parental separation: 30 years years ago and now.€¦ · works for families parental separation: 30...
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Discovering what
works for families
Parental separation: 30 years
years ago and now. Changes in financial and personal
wellbeing implications?
Ruth Weston & Lixia Qu
Paper presented at the 11th Economic and Social Outlook Conference, Melbourne, 20–21 July
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Our brief & plan
Our brief
– Focus on family income and wellbeing
• Including “decisions around work, life and family structure” Focus
– Parental separation: financial and personal wellbeing associated with post-separation pathways some 30 years ago and recently
Initial data
– AIFS Economic Consequences of Marriage Breakdown (“Settling Up”), followed up in 1987 (“Settling Down”)
Huge societal changes since then
Have the broad patterns changed much?
–HILDA
–AIFS Longitudinal Study of Separated Families (LSSF)
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AIFS “Settling-up” & “Settling Down”
(Follow-up study, 1984 & 1987)
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AIFS Settling Up & Settling Down
studies
• Groups followed up:
– Divorced in 1981 or 1983 in Melbourne Registry of the Family Court of Australia
• Sample (N=523)
– Married for 5–14 years (never previously married)
– 2 dependent children of the marriage
= the most common cases divorcing at the time
• Interval between separation and Wave 1 interview
– 3–5 years (1981 divorcees)
– <3 years (1983 divorcees)
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Settling Up & Down follow-up
Equivalised disposable household income by
post-separation pathways
Henderson equivalence scale used Source: Weston, R. (1993 ). Income circumstances of parents and children: A longitudinal view. In K. Funder, M. Harrison & R. Weston (Eds.) Settling
down: Pathways of parents after divorce. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.
-40% -20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Fathers
Alone both periods
Partnered both periods
Partner 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Partner & chn both periods
Single & chn both periods
Mothers
Parther & chn both periods
Single 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Single & chn both periods
Changes in equivalised HH disposable income: 1984 & 1987 (Mostly 2–5 then 5–8 years after sepn)
Worse off Better off
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Settling Up & Down follow-up
Equivalised disposable household income by
post-separation pathways
Henderson equivalence scale used Source: Weston, R. (1993 ). Income circumstances of parents and children: A longitudinal view. In K. Funder, M. Harrison & R. Weston (Eds.) Settling
down: Pathways of parents after divorce. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.
-40% -20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Fathers
Alone both periods
Partnered both periods
Partner 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Partner & chn both periods
Single & chn both periods
Mothers
Parther & chn both periods
Single 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Single & chn both periods
Changes in equivalised HH disposable income: 1984 & 1987 (Mostly 2–5 then 5–8 years after sepn)
Worse off Better off
![Page 7: Parental separation: 30 years years ago and now.€¦ · works for families Parental separation: 30 years years ago and now. Changes in financial and personal wellbeing implications?](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022071117/6000e71b305c1571ee7ec238/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Settling Up & Down follow-up
Equivalised disposable household income by
post-separation pathways
Henderson equivalence scale used Source: Weston, R. (1993 ). Income circumstances of parents and children: A longitudinal view. In K. Funder, M. Harrison & R. Weston (Eds.) Settling
down: Pathways of parents after divorce. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.
-40% -20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Fathers
Alone both periods
Partnered both periods
Partner 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Partner & chn both periods
Single & chn both periods
Mothers
Parther & chn both periods
Single 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Single & chn both periods
Changes in equivalised HH disposable income: 1984 & 1987 (Mostly 2–5 then 5–8 years after sepn)
Worse off Better off
![Page 8: Parental separation: 30 years years ago and now.€¦ · works for families Parental separation: 30 years years ago and now. Changes in financial and personal wellbeing implications?](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022071117/6000e71b305c1571ee7ec238/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Settling Up & Down follow-up
Equivalised disposable household income by
post-separation pathways
Henderson equivalence scale used Source: Weston, R. (1993 ). Income circumstances of parents and children: A longitudinal view. In K. Funder, M. Harrison & R. Weston (Eds.) Settling
down: Pathways of parents after divorce. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.
-40% -20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Fathers
Alone both periods
Partnered both periods
Partner 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Partner & chn both periods
Single & chn both periods
Mothers
Parther & chn both periods
Single 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Single & chn both periods
Changes in equivalised HH disposable income: 1984 & 1987 (Mostly 2–5 then 5–8 years after sepn)
Worse off Better off
![Page 9: Parental separation: 30 years years ago and now.€¦ · works for families Parental separation: 30 years years ago and now. Changes in financial and personal wellbeing implications?](https://reader035.vdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022071117/6000e71b305c1571ee7ec238/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Settling Up & Down follow-up
Equivalised disposable household income by
post-separation pathways
Henderson equivalence scale used Source: Weston, R. (1993 ). Income circumstances of parents and children: A longitudinal view. In K. Funder, M. Harrison & R. Weston (Eds.) Settling
down: Pathways of parents after divorce. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.
-40% -20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Fathers
Alone both periods
Partnered both periods
Partner 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Partner & chn both periods
Single & chn both periods
Mothers
Parther & chn both periods
Single 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Single & chn both periods
Changes in equivalised HH disposable income: 1984 & 1987 (Mostly 2–5 then 5–8 years after sepn)
Worse off Better off
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Settling Up & Down follow-up
Equivalised disposable household income by
post-separation pathways
Henderson equivalence scale used Source: Weston, R. (1993 ). Income circumstances of parents and children: A longitudinal view. In K. Funder, M. Harrison & R. Weston (Eds.) Settling
down: Pathways of parents after divorce. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.
-40% -20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Fathers
Alone both periods
Partnered both periods
Partner 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Partner & chn both periods
Single & chn both periods
Mothers
Parther & chn both periods
Single 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Single & chn both periods
Changes in equivalised HH disposable income: 1984 & 1987 (Mostly 2–5 then 5–8 years after sepn)
Worse off Better off
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Settling Up & Down follow-up
Equivalised disposable household income by
post-separation pathways
Henderson equivalence scale used Source: Weston, R. (1993 ). Income circumstances of parents and children: A longitudinal view. In K. Funder, M. Harrison & R. Weston (Eds.) Settling
down: Pathways of parents after divorce. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.
-40% -20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Fathers
Alone both periods
Partnered both periods
Partner 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Partner & chn both periods
Single & chn both periods
Mothers
Parther & chn both periods
Single 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Single & chn both periods
Changes in equivalised HH disposable income: 1984 & 1987 (Mostly 2–5 then 5–8 years after sepn)
Worse off Better off
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Settling Up & Down follow-up
Equivalised disposable household income by
post-separation pathways
Henderson equivalence scale used Source: Weston, R. (1993 ). Income circumstances of parents and children: A longitudinal view. In K. Funder, M. Harrison & R. Weston (Eds.) Settling
down: Pathways of parents after divorce. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.
-40% -20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Fathers
Alone both periods
Partnered both periods
Partner 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Partner & chn both periods
Single & chn both periods
Mothers
Parther & chn both periods
Single 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Single & chn both periods
Changes in equivalised HH disposable income: 1984 & 1987 (Mostly 2–5 then 5–8 years after sepn)
Worse off Better off
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Sample of divorced parents in the 1980s:
Income as percentage of Henderson
Poverty line by post-separation pathways
100% 120% 140% 160% 180% 200% 220% 240% 260% 280% 300%
Dad: Alone both periods
Dad: Partnered both periods
Dad: Partner 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Dad: Partner & chn both periods
Dad: Single & chn both periods
Mum: Parther & chn both periods
Mum: Single 1984; Partner & chn 1987 Pre-separation(recalledin1984)
Mum: Single & chn both periods
Disposableincomeas%ofHendersonPovertyLine
Source: Weston, R. (1993 ). Income circumstances of parents and children: A longitudinal view. In K. Funder, M. Harrison & R.
Weston (Eds.) Settling down: Pathways of parents after divorce. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.
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Sample of divorced parents in the 1980s:
Income as percentage of Henderson
Poverty line by post-separation pathways
Source: Weston, R. (1993 ). Income circumstances of parents and children: A longitudinal view. In K. Funder, M. Harrison & R. Weston (Eds.) Settling
down: Pathways of parents after divorce. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.
100% 120% 140% 160% 180% 200% 220% 240% 260% 280% 300%
Dad: Alone both periods
Dad: Partnered both periods
Dad: Partner 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Dad: Partner & chn both periods
Dad: Single & chn both periods
Mum: Parther & chn both periods
Pre-separation(recalledin1984)
Mum: Single 1984; Partner & chn 1987
In1984(2–5yrsafterseparation)
Mum: Single & chn both periods
Disposableincomeas%ofHendersonPovertyLine
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Sample of divorced parents in the 1980s:
Income as percentage of Henderson
Poverty line by post-separation pathways
Source: Weston, R. (1993 ). Income circumstances of parents and children: A longitudinal view. In K. Funder, M. Harrison & R. Weston (Eds.) Settling
down: Pathways of parents after divorce. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.
100% 120% 140% 160% 180% 200% 220% 240% 260% 280% 300%
Dad: Alone both periods
Dad: Partnered both periods
Dad: Partner 1984; Partner & chn 1987
Dad: Partner & chn both periods
Dad: Single & chn both periods
Mum: Parther & chn both periods
Pre-separation(recalledin1984)
Mum: Single 1984; Partner & chn 1987
In1984(2–5yrsafterseparation)
In1987(5–8yrafterseparationMum: Single & chn both periods
Disposableincomeas%ofHendersonPovertyLine
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Many changes over the last 30
years – for example:
• School retention to Year 12 – increased
• Higher education enrolment rate – increased
• Remaining longer in parental home
• Entering live-in relationship (and marrying) at later age
• Cohabitation – increased &
– pre-marital cohabitation has become the norm
• Crude marriage rate – mostly fallen
• Becoming parents at later age
• Having fewer children (2 is now the norm)
• Ex-nuptial births increased
• Crude divorce rate – decreased
• % partnered (married or cohabiting) – decreased (except where 65+ yrs old)
• Employment rates of couple and single mothers – increased
• Among couples: dual incomes more common than single income
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Discovering what works for families Australian Institute of Family Studies
Families with children <15 or full-time
students 15–24 yrs: Parental employment
status, 1983
Note: In 2016, 69% of couple families with dependent children had ½, 1 or 1½ jobs. The %s with each of these different arrangements
were not available.
Sources: ABS – mostly from Labour force and other characteristics of families (various years) (Cat. No. 6224.0.55.001).
0,0%
10,0%
20,0%
30,0%
40,0%
50,0%
60,0%
70,0%
80,0%
0 job ½ job 1 job 1 ½ jobs 2 jobs 0 job ½ job 1 job
Couple families Sole-mother families
1983
½ job = 1-34 hrs pw
1 job = 35+ hrs pw
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Discovering what works for families Australian Institute of Family Studies
Families with children <15 or full-time
students 15–24 yrs: Parental employment
status, 1983–2016
Note: In 2016, 69% of couple families with dependent children had ½, 1 or 1½ jobs. The %s with each of these different arrangements
were not available.
Sources: ABS – mostly from Labour force and other characteristics of families (various years) (Cat. No. 6224.0.55.001).
0,0%
10,0%
20,0%
30,0%
40,0%
50,0%
60,0%
70,0%
80,0%
0 job ½ job 1 job 1 ½ jobs 2 jobs 0 job ½ job 1 job
Couple families Sole-mother families
1983 1995 2000 2010 2012 2016
½ job = 1-34 hrs pw
1 job = 35+ hrs pw
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HILDA Changes in equivalised disposable household income
around 2–7 yrs after separation by family type
OECD equivalence scale used
(“modified scale”): Assigns 1 to HH head; 0.5 for each additional adult and 0.3 to each child
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This section uses unit record data from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in
Australia (HILDA) Survey.
The HILDA Project was initiated and is funded by the Australian Government
Department of Social Services (DSS) and is managed by the Melbourne Institute of
Applied Economic and Social Research (Melbourne Institute).
The findings and views provided in this presentation, however, are those of the authors
and should not be attributed to either DSS or the Melbourne Institute.
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Discovering what works for families Australian Institute of Family Studies
HILDA data: Changes in
equivalised disposable household
income around 2–7 yrs after
separation by family type
Black arrow refers to median pre-separation equivalised disposable household income
(fathers: $34,500; mothers: $34,000)
Results only depicted where subsample N = 35+ for the period in question
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
45000
50000
55000
60000
65000
70000
t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7
Me
dia
n (
$)
Fa: Ptnr (may have non-dep chn) Fa: Living alone
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Discovering what works for families Australian Institute of Family Studies
HILDA data: Changes in
equivalised disposable household
income around 2–7 yrs after
separation by family type
Black arrow refers to median pre-separation equivalised disposable household income
(fathers: $34,500; mothers: $34,000)
Results only depicted where subsample N = 35+ for the period in question
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
45000
50000
55000
60000
65000
70000
t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7
Me
dia
n (
$)
Mo: Partner & dep chn Fa: Ptnr & dep chn
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Discovering what works for families Australian Institute of Family Studies
HILDA data: Changes in
equivalised disposable household
income around 2–7 yrs after
separation by family type
Black arrow refers to median pre-separation equivalised disposable household income
(fathers: $34,500; mothers: $34,000)
Results only depicted where subsample N = 35+ for the period in question
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
45000
50000
55000
60000
65000
70000
t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7
Me
dia
n (
$)
Mo: Single & dep chn Fa: Single & dep chn
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Discovering what works for families Australian Institute of Family Studies
HILDA data: Changes in
equivalised disposable household
income around 2–7 yrs after
separation by family type
Black arrow refers to median pre-separation equivalised disposable household income
(fathers: $34,500; mothers: $34,000)
Results only depicted where subsample N = 35+ for the period in question
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
45000
50000
55000
60000
65000
70000
t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7
Me
dia
n (
$)
Mo: Single & dep chn Mo: Partner & dep chn
Fa: Single & dep chn Fa: Ptnr & dep chn
Fa: Ptnr (may have non-dep chn) Fa: Living alone
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AIFS Longitudinal Survey of
Separated Parents (LSSF):
2008, 2009 & 2012
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Longitudinal Study of separated
families (LSSF)
• Wave 1
– 10,002 separated parents • who had separated after July 2006 and
• whose case was registered in Child Support Agency in 2007
• Who had a child under age 18 years
– Telephone interviews between August & December 2008 • Mean separation period = 15 months
• Wave 2
– 70% of parents followed up one year later in 2009 (N = 7, 031)
• Wave 3
– 58% of original sample followed up in late 2012 (N = 5,755)
– Top-up sample: 3,273 parents from the same sample scope
Child-related questions focused on one child in the family
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Annual gross household income
• Annual gross household income Total gross income from all sources (wages, investment, government
pensions and benefits) before tax or anything else is taken out
Wave 1: there was no instruction whether child support payment received
should be included
Waves 2 & 3: child support recipients were asked to include such payments
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Equivalised annual gross
household income
• OECD equivalised gross household income (“modified scale”):
• LSSF children who spent equal time (roughly 50:50) with each
parent were assigned value of 0.15 (rather than 0.3) if <15 yrs, and
0.25 (rather than 0.5) if 15+ yrs.
– Child support payers, W1-W3: actual payment was deducted
– Child support payees, W1: actual payment was added
• Caution:
– High level of missing data:
• W1: 29% (due to missing child support data)
• W2-W3: 15-16%
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Median equivalised gross household income,
LSSF and HILDA
LSSF HILDA -households Fathers Mothers
2008 (LSSF W1, HILDA W8) $37,200 $19,567 $41,164
2009 (LSSF W2, HILDA W9) $37,733 $18,061 $44,303
2012 (LSSF W3, HILDA W12) $42,056 $24,444 $47,754
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Poverty status
LSSF respondents in each wave:
• Very poor: below 50% of HILDA median equivalised
gross household income
• Poor: below 60% of HILDA median equivalised gross
household income
• Not poor: 60%+
• Poverty status was based on HILDA data, for the years
corresponding to LSSF waves (2008, 2009 & 2012)
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Income distribution – poverty
status by gender
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Income distribution – poverty status by
self-assessed financial circumstances
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Care-time categories
• Father: Nil time
• Father: Day-only time
• Mother-majority
– 66–99% of nights with mother (1–34% with father)
• Shared time
– (35–65% of nights with each parent)
– This band is classified by DHS–Child support as “Shared care” and used in determining CS liability
• Father majority
– 66–100% of nights with father (0–34% with mother)
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Income distribution – poverty
status by care-time arrangement,
W1
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Employment status and whether living
with a partner, fathers and mothers
Fathers Mothers
W1 (%)
W2 (%)
W3 (%)
W1 (%)
W2 (%)
W3 (%)
Employment
Full time 74.0 71.7 74.7 16.4 18.6 27.2
Part time 10.0 11.2 9.7 35.6 38.2 37.9
Not employed 16.0 17.0 15.6 48.0 43.2 35.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Whether re-partnered
Yes 14.0 24.2 38.6 6.0 13.4 26.9
No 86.0 75.8 61.4 94.0 86.6 73.1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
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Income distribution – poverty
status by employment status,
fathers
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Income distribution – poverty
status by employment status,
mothers
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Income distribution – poverty
status by whether re-partnered
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Predicted probability of being “very poor”
Logistic regression of poverty status, very poor vs not poor
excl. the group of poor
Control variables: education, country of birth, Indigenous status, care-time
arrangements, age of study child, who initiated separation.
Separate regressions for fathers and for mothers in W1 & W3
For employment, full-time = reference group
Asterisks = significance of underlying coefficients – e.g., part-time vs full-time; not
employed vs full-time; re-partnered vs single. ** p<.01 *** p<.001
Fathers Mothers
W1 W3 W1 W3
Employment
Full time 9% 10% 18% 13%
Part-time 44% *** 51% *** 52% *** 53% ***
Not employed 80% *** 66% *** 85% *** 81% ***
Whether living with a partner
No 15% ** 18% 62% *** 62% ***
Yes 24% 15% 38% 15%
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Poverty status movement between W1
& W3, by employment status W1
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Poverty status movement between W1
& W3, by re-partnering status W1
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Links between employment status W1 &
partnership status by W3
(a) Where parents were single in W1
(b) Where parents were partnered in W1
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W1 Single parents:
Partnering status W3 by
employment status W1
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W1 Repartnered parents:
Partnering status W3 by
employment status W1
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Role in separation decision
• Despite their worse outcomes, a higher % of women than men initiate
divorce (“Settling up”, HILDA & LSSF)
Settling up (a) HILDA (b) LSSF
Fathers Mothers Men Women Fathers Mothers
Her
decision 59 58 35 58 46 59
His
decision ? ? 27 17 26 21
Joint ? ? 38 28 27 20
Total 100 100 100
(a) Proportions reporting his decision and joint decision were not provided in the final report
(b) Reported by Hewitt, B., Western, M, & Baxter, J. (2006). Who decides? The social characteristics of who initiates marital separation. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68(5), 1165–1177
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Parents’ satisfaction with life
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Parents’ satisfaction with life
• “Settling up/Down”
– Re-partnering and financial circumstances = significant predictors for fathers and mothers (especially re-partnering)
• Analysis of recent data: – How satisfied?
• LSSF parents cf. HILDA parents?
– Links with:
• Financial circumstances • Partnership status • Care time with children
• Measures:
– Mean ratings – %s:
Low (0–4) Moderate (5–7) High (8–10)
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Life satisfaction: mean ratings and
% of high satisfaction
LSSF vs HILDA
How satisfied with a life as a whole, rating options from 0 to 10,
0=completely dissatisfied; 10=completely satisfied
Fathers Mothers
LSSF HILDA LSSF HILDA
Mean ratings
2008 6.22 7.86 6.89 7.90
2009 6.81 7.83 7.27 7.85
2012 7.25 7.89 7.81 7.93
% high satisfaction (ratings 8-10)
2008 30.5% 66.0% 42.0% 68.0%
2009 41.5% 66.5% 51.3% 67.1%
2012 53.9% 68.1% 65.7% 68.7%
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Life satisfaction: mean ratings and
% of high satisfaction
LSSF vs HILDA
How satisfied with a life as a whole, rating options from 0 to 10,
0=completely dissatisfied; 10=completely satisfied
Fathers Mothers
LSSF HILDA LSSF HILDA
Mean ratings
2008 6.22 7.86 6.89 7.9
2009 6.81 7.83 7.27 7.85
2012 7.25 7.89 7.81 7.93
% high satisfaction (ratings 8-10)
2008 30.5% 66.0% 42.0% 68.0%
2009 41.5% 66.5% 51.3% 67.1%
2012 53.9% 68.1% 65.7% 68.7%
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Life satisfaction by poverty status,
LSSF W1
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Life satisfaction by re-partnering
status, LSSF W1
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Life satisfaction by care-time
arrangement, LSSF W1
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Predictors of higher life satisfaction:
Ordered Logistic Regression analysis
Fathers
• Higher satisfaction where: – Re-partnered
– Has shared or majority care time
– Not poor
– Employed full time (cf. not employed)
• Control variables: education, country of birth, Indigenous status, age of study child, who
initiated separation.
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Predictors of higher life satisfaction:
Ordered Logistic Regression analysis
Mothers
• Higher satisfaction where:
– Re-partnered
– Child never sees father (cf. mother majority time)
• These mothers reported problematic issues in pre-separation
relationship: addictions, mental health problems, violence/abuse
– Not poor
• (but no longer significant when the effects of employment status
were controlled)
– Employed full time (cf. part-time; not at all)
• Control variables: education, country of birth, Indigenous status, age of study child, who
initiated separation.
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Conclusions
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Conclusions
Avoiding/escaping poverty
For resident mothers:
• Re-partnering continues to be key means
• Having paid work has become another common
effective avenue
For fathers:
• Having paid work is the key
For both parents:
• Paid work is linked with re-partnering
Both paid work and re-partnering predict higher
life satisfaction
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Conclusions
Love & money inextricably linked
• Marcia Millman (1991)*:
“Money seeps into love and intimate relationships” – Who holds the purse strings, and who does not,
strongly shapes relationships within immediate families
and across generations
– Classic examples: the eruption of conflicts over
money: divorces, wills, family businesses
– But money affects relationships within families in more
subtle and insidious ways
* Millman, M. (1991). Warm hearts and cold cash: The intimate dynamics of families
and money. New Your: Free Press.
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Conclusions
Love or money?
• Despite their greater financial vulnerability,
mothers continue to be more likely than fathers
to initiate separation
In short:
• “Money is not the only answer, but it makes a difference” (Barack Obama)