part 2: issues and processes in african music. notation and oral tradition
TRANSCRIPT
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Part 2: Issues and Processes in African Music
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Notation and Oral Tradition
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Notation and Oral Tradition
African music is primarily an oral
tradition, yet it is one of the most
frequently transcribed.
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Constraints upon African transcription Western notions of literacy Geographical boundaries
*What geographic region of Africa is excluded from the present study? Why?
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Indigenous technologies - Ethiopia Ethiopian zēmā chant
Ethiopian liturgy maintained close ties with the Coptic church of Egypt
Invasion by Muslim forces - 1529 to 1541 melekket signs developed in mid 16th century
-roughly 650 signs that cue the melody associated with the original source text
Melekket plus additional signs and markings comprise the Ethiopian liturgical tradition
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Indigenous technologies - Ethiopia Transmitted orally Requires years of study Rhythm is not indicated in written notation,
causing problems when combined with drum accompaniment As a result, drumming patterns traced in air, not
written on paper, in moment of performance
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Indigenous technologies - Others Angolan sand ideographs
Composite systems Beni ng’oma Ethiopian folklore ensemble
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Early outsiders’ transcriptions Came from travel accounts (i.e., William
Burchell, Edward Bowdich) Certain concepts highlighted
What portion should be transcribed? Descriptive vs. prescriptive? Nature of time, rhythm
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Transcription process
Sources Live performances Sound recordings Films
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Transcription Process
Visual representation Conventional staff notation Modified staff notation Graphs Tablature Other systems
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African use of Western notation Introduced with colonial and missionary presence Established by late 20th century in urban centers Highlights the place of musical transcription in
musical scholarship
“Scholarship on music in Africa has largely remained ‘music-centric’, even as theoretical concerns of the discipline have elsewhere shifted to emphasize the humanistic and social aspects of music making”.
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Conceptions of Song:
Ownership, Rights, and African
Copyright Law
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Copyright Law in Africa
Central tenet of copyright law is that a composition, text, or other item is owned by a creator
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Copyright Law
Ownership means different things in different contexts
Rules dictate appropriate use of material Urban rules different than traditional rules Nationalism influenced conception of rights
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Copyright Law - Problems
TRIPS agreement – whose interested protected?
Duration of protection not compatible with traditional music
Authorship can depend on genre, location, use of form Many countries battle this by calling for cultural
administrators to collect/distribute royalties
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Dance in Communal Life
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Function of Dance in African Life Not primarily for entertainment Dance an integrated art Many occasions for dance
Births Installation of chiefs Death ceremonies Initiation rites Worship many others
*What are some specific local examples given in the text of the above?
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Social organization of dances
Two basic groups in a dance event:1. Those with specific assigned roles (dancers,
musicians, participants)
2. Those who have no special status (observers)
Sometimes participation limited to specific groups. Many examples of this all over Africa.
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Dance training
Specific skills often needed Contexts provide good, informal opportunities
for learning Camps and guilds are more intensive, formal
ways of learning
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Dance – Other considerations
Roles of drummers, singers, and praise singers
Interdependence of dancers and musicians Dancers and musicians in communal life
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Islam in Liberia
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Islam in Liberia
Two types of Islam in West Africa:
1. Normative
2. Popular
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Islam in Liberia
Islamic presence since 1750s Town of Bulumi from 1977-1988
demonstrates change in Vai artistic expression
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Bulumi in the 1970s
Secret Societies
Poro(for men)
Sande(for women)
Ancestor veneration Intermediary relationships with spirit world Prominent Bulumi musicians/dancer participated
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Bulumi in the 1970s
Most people considered themselves Muslims One imam and one mosque Major Islamic holidays seldom celebrated Nobody in town read Arabic
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Fortieth-day feast (d’aa)
Funerary celebration Last in a series of 3 feasts (the other 2 are on
third and seventh day) In the past, lasted about a month Involves processions, food preparation, calls
to prayer, ceremonies, masked dancing One non-Muslim element is sacrifices, often
by secret society specialists
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Bulumi in 1984
Two significant changes in religious life Friday mosque Abolition of traditional versions of secret societies
(complete abolition of Poro, transformation of Sande)
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Bulumi in 1987, 1988: religious changes Islamic materials brought in (cassettes,
books, etc) Assistant imam More people read, spoke Arabic Friday services regular, well-attended Imams vocal about secrety society opposition More Islamic holidays celebrated
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Bulumi in 1987, 1988: musical changes Knowledge of traditional secret society
musical repertoire diminished Knowledge of Islamic song repertoire grew Young men strove to learn Koranic chant Less masquerading, masked dancing at
Fortieth-day feast, more focus on Islamic elements
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The Guitar in Africa
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Guitar in Africa
Possibly introduced to Africa by Portuguese in 1400s
No proof of European guitar until 1800s Strong cultural impact from 1920s-30s on
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Two-finger playing style
Influence from African instruments Thumb and index finger 1928 Kumasi trio photo illustrates technique
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Guitar in Africa – 1920s, 1930s First extended series of commercial
recordings of African music (Zonophone Catalogue of 1929)
References to guitar in The Gold Coast Spectator
British Label His Master’s Voice published in mid 1930s
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Two groups of songs, 1920s and 1930s1. Songs based on Western diatonic harmony
-Cyclical harmonic patterns, with functional relationships
“Ampa Afful”, ca. 1930, by Sam
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Two groups of songs, 1920s and 1930s2. Songs based on indigenous harmony
-Western harmonies, but indigenous styles
“Agyanka Odede”, ca. 1939, by Kwesi Menu
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Guitar in Africa – 1920s, 1930s Two main ensemble prototypes w/guitar
1. Guitar bands
-used regional styles (palm wine, jùjú)
-reached a wider audience
2. Dance bands -featured wind instruments
-Intl. ballroom music, highlife, American ragtime
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Guitar in Africa – 1940s to 1960s Increasing use of acoustic guitar Amplified guitar appeared in urban centers Appearance of other guitar varieties
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Acoustic guitar - 1940s to 1960s 1952 African Music Society award for Best
African Music of the Year to “Masanga”, by Mwenda-Jean Bosco
→ evidence of guitar’s importance and its conception as an African instrument
Also evidence of African and African-American influences (tunings, harmonic patterns, etc.)
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Electric guitar – 1940s to 1960s Prominent in urban centers, especially in
Congolese region (Kinshasa and Brazzaville)
→ O. K. Jazz band
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Guitar in Africa – 1960s to 1980s Increasing prominence of guitar (sound and
image) Urban rock bands modeled after Western
bands Guitar replacing older indigenous instruments Important guitar genres include chimurenga,
soukous, highlife African musicians known on international
stage
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1960s to 1980s
Nicolas Kasanda Wa Mikalayi (Docteur Nico) Zaïrean guitarist Lead guitarist in many ensembles Expanded electric guitar sonorities Helped in development of soukous
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Guitar in Africa – 1960s to 1980s King Sunny Ade
Nigerian guitarist, popularized jùjú 1982, Island Records (British) signed him Became international star
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Guitar in Africa – 1960s to 1980s Ali Farka Toure and Boubacar Traoré
Malian guitarists Blues influence Going back to acoustic guitar styles
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Kru Mariners and Migrants
of the West African Coast
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Kru Mariners
Musical confluence = the merging of different streams of music, in which old and new elements combine to articulate an interethnic experience.
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The Kru of Liberia
Ethnic group originally from Liberia Most widely employed in West African
maritime activities Migrant laborers
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Music of the Kru
Primarily vocal music in Liberian homeland
(i.e., si-o-lele women’s songs)
Single-instrument percussion accompaniment
During travels, acquired new instruments and ideas. Guitar especially fascinating.
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Palm wine guitar style
Kru introduced to Port towns through labor Met w/local musicians under palm trees Spread the 2-finger guitar style Based on complex African patterns Style influenced early jùjú music and
Ghanaian highlife
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Multiethnic mixes of the 1940s and 1950s Liberian highlife – involved wind instruments
Many local variants, mixed ethnicities performing together
(i.e., Kroo Young Stars)
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Late 20th century transitions
Independence for many African countries brought many changes, more nationalistic tendencies
Maritime industry sharply declined
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Latin American Musical
Influences in Zaïre
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Latin American Influences in ZaïreAssimilation is the final phase in cultural
exchange
1. Listing of cultural materials
2. Evaluation of common denominators
3. Reinterpretation of compatible features
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Contact between Latin America and Africa began to flourish in 30s, 40s until the 60s
impact of Latin music on urban expressions stronger in Zaïre
3 main forms: Radio Recording Concerts
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Radio
Two stations in Kinshasa
1. Radio-Léo: 1937-1967, Jesuit-owned
2. Radio Congolia: 1939-1948, for black
population. Became national radio later
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Recordings
78-rpm recordings of Afro-Cuban and American jazz becomes source material for local bands
(i.e., “El Manisero”) Recording studios provided European and
Latin American instruments to local musicians
Marketing of Zaïrean popular music retained Cuban name
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Concerts
Corporation contracts created detribalized centers
Led to creation of brass bands, ensembles Urban ensembles became popular at the
same time Latin American music introduced Band performers took on Latin names,
instruments
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Popular Music of Africa
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Commercialization
From approx. 1900, foreign corporate network in Africa
Imported records brought new styles Radio broadcasts CD technology currently not widely used
(exception is South Africa)
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African Pop and International Market WOMAD festival, started by Peter Gabriel
“World music” a controversial term, started as a marketing tag for African music in international markets
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Major Regional Trends – West Africa Traditional sources with predominately Cuban,
Latin-American, African-American influences Cyclical, two-way pattern other local forms
Africa)→Jamaican → Freetown, → Gome, Gombay
gumbay drum Sierra Leone (brought by freed slaves)
basis of Ghanaian highlife
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West Africa – Cote d’Ivoire
Abidjan is important center of musical exchange
MASA trade fair
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West Africa - Mali
Ancient kingdom of Mansa Musa
Griot, jaliya = caste of musicians
Female musicians of Wassoulou
Salif Keita
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West Africa - Senegal
Dakar is center of francophone Africa
griot music basis for mbalax
mbalax = Cuban rhythms, kora-based
melodies, high-pitched vocals
Youssou N’Dour, sang in native tongue
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West Africa - Benin
Soundscape is Cameroonian music, rumba, and African Arabic rai
Angelique Kidjo
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West Africa - Ghana
highlife = British-derived entertainment style
Popularity replaced in 1970s by jùjú
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Major Regional Trends – Central and East Africa Musically interconnected by guitar
Overwhelming influence of Zaïrean music on East African pop
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Central and East Africa – Congo/Zaïre Zaïrean style known as rumba very popular
Radio Congo Belge helped popularize
Women also contributed
Soukous was a streamlined, later version Papa Wemba
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Central and East Africa - Kenya Guitar styles adapted and developed from
other regions
benga = developed by Luo people D. O. Misiani and Shirati Jazz
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Central and East Africa - Tanzania Remmy Ongala
Zanzibar genre is taarab = lyric poetry sung in Swahili, often at weddings
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Major Regional Trends – Southern Africa SADC = cooperative forum connects
countries of Southern Africa
First SADC music festival in 1995
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Southern Africa – South Africa Oldest and most sophisticated music industry
in Southern Africa
kwela, popular form → mbaqanga Mahotella Queens
Jazz became linked with apartheid struggle Miriam Makeba, Hugh Masekela,
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Southern Africa – South Africa Johnny Clegg + Sipho Mchunu created a
mixed ethnic musical collaboration
1986 – Paul Simon, Graceland album
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Southern Africa - Zimbabwe
Music used during fight for independence was chimurenga Thomas Mapfumo Oliver Mtukudzi
Mbira music Stella Chiwese
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Southern Africa – Angola and Mozambique Mozambique
Timbila and marrabenta
Angola Gourd resonated-bow that went to Brazil with
slaves now known in Brazil as berimbau Poor country, no recording industry National dance troupes
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Music and HIV/AIDS in Africa
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Successful AIDS prevention campaigns Uganda
Local, community based groups Radio broadcasts
Senegal Targeting of sex workers
Botswana Plays, dramas
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The Culture of AIDS
Localized terminologies NGO’s, health-based groups use dance
drama and music to spread messages Work with local religious practitioners Educational, govt’ groups
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AIDS in Africa and the International Arena Major African recording stars draw attention International AIDS conferences Mega-concerts, organizations
46664 Live Aid
Products tied in to these Spirit of Africa DVD and CD set