both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and to the goals of social science by joint collaboration within a mutually acceptable ethical framework” (Rapoport, 1970, p. 499).

Action research is concerned to enlarge the stock of knowledge of the social science community

A particularly suitable approach for research by practitioners, where close interaction with subjects is possible

Provides opportunities to acquire insights into social worlds, and to help in formulating effective solutions to problems in their lives.

It can be a model for and a process for research A cycle of Plan, Act, Observe, Reflect

http://www.qual.auckland.ac.nz/action.aspx

http://www.qual.auckland.ac.nz/action.aspx


One model of action research: Problem identification; Consultation with a behavioural science expert; Data gathering and preliminary diagnosis; Feedback to client; Joint diagnosis of a problem; Joint action planning; Action; Data gathering after action.

As a process it is based on a cycle of systematically getting data, analysing it, feeding the results back in and evaluating

The main characteristics of action research are: Collaboration through participation with subjects; Building up knowledge; Helping social change in the situation being studied; Contributing to empowerment of subjects.

Case Study Research


A case study is an empirical inquiry that: investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-

life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident (Yin 2002).

Particularly well-suited to IS research A case study method involves studying a

phenomenon in a real-life situation, often used when research and theory are at an early stage of investigation, and informative descriptions of the phenomenon are required

Useful for questions of “how?” and “why?” The focus is on events at a particular point in time, to

identify patterns or features

http://www.qual.auckland.ac.nz/case.aspx


Case study is used to contribute to knowledge of individual, group, organisational and other phenomena, and can take a number of forms: theory seeking, theory testing, story telling, picture drawing or evaluation

Case studies involve multiple sources of data, so results are often found from triangulation of data.

In carrying out case study research a general strategy for analysis is suggested at the outset: Following a theoretical proposition that led to the case

study, to answer how and why questions and lead to alternative explanation to be discussed;

Thinking about rival explanations, resulting from other influences, and discussing these;

Developing a case description, which might highlight relevant causal links to discuss (Yin 1994:21).


Multiple cases are used to establish whether the findings of one case are relevant to other cases

Single case research is used where this particular case has some unique quality about it, which is of interest to the wider community as well as the researcher

A case study is holistic if it is looking at the organisation as a whole, but is embedded if it is concerned with a particular sub section of the organisation

In case study there is a need to take care when making inferences, as there may not be sufficient data to state facts, so cause and effect cannot be stated

Ethnography


Ethnographers immerse themselves in the lives of the people they study (Lewis 1985, p. 380) and seek to place the phenomena studied in their social and cultural context

A method whereby multiple perspectives can be incorporated in systems design

Based on anthropological fieldwork, where the researcher becomes closely involved with the subjects being studied over a long period of time. , and

Data obtained may be very rich for that particular setting, and analysis may enable some generalisability

http://www.qual.auckland.ac.nz/ethrefs.aspx

Grounded Theory


Grounded theory is a research method that seeks to develop theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analysed

According to Martin and Turner (1986), grounded theory is "an inductive, theory discovery methodology that allows the researcher to develop a theoretical account of the general features of a topic while simultaneously grounding the account in empirical observations or data.“

Grounded theory suggests that there should be a continuous interplay between data collection and analysis.

Grounded theory involves systematically verifying a theory as data is collected, rather than starting with a theory to be tested

http://www.qual.auckland.ac.nz/grndrefs.aspx

Methods for data collection


Survey Questionnaires Interviews Focus group Observation

Any of these can have a quantitative and qualitative component

Data collection, to provide facts and rich meanings for the situation under investigation, such as peoples’ knowledge, attitudes and opinions on a topic

Questionnaires


Require a clear outline of the objectives of the survey, designing the instrument, administering it, then managing and analysis of the data, to provide results that are reliable and valid

Closed questions for discrete data: Yes/No, or choices from a list

Open questions enable the respondent to state views in their own words, whether they write the responses themselves or the interviewer writes the responses down.

Likert scales for a range from positive to negative responses, such as agree/disagree

Questionnaires When using the data for qualitative purposes

rather than quantitative purposes, it is more important that the sample of respondents chosen are able to provide a wide variety of reflective feedback, covering the relevant issues, than truly represent the population as a whole


Interviews Open questions, where respondents are given the

opportunity to respond in any way that they choose, Closed questions are used to obtain factual data

from respondents, for example to ascertain the typical ages of respondents

When asked with an open mind and encouraging the respondent, they can give very detailed opinions

Help to understand the experience of respondents and the meaning they make of it (Seidman 1998)

Semi-structured interviews allow the respondents to elaborate on ideas and provide more detail in response to open questions


Potential drawbacks Take care not to influence the respondent and

introduce bias, or to allow their professional role, their age, gender or culture to affect respondents’ willingness to provide open answers


Focus Groups Obtaining opinions from a number of people in

a cost effective manner (Morgan and Kreuger 1993).

Enabling organised discussion, as a collective activity, where the resulting opinions are based on interaction within the group, so that triggers from individuals may spark comments by others (Kitzinger 1994; Powell et al. 1996)

A group of individuals are selected and assembled by researchers to discuss and comment on, from personal experience, the topic that is the subject of the research, also known as a discussion group Dr J Whatley September 2014

Instead of using set questions, there is an open style of eliciting statements, through prompting from the facilitator and the respondents themselves.

The idea is to draw upon the respondents’ attitudes, feelings, beliefs, experiences and reactions to the topic, and elicit a multiplicity of views and emotions

Particularly useful when there are power differences between the participants and decision makers or other professionals, or when one wants to explore the degree of consensus on a given topic

The ability for individuals to react to others provides for richer feedback than could be achieved through an individual interview


Observation


Overt or covert observation What are the ethical issues?

Participant observation What are the ethical issues?

Note taking or diary Recording Structured observation Types of data generated:

Primary observations Secondary observations Experimental data Contextual data

Document analysis


Often used alongside primary data collection Types of data:

Notices Correspondence Minutes of meetings Reports Administrative records News reports Data collected for other purposes

Be sure the data does help to answer the research question

Access to the data, and cost of retrieving it

Triangulation The interpretation of a research project may be

positioned by reference to three (or more) sources of data

Collecting data using different methods will give a variety of types of data covering a wider range, which may increase the robustness of the research.

The different forms of data will also provide a richer, contextual basis for interpretation, giving cross validation

Confirm findings from a different perspective Using several methods to view interpretive findings

will provide more evidence for findings (Fielding and Schreier 2001)


Mixed Methods


Looking for a deeper understanding of the social situation being studied than can be seen with statistical measures

Some say qualitative data is good for exploratory research at the beginning of a study, but it is being used more for greater understanding of something already measured quantitatively

2 examples: Questionnaire to give an idea of the scale of an

issue, followed by in depth interviews and focus groups to identify underlying causes

Interviews to determine what the pertinent issues are, followed by questionnaires to measure them

Activity


Decide which research strategy and methods would be appropriate for an example of research

Summary


There are 4 strategies associated with Interpretive Research

Methods used for these are usually qualitative Triangulation gives a wider perspective on the

topic Using quantitative methods as well can also

provide deeper understanding

part 2 – methods for qualitative research dr janice whatley september 2014

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