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Parenting Environment and ScholastAchievement During Adolescence: A

Study

Toon W. Taris & Inge A. Bok

To cite this article: Toon W. Taris & Inge A. Bok (1996) Parenting EnviAchievement During Adolescence: A Retrospective Study, Internationand Youth, 6:3, 223-244

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IntertUlticnull Journal o Adolescence

and

Youth

1996,

Vo

0267-3843/96 10

© 1996 A B Academic Publishers

Printed

n

Great Britain

Parenting Environment and

Achievement

During

Adole

Retrospective Study

Toon W. Taris* and Inge

A.

Bok

Department o

Social

Psychology Free University Amste

ABSTRACT

The current paper examines how two parenting styl

parents provided an overly protective environment,

environment) relate to educational achievement. We ex

loving upbringing and an upbringing that is not over

tribute to success at school.

Data on th educational careers of

986

Dutch adult

gathered both retrospectively and longitudinally. The

using structural equation modelling. The results partly

tions: respondents who felt that their parents provi

upbringing dropped out less frequently than others wh

tective parents was associated with a longer stay at sch

education when leaving full-time education, even afteo a d e d b y [ 1 7

5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2

0 1 6



224

under-age sex (among others: Barnes

and

Farr

Jessor, 1974; Steinberg,

1990;

Taris and Semin,

novelist

may

find inspiration in personal ex

matters, we know that for many other

behaviours just signal the beginning of

problems, extending into adolescence

and

ev

Weiner,

1982 .

The current

paper

presents the results of a

regarding the impact of (perceived) parental

upon educational career patterns, among a re

of 986 Dutch adults.

t

the core of this

study

that the development of a child's educational

good parenting styles (i.e., whether the

warm, loving,

and

not overly protective

Heesink,

1992;

Parker, Tupling

and

Brown

Thomas, 1979 . Though many studies addr

between the parenting environment and sch

(e.g., Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts,

Gottfried, Fleming

and

Gottfried, 1994; Groln

Grolnick, Ryan

and

Deci,

1991;

inter alia)

leaves two issues open for discussion. First

earlier studies is usually on

children

rather th

notable exception is Steinberg, Elmen and

during

adolescence the ties between parents

a

increasingly looser. As such, one may wonde

and

consistent influence of parental practi

upon

scholastic achievement reported

generalises to older populations.

Second, the dependent variables in many

o a d e d b y [ 1 7

5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2

0 1 6



To obtain answers to these

and

other qu

several outcome variables in our study. Spec

upon

the relation between the parenting en

following four educational outcomes:

1)

initi

i.e. the level of education chosen after

education (usually at age

12).

In the Nether

have completed their primary education

m

two main levels of education. These t

differential labour market opportunities: su

lowest level of education (four years) are in

become blue collar workers, while the highe

(which takes six years to complete) prepar

university study. Appendix A provides a sho

Dutch educational system;

2)

number of

dropped out

(i.e., the number of times one

particular type of education, without receivin

educational qualification; after dropping ou

one's education

on

a lower level or on the

different direction; 3) level of education ob

full-time education;

and 4)

the total am

attending full-time education.

Below

we

first provide a short review of ea

relation between parenting styles

and

educati

Then

we

briefly discuss the impact of othe

upon

educational careers, after which a mo

links family variables (including parenting

outcome variables mentioned above.

o a d e d b y [ 1 7

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0 1 6



226

Rollins and Thomas,

1979;

Gottfried et al., 1

1991).

Grolnick and colleagues (Grolnick and Ry

al., 1991) proposed that parents contrib

resources of achievement of their children,

two ways. First, parents high in autonomy su

low

on

control/overprotection) would allo

develop a sense of themselves as the locus

actions (thus promoting more perceived

perceptions of competence, and higher co

Secondly, children of highly involved paren

are interested

in,

knowledgeable about, and

to their

children a

subset of behaviours be

involvement dimension) would

feel

more

greater control understanding, and more a

tional orientations than will those of les

Grolnick et al. 1991) were able to show t

indeed promoted or forestalled deve

motivational resources, which in

tum

i

performance. Thus, it appears that the often

between parenting styles and academic

Dornbusch et al.,

1987;

Rollins and Thomas, 1

must be interpreted in terms of motivationa

Other family-related variables, and proble

Apart from parenting styles, the literature i

o a d e d b y [ 1 7

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0 1 6



consumption (Taris

and

Semin, 1996). T

subsumed

under

SES

are a potentially pot

adolescent problem behaviour. Consistent wi

1982) showed in his meta-analytic review t

low socio-economic background usually obta

middle-

and

upper-class children. Children

class feel also less positive towards school

Regarding achievement motivations, Harve

reported that eighth-graders already showe

differences in their aspirations: those from

tended to have relatively high educational go

at prestige occupations, whereas those from

tended to have resigned themselves to less e

job status. Thus, in

our

study we expected t

level of education would covary positivel

parents from lower social class tend to plac

educational attainment cf. Katz, 1967), we h

level of education chosen after completing pri

the number of times dropped out would als

Living

with

single

parent

A substantial num

shown

that adolescents not living with both b

significantly more likely to be involved in

than

adolescents not living with both parent

Snarey, 1993),

and

that children's educat

significantly lower in one-parent families (D

1969; Astone

and

McLanagan,

1994;

Hause

There are several interpretations of this e

relative importance is unknown. Newcome

suggested that when a marriage is in the pro

o a d e d b y [ 1 7

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0 1 6



228

Personality: Sensation

seeking

The factors d

only account for

part

of the variance in

patterns, as individual difference variable

were excluded. A personality factor that is e

the

study

of educational problem behavio

which a person is a sensation seeker (Zuck

people pursue changes in their lives; they val

complex sensations and experiences and

physical

and

social risks for the sake of such

in

the context of employment careers it h

sensation seekers are usually less satisfied

more often,

and

they even experience m

changes (in terms of salary and job status) t

sensation seeking (e.g., Adler and Weiss,

19

Taris, 1994). We are not aware of any resear

seeking to the development of education

evidence touched

upon

above suggests tha

would

be

more prone to drop out of school,

need more time to obtain

an

equal education

non-sensation seekers. As such, it is of in

measure of sensation seeking in this study a

Educational career patterns

and

parenting s

Figure 1 presents a model that describes th

among family-bound

and

other back

variables discussed above,

and

the four

o a d e d b y [ 1 7

5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a

t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2

0 1 6



background

variables:

parental home

SES

father

present

-parenting

styles

background

variables:

adolescent

sex

age

-sensation

seeking

level

of

education

at age 12

Figure

1.

The model to be tested in this study

and

the initial level of education chosen after

education, as the level one chooses will dete

o a d e d b y [ 1 7

5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a

t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2

0 1 6



230

METHOD

ample

The data were gathered in a two-wave pan

wave was

conducted

during

fall/winter 1987

of 1775 young Dutch adults, evenly divid

cohorts (1961, 1965

and

1969), as well as

interviewed at their homes

by

trained interv

structured interview schedule. Topics of

attitudes, opinions,

and

behaviour with res

domains, such as relationships, employme

family formation. Additionally, the subjects

written questionnaire.

The second wave of the

study

(an almost

the first wave) was conducted exactly four

wave (fall/winter 1991/92). About

70

of the

also participated in this wave. Analysis o

showed that higher-educated were slight

participate in the second wave than others,

finding in survey research cf. Goyder's

[1

regard to other variables (including socio-eco

employment status, gender,

and

age)

no

im

were found.

During both waves information was c

number, nature,

and

timing of changes o

mentioned above, by means of retrospect

enabled

us

to re-create a fairly precise reco

o a d e d b y [ 1 7

5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a

t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2

0 1 6



secondary education (i.e., at age 12), and the m

time education and did not return for at least

Level of

education when

leaving full time

ed

education at age 12 We distinguished betw

education, ranging from low (lower secondar

(e.g., college/university education,

cf.

Appen

education reached when leaving full-time edu

1 to 5, the level of education at age

12

range

Number of times of dropping out In the

people often find out that the type of educati

does not match their capacities or interests.

may decide somewhere half-term that the

complete this type of education: they drop

lack of interest is also among the major cau

Weiner, 1982). This does not mean that the

school at some later stage. Indeed, the numb

subjects dropped out in this way varied bet

some subjects tried again as often as five time

rather skew (skewness 1.35, mean .80). To

relating to the non-normal distribution of

computed its natural logarithm, yielding an u

ness of .26.

Family background variables This cluster o

several of the variables that have been shown

problem behaviour in general and educatio

particular. First, we included a variable ind

father

of the

child

was

present

in the family du

years of the child's life. Second, we include

o a d e d b y [ 1 7

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t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2

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232

appeared to understand

my

problems

a

affectionate to me ,

and

did

not

understan

wanted , respectively (with scores 1 very

unlike ). All three items had to be judged

mother separately, yielding a total of six respo

of this six-item scale a.)

was

.82.

Similarl

selected to represent the protection

invaded

my

privacy , tried to make me

him ,

and

was overprotective of me (with

and

4 very unlike ). Again, all items

had

to

parents, resulting in another six responses. T

scale was

.74.

f

the responses for one o

missing, the remaining responses were us

subject's score

on

these variables.

Adolescent background variables

This c

included the subject's

age and sex

Additional

scales tapping the degree to which subjects

sensation seeking (Zuckerman, 1979), name

boredom susceptibility.

Disinhibition

is the ne

unhibited social activities with or without t

(other) drugs. Typical items of this six-item

wild parties and

I

feel good when I ha

drinks ,

and

its reliability was

.71.

Boredom

aversion to repetitive experience, routine w

people (Feij, Van Kampen, Van

den

Berg

Typical items were I quickly lose interest in

always remain the same ,

and

I would lik

allows me to see the world . The reliability o

was .81.

Disinhibition

and

Boredom

o a d e d b y [ 1 7

5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a

t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2

0 1 6



Preliminary analyses revealed that the mea

the latent construct sensation seeking co

retained. Then we proceeded by estimating t

in

Figure 1, yielding a chi-square value

NNFI = 91. Though the chi-square value is

be due to the large sample size Bentler

Therefore, we attached more value to the NN

relatively independent from sample size

McDonald, 1988). As Bentler nd Bonett

198

a NNFI of less than

.90

may well be sub

Applying their rule of thumb, there is no

model. Non-significant paths were stepwisely

final model with a X

2

-value of 44.46 with 22 df

these values were acceptable given the samp

Moderator

analysis:

the

role of

gender.

A

suggested that the relations between the exp

the current study nd the outcome vari

education) might be different for males and f

Rollins

nd

Thomas, 1979), we examined the

relations among the variables were different

comparing the variance-covariance matric

females, using the

LISREL

multi-sample

Sorbom, 1993). We did not find significant

the covariance matrices for males and female

63.51,

>

.05).

Thus, it appeared that the rol

regarding the development of educational c

for both sexes.

o a d e d b y [ 1 7

5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a

t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2 0 1 6



234

TABLE 1

Standardized least squares estimates for the

(N = 986, X

with 22 df = 44.46, NNF

duration of final level num

attending

of

t

variables school education drop

final level of

education

.28

...

number of times

dropped out .16 -.16

level of education

at age 12

.43

f mily

background variables

father present (high = present)

SES

.18

parents were

overprotective .07 -.10

parents cared .08 -

adolescent background variables

age .60

sex (high = male) .07 .07

sensation seeking-

.09 .11

Rz

.44 .36

•Latent variable, loading of Disinhibition = .86 (

purposes), loading of Boredom Susceptibility= .57 .

o a d e d b y [ 1 7

5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a

t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2 0 1 6



(an effect of .08,

.05).

The variables inc

account for 44 percent of the variance in the d

school.

Table 1 shows that the level of education a

predictor of

final

level

o

education a standar

Subjects who dropped

out

often were more li

educational qualification than others. Males a

were likely to have a relatively high level of e

the effects of the family background variab

status had a profound influence on level

001),

even though SES also affected level

12.

Thus, SES had a lasting effect upon educa

·Finally, we found a small but significant n

overprotective parenting style (-.10,

overprotective parents may exert a negative

child s educational achievement.

Taken together, the variables in the model ac

of the variance in level of education. E

considerably lower than the figure mentioned

1995), we still consider this as satisfactory.

The number o times dropped

out

increased sl

education chosen after completing primary

.07,

.05). Thus, it appeared that some

secondary education at a level that demands

Older subjects

had

dropped out more often

due

to the fact that older subjects were in th

time; thus, they had more opportunity to dr

Regarding the family background variabl

o a d e d b y [ 1 7

5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a

t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2 0 1 6



236

Together, these variables account for 24 perce

initial level of education.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

All in all, our study provided good suppor

that family variables in general

and

parentin

are systematically related to children s

patterns. However, the influence of in

variables on these career patterns must

underestimated.

Family

variables Earlier studies reported th

presence of the father) and educational achie

connected; our results supported these find

current

study

extends these findings by iden

that

mediate

the relationship between presen

educational achievement. Indeed, after c

education at age 12

and

the number of tim

direct effect between family status

and

remained. As indicated above, several expla

the explanation of these effects of presence

father may be a key figure in the transmissio

al., 1983); (b) the father may act as a deterre

to engaging in school-related problem behav

out); or c) that a single mother may be les

child s behaviour, possibly because she

emotional/practical problems.

Our

data cann

as to whether which of these interpretations io a d e d b y [ 1 7 5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a

t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2 0 1 6



tend to stress educational achievement more

class parents (e.g., Katz,

1967).

As such,

SES

an outer resource of achievement (in con

al.'s, 1991, inner resources of achievement

Finally, we found that the two parenting s

were systematically related to three of

variables. In accordance with our expectation

parenting style was associated with a lowe

and a longer stay at school, apparently h

resources of achievement . The negative effe

loving parenting style

on

the number of tim

be interpreted

in

a similar fashion. What is re

is that the latter parenting style is also asso

duration of attending school, rather than a sh

initially expected. There are two alternative

finding. First, the correlation matrix in Appen

correlation between this parenting style and d

school is only -.01,

ns

Thus, it is likely that

a suppressor effect, caused by the high cor

two parenting styles

r

=

-.39, p < .001, se

second, more substantive, interpretation ma

may

indicate a hidden liability of childr

parenting environment. They may illustra

phenomenon (Bandura,

1979;

Seligman, 19

privileged parenting environment may wea

ness below the level necessary to perform w

Adolescent

background

variables

As already

effects of age

on

the duration of attending sc

o a d e d b y [ 1 7 5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a

t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2 0 1 6



238

styles are different for boys and girls. Howev

is not so much the

mount

of control and l

that determines the differentials regarding e

ment,

but

rather what type of v lues the

children.

Finally, we found that sensation seeking

related to three of our four dependent m

seekers entered the system of secondary ed

higher level than non-sensation seekers;

education was also higher (note that earlier

1979;

Zuckerman, 1979 reported that sen

intelligence are positively correlated, imply

dealing here with the effect of ability, not pe

needed more time to complete their educati

stands out is that the only effect we did not fi

positive effect of sensation seeking on th

dropped out. There is no obvious explanati

Appendix B shows that the correlations bet

times one dropped out and the two indi

seeking are in the expected direction, but very

it appears that the effect of sensation seeking

times one dropped out is simply not strong

Limitations of the study

One obvious limitation of the current study

styles were subjectively and retrospectively m

o a d e d b y [ 1 7 5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a

t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2 0 1 6



parenting behaviours and the development

careers, at least not during the interview itse

Second, as data from two waves were avai

the time one-time two development of the ed

those subjects who were still attending sch

perceived parenting styles, as measured at tim

comparable pattern of effects, though the

parameters was considerably lower due to a

less variance in the dependent variables. Thu

results reported above were not severely bia

temporal problems in the measurement of th

Regarding the possible objection that we

parenting styles instead of more objective m

educational achievement patterns, we

mu

children's perceptions of parenting styles are

correlated with parents' own ratings of their

not as highly as one would desire: see for exa

1991); and (b) that in explaining school ac

have argued that precisely the children's

ow

view of their parenting environment is wh

(e.g., Bronfenbrenner,

1977).

Stated differen

weakness from one view may be a strength fr

we would expect that actual parenting beha

educational achievement only indirectly,

parenting behaviours (and other possi

variables, cf. Grolnick et al., 1991). Thus, there

discount our results on the basis of using per

objective measures.o a d e d b y [ 1 7 5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a

t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2 0 1 6



240

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o a d e d b y [ 1 7 5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a

t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2 0 1 6



242

APPENDIX A

An overview of the Dutch educational syste

Figure 2 presents a simplified flow diag

complicated Dutch educational system, wit

finesses.

primary

education

higher secondary

education

(5-6 years)

lower secondary

education, some

vocational training

(4 years)

•

L

_..:.....:.t

I

I

---t••

o a d e d b y [ 1 7 5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r i l 2 0 1 6



school and

pre-university

training.

This type of

to six years to complete,

and

it is attend

primary education. The fourth level,

profes

takes four years to complete

and

is a n

completing either intermediate or higher sec

fifth level is the

univ rsity degree.

Subjects w

either higher secondary school and pre-un

have obtained a professional college degree

enter at this level.

Figure 2 shows clearly that subjects starti

level of education can in principle reach the h

this will take a considerable amount of time

who

fail to obtain a particular educational d

at

a lower level, or at the same level

but

in

i.e., a biology undergraduate may feel tha

more interesting

and

switch from one stud

level, different direction).

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D o w n l o a d e d b y [ 1 7 5 . 1 4 2 . 1 2 5 . 2 1 8 ] a t 2 3 : 2 9 2 3 A p r

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parenting environment and scholastic achievement during adolescence a retrospective study

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