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2006 14: 253The Family JournalSang Min Lee, M. Harry Daniels and Daniel B. Kissinger

Parental Influences on Adolescent Adjustment: Parenting Styles Versus Parenting Practices  

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The study identified distinct patterns of parental practices thatdifferentially influence adolescent behavior using the NationalEducational Longitudinal Survey (NELS:88) database. FollowingBrenner and Fox’s research model (1999), the cluster analysis wasused to classify the four types of parental practices. The clusters ofparenting practices in the current study showed convergence withBaumrind’s parenting style. The results indicated that these fourclusters differentially affected students’ self-concept, locus of con-trol, and academic achievement. The authors discuss how theseidentified parenting behavior patterns are linked with children’sadjustment, development, and achievement.

Keywords: parenting style; parental practices; adolescentadjustment; longitudinal study

Research exploring the relationship between parentingand adolescent adjustment shows consistently that

parental support, monitoring, and nurturing—all character-istic of an authoritative parenting style—are associated withpositive outcomes among teenagers (Deslandes & Bertrand,2005; Minke & Anderson, 2005; Sheldon & Epstein, 2005).Improved school performance, less substance use, andgreater social competence (Amato & Fowler, 2002; Gunnoe,Hetherington, & Reiss, 1999; Jackson, Henriksen, &Foshee, 1998) have all been associated with parents who areeffectively implementing such elements within their reper-toire of parenting skills. Supportive parenting behaviorssuch as encouragement and companionship have also beenfound to positively predict higher self-esteem (Peña, 2000)and academic achievement (Jeynes, 2005). On the other

hand, intrusive and punitive parenting is more likely to beassociated with delinquency and depression in adolescents(Aquilino & Supple, 2001; Barber & Olsen, 1997; Herman,Dornbusch, Herron, & Herting, 1997; Walker-Barnes &Mason, 2004).

Frameworks have been developed to help assess parent-ing influences (Prevatt, 2003). Baumrind’s (1966, 1991)typology, which identifies and categorizes four parentingstyles, has good support in the literature (Lamborn, Mounts,Steinberg, & Dornbusch, 1991; Slicker, 1998). According toBaumrind (1966, 1991), parenting styles include authoritative,authoritarian, indulgent, and neglecting (Chao, 2001; Glasgow,Dornbusch, Troyer, Steinberg, & Ritter, 1997; Hart, DeWolf,Wozniak, & Burts, 1992; Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling,Mounts, & Dornbusch, 1994). Studies suggest the authorita-tive parenting style, which blends warmth and support withinan established disciplinary framework flexible enough toaccommodate a child’s developmental needs (Brenner &Fox, 1999; Darling & Steinberg, 1993), is a keystone of thepsychosocial wellness of children and adolescents (Lambornet al., 1991; Slicker, 1998). In contrast, the authoritarian style“values obedience and restricts autonomy” (Baumrind, 1966,p. 890), which has been associated with several negativeoutcomes in children and adolescents, including being “lesscontent, less affiliative toward peers, and more insecure,apprehensive, and hostile” (Kaufmann, Gesten, & Santa-Lucia, 2000, p 232). A third parenting style, labeled permis-sive, suggests a parenting style that remains responsive tochildren and adolescents but fails to set proper disciplinaryboundaries. The fourth style, a neglecting parental style, sug-gests a level of detachment from their children or adoles-cents, resulting in parents who are “underinvolved with theirchildren and respond minimally to either the child’s needs orthe child’s behavior” (Brenner & Fox, 1999, p. 344).

Although there is substantial support for Baumrind’s typol-ogy, challenges to this model do exist. Research delineating

Parental Influences on Adolescent Adjustment:Parenting Styles Versus Parenting Practices

Sang Min LeeUniversity of Arkansas – FayettevilleM. Harry DanielsUniversity of Florida – GainesvilleDaniel B. KissingerUniversity of Arkansas – Fayetteville

THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES, Vol. 14 No. 3, July 2006 253-259DOI: 10.1177/1066480706287654© 2006 Sage Publications

Authors’ Note: The authors thank Ms. Hyejin Shin, a doctoralstudent in the Department of Counseling and Personal Services at theUniversity of Maryland at College Park, for her editorial assistancewith this article. Correspondence concerning this article should beaddressed to Sang Min Lee, Counselor Education Program, Universityof Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701; e-mail: smlee@uark.edu.

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parenting practices from parenting styles has been helpfulin extending our understanding of parental influence. Forexample, alternatives to Baumrind’s (1966) typology havefocused on specific parental behaviors rather than generalattitudes (Amato & Fowler, 2002; Bean, Bush, McKenry, &Wilson, 2003; Prevatt, 2003). Darling and Steinberg (1993)suggested parenting styles are a steady composite of beliefsand attitudes that provide context for parental behavior.In comparison, parenting practices include “specific, goal-directed behaviors through which parents perform theirparental duties” (Darling & Steinberg, p. 488). In other words,parenting practice remains domain specific and involvesgoal-directed parenting behaviors, whereas parenting styleis not necessarily bound for a particular disciplinary outcome.Homework assistance aimed at promoting a child’s acad-emic achievement is one such example of a constructiveparenting practice.

Distinguishing between parenting style and parentingpractices (Bean et al., 2003; Darling & Steinberg, 1993;Stevenson-Hinde, 1998) also has methodological implica-tions relative to measuring parental influence. In effect, par-enting style implies an indirect effect on children andadolescent outcomes, whereas parenting practices havedirect impact on outcomes (Darling & Steinberg, 1993).Because parenting practices have a direct link to a child’sbehavior and outcomes, Brenner and Fox (1999) classified thespecific parenting practices to better illustrate stable parentalbehavior patterns. Brenner and Fox derived clusters of par-enting practices using the Parent Behavior Checklist (PBC;Fox, 1994). Three subscales (discipline, nurturing, and expec-tation) were derived from a sample of 1,056 mothers of youngchildren. This empirical derivation revealed four clusters ofparenting practices that characterized parenting behaviors.Four clusters were found to correspond to Baumrind’s (1966)parenting styles, suggesting that the clusters of parenting prac-tices show some convergence with parenting styles. Giventhat parenting practices are considered relatively situationalin nature, blending them to form a scale could reflect themore-consistent elements of behavior and thus be influ-enced by parenting style.

Although Brenner and Fox’s (1999) research provideddirection for the current study, the current study is more com-prehensive relative to parenting attitudes and behaviors. Inaddition, the specific cluster solution of Brenner and Fox’sstudy was limited to a sample of mothers with young children.The current study included large and longitudinal samplesrepresenting the national population. Most important, thecurrent study examines the link between student’s adjustmentvariables and the identified clusters of parenting practices.

Based on reported parenting behaviors in a national data-base, the purpose of the current study was to identify the pat-terns of parenting practices. First, consistent with Brenner andFox’s (1999) study, we hypothesized that parenting practiceswould show a multiple-cluster structure reflecting consistentpatterns in parental behavior. Second, because there are several

known outcome factors linked to parenting practices, weposited that the identified clusters would differentially affectstudent’s self-concept, locus of control, and academic achieve-ment (i.e., reading and math standardized test scores).

METHOD

Data Source and Participants

The current study utilized data from National EducationalLongitudinal Survey (NELS:88; 2002) data collection.Participants in the current study were 7,866 parents and theirchildren. Approximately 72% were White, non-Hispanic;9% were Black, non-Hispanic; 8% were Asian or PacificIslander; 1% were American Indian or Alaska Native; and10% were Hispanic or Latino (any race). Approximately 41%were from the southern United States, about 14% were from theNortheast, 25% were from the North Central region, and about20% were from the western United States. Approximately29% of participants were from urban areas, about 28% werefrom suburban areas, and roughly 43% were from rural areas.

NELS:88 samples were designed to be used as weightedsamples. Weights make generalizations to the national popu-lations represented by NELS:88. For the purpose of thecurrent study, a weight (F4PNLWT; 1988-2000 panel weightof eighth-grade class of 1988) is used (Curtin, Ingels, Wu, &Heuer, 2002a). Because NELS:88 data has a complex sam-pling design for a large-scale survey, AM software (freedownload: am.air.org) was used to calculate design effectsfor standard error.

Parenting Practices (Cluster Measures)

Parenting practices were assessed from the SecondFollow-Up Parent Questionnaire of NELS:88 sent when theirchildren were 12th graders. The parental practice variableswere developed through a principal component analysis usingseveral items related to parenting behaviors. A principal com-ponent analysis with varimax rotation clearly indicated a five-factors and/or variables solution: Decision Making, Discussion,Involvement, Expectation, and Family Rule.

The decision-making scale (total nine items) assesses thedegree to which parents perceived parental control (vs. stu-dent control) over decisions in various situations (e.g., howlate my teenager can stay out; the courses my teenager takes;how my teenager spends his or her money). Parents indi-cated who makes most of the decisions, that is, whether(a) parents decide themselves, (b) parents decide after dis-cussing it with the student, (c) parents and students decidetogether, (d) the student decides after discussing it with theparents, or (e) the student decides herself or himself. Allnine items loaded at or above .46 in the rotated matrix. TheCronbach’s alpha for all nine items was .74, which suggeststhat the measure is useful for research purposes.

The discussion scale (total 10 items) assesses the degree towhich a parent discusses school with their children (e.g., How

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frequently during the past 2 years have you and/or yourspouse and/or partner talked about your teen’s grade withyour teenager?). The format of parental discussion itemswas a 3-point Likert-type scale anchored with the wordsnever, sometimes, and often. All 10 items loaded at or above.49 in the rotated matrix. The Cronbach’s alpha for these10 items was .84.

The involvement scale (total 12 items) assesses the degreeto which a parent participates in various activities with children(e.g., How frequently did you and your teenager attend familysocial functions [party, wedding] together?). The involvementitems were on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from neverto frequently. All 12 items loaded at or above .42 in the rotatedmatrix. The Cronbach’s alpha for these 12 items was .83.

The expectation scale (total 12 items) assesses the parent’sexpectations regarding the child’s capability to perform on var-ious tasks (e.g., How important is it that a teenager has self-control?). The expectation items were on a 5-point Likert-typescale ranging from not very important to extremely important.All 12 items loaded at or above .61 in the rotated matrix. TheCronbach’s alpha for these 12 items was .89.

The family rule scale (total three items) assesses thediscipline-controlling certain behaviors with enforced rules(e.g., Are there family rules that are enforced for yourteenager about doing homework?). Response alternatives forthree items were yes or no. All three items loaded at or above.76 in the rotated matrix. The Kuder-Richardson-21 for thesethree items was .74.

Outcome Variables

Self-concept. Self-concept is indicative of the strength of astudent’s sense of self-worth and overall self-esteem. In the12th grade, students responded to a total of seven items relatedto self-concept. For self-concept, sample items included,“I feel good about myself,” and “I am able to do things as wellas most other people.” According to Marsh (1990), this self-concept variable is inferred from the positively worded itemsthat were adapted from the Rosenberg (1979) scale for inclu-sion in the NELS:88 database. The format was a 4-pointLikert-type scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly dis-agree. The Cronbach’s alpha for these 12 items was .78.

Locus of control. Locus of control represents the extentto which the students feel they have control over their life.A student with a high (internal) locus of control feels that heor she makes things happen in life as opposed to a studentwith a low (external) locus of control who feels that luck orsomeone and/or thing else is responsible for what happensto him or her. In the 12th grade, students answered a total ofsix questions related to locus of control. Sample itemsincluded, “Every time I try to get ahead, somebody or some-thing stops me” and “Chance and luck are very important forwhat happens in my life.” The format was a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree.The Cronbach’s alpha for these 12 items was .70.

Academic achievement. In the current study, mathematicsand reading standard scores were used as indicators of earlyacademic performance. In the 12th grade, all students com-pleted standardized tests in mathematics and reading, whichwere administered in NELS:88 (Curtin et al., 2002b). Mathtests contained items in arithmetic, algebra, geometry, dataand/or probability, and advanced topics and were dividedinto process categories of skill and/or knowledge, under-standing and/or comprehension, and problem solving.Reading tests consisted of reading passages from one para-graph to one page in length, followed by three to six ques-tions based on each passage.

Data Analysis

First, the cluster analysis with K-means method was usedto discern consistent patterns within the scores of five dimen-sional parenting-practice scales. Pattern-based interpretationmay increase the utility of five scale scores by capturingthe potential interactive effects inherent in score patterns.For instance, the effects of parental discipline or rule maydiffer depending on the level of parental discussion presentin the home. Thus, if parenting-practice patterns can bederived, such information could be useful in the assessmentof parents of teenager. Next, a MANOVA was performed toexamine if the identified clusters were differentially relatedto students’ self-concept, locus of control, and academicachievement.

RESULTS

Cluster Analysis

First, the five cluster variables were standardized (T score;M = 50, SD = 10). Using a line chart from coefficients ofagglomeration schedule table, the optimal number of clusterswas identified. Finally, we determine that a four-cluster solu-tion was most representative of this sample. According toFigure 1, the first type of cluster was characterized by moder-ate to high scores on scales assessing decision making (teendeciding after discussing with parents), expectations, andfamily rule, with high discussion and involvement scores.About 32% (n = 2,544) of cases fit this pattern. Parents groupedin this cluster seem to be authoritative parents; that is, parentswho are flexible and responsive to the child’s needs but stillenforce reasonable standards of conduct (Baumrind, 1991).

The second type of cluster (n = 2124, 27.0%) combinedlow decision-making scores with moderate to high scores ondiscussion, involvement, expectation, and family rule scales.Most notable was the decision-making score falling a fullstandard deviation below the mean. The results indicate thatthe parents make most decisions independent of their children.The features of this cluster do not resemble any type ofBaumrind’s (1966, 1991) parenting styles. The third cluster(n = 1283, 16.3%) was characterized by high scores onthe decision-making (teens make decision) scale and low

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discussion, involvement, and expectation score, and extremelylow scores on the family rule scales. These parents seem tobe underinvolved with their children and respond minimallyto either the child’s needs or the child’s behaviors. This clus-ter corresponds to the neglecting parenting style (Baumrind,1991). The final pattern (fourth cluster) was made up of lowdiscussion, involvement, and expectation scores and moderateto high scores on decision-making and family rule scales,resulting in a U-shaped configuration with 1,915 (24.4%)cases. This type of parenting style seems to be distinct infocusing on controls and rules rather than responding to thedemands of the child. This type corresponds to Baumrind’s(1966, 1991) authoritarian parenting style.

Type Effects on Adolescent Adjustment

Because four dependent variables (students’ self-concept,locus of control, reading test score, and math test score) inthe current study were conceptually related to each other assuggested by the correlation coefficients (.319 to .732),MANOVA procedures were employed. MANOVA proce-dure was more suitable for this type of analysis that con-trolled correlations among dependent variables. A MANOVArevealed that significant differences existed among four iden-tified clusters, λw = .978, F(12, 16316.45) = 11.62, p < .0001,on the students’ self-concept, locus of control, and academicachievement (reading and math tests) variables when exam-ined together. Results from univariate analysis revealed thatself-concept differed by types of cluster, F(3, 6170) = 8.027,p < .0001. Locus of control also differed by types of clusterF(3, 6170) = 9.865, p < .0001. In addition, results of univari-ate analysis show that there is significant differences existedamong the types of clusters on math, F(3, 6170) = 28.842,p < .0001, and reading standardized score, F(3, 6170) =21.381, p < .0001. The results of post-hoc test (Tukey’sHonestly Significant Difference [HSD]) revealed that Cluster3 and Cluster 4 (authoritarian style) showed statistically

significant lower self-concept and locus of control scoresthan the other two clusters of parenting practice (Cluster 1 andCluster 2). The results of Tukey’s HSD revealed that onlyCluster 1 (authoritative parenting style) demonstrate statisti-cally significant higher math and reading scores than the otherthree clusters of parenting practice.

DISCUSSION

Counselors have long understood the significant role thatparental influence has on adolescents’ adjustment to school,work, and adult life. Although previous research has empha-sized the importance of global assessments of parenting styles,new evidence points to the value of pinpointing actual parentalpractices. Because parenting practices are observed behaviorthat can be distinctively defined, reliably measured, anddirectly related to a child’s behaviors, Brenner and Fox (1999)used a system of classifying parenting practices to form thepatterns (profile) that could reflect the more-consistent ele-ments of parenting behavior. They suggested that researcherscan use the derived patterns from cluster analysis to relatethem to a child’s behavioral outcomes. Based on Brenner andFox’s prior research, we identified distinct patterns of parentalpractices that differentially influence adolescent behaviors,including self concept, locus of control, and school perfor-mance in the current study. The current study has conceptualand empirical bases. Conceptually, it is based on an analysis ofthe parenting styles’ literature and its suitability for under-standing parental practices from a multidimensional perspec-tive. Empirically, NELS: 88 data were used to identifyparenting practices that reflect distinct patterns of parentalbehavior and its link to adolescents’ adjustment variables.

The most common profile (Cluster 1) was characterizedby moderate to high scores on scales assessing decisionmaking (teen deciding after discussing with parents), expec-tations, and family rule, with high discussion and involve-ment scores. Parents grouped in this cluster seem to beauthoritative parents. The children with this parenting pro-file (corresponding to authoritative parenting style) havemore positive self-concept and internal locus of control thanCluster 3 and Cluster 4 parenting profiles. This group ofchildren also has higher math and reading scores than theother three clusters of parenting profiles. This finding wasconsistent with previous studies that support the effective-ness of an authoritative parenting style (Lamborn et al.,1991; Slicker, 1998). Adolescents who self-identified asbeing raised in authoritative households were found to havethe highest scores on psychosocial competence and matu-rity (Lamborn et al., 1991; Mantzicopoulos & Oh-Hwang,1998), less anxiety and depression (Radziszewska, Richardson,Dent, & Flay, 1996), and increased self-reliance (Steinberg,Mounts, Lamborn, & Dornbusch, 1991).

Cluster 2 was characterized by low decision-makingscores with moderate to high scores on discussion, involve-ment, expectation, and family rule scales. Like the Cluster 1

256 THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES / July 2006

60.00

55.00

50.00

45.00

40.00

35.00

30.00

T S

core

Decision Making

Discussion Involvement Expectation Rules

Cluster 3 (n = 1,283) Cluster 4 (n = 1,915)

Cluster 1 (n = 2,544) Cluster 2 (n = 2,124)

FIGURE 1. Empirically Derived Parenting Practice Clusters asa Function of National Educational LongitudinalSurvey

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profile, parents of this type spend a moderate amount of timein discussion and involvement with teenagers, had moder-ately high expectation, and had moderately high family rules.Unlike the Cluster 1 profile, however, it should be noted thatthe decision-making score falls a full standard deviationbelow the mean; that is, a low score on the scale assessingdecision making in this profile reflects parents exercisingcontrol over the decision making in the family (e.g., how latemy teenager can stay out). Although it is easy to imagine thispattern, this parenting profile is not consistent with any ofBaumrind’s (1991) parenting styles. This finding may reflectthe problem of the typological approach in parenting-styleresearch. Because parent-style research is centrally focusedon distinguishing different parent styles, it is possible to ruleout a parenting type that did not fall into the categories.Although many parents with a minority ethnic background(e.g., Asian parents) are actively engaged in their children’seducation, decision making remains the province of theparental dyad (Chao & Tseng, 2002; Ho, Rasheed, &Rasheed, 2004; Yang & Retting, 2003; Ying, Coombs, & Lee,1999). Although children with this parenting profile havemore positive self-concept and internal locus of control thanthose with either Cluster 3 and Cluster 4 parenting profiles,they also exhibit lower math and reading scores than theCluster 1 parenting profile (authoritative style).

Cluster 3 was characterized by high scores on the decision-making (teens make decision) scale and low discussion,involvement, and expectation score, and extremely low scoreson the family rule scales. Parents with this profile were lessengaged in the decision-making process and had only mini-mal involvement relative to decisions affecting their chil-dren’s needs. In addition, parents exhibiting this parentingprofile did not provide structure or monitor children’s behav-ior, which could be interpreted as neglectful of their children’sneeds and overall well-being. It is not surprising to note, chil-dren with this parenting profile (corresponding to neglectfulparenting style) have lower positive self-concept and internallocus of control than children with Cluster 1 and Cluster 2parenting profiles. These children also have lower math andreading scores than those with parents utilizing the Cluster 1parenting profile (authoritative style). This finding was con-sistent with previous studies. For example, Bednar and Fisher(2003) found that adolescents of neglectful parents tended tobe the least competent, often lacking in self-regulation andexhibiting behavioral problem.

Cluster 4 was a U-shaped profile characterized by low dis-cussion, involvement, and expectation scores and moderateto high scores on decision-making and family rule scales.Parents with this profile tend to expect clear obedience totheir rules but often fail to respond directly to the children’sneeds. Such a finding is clearly reminiscent of authoritarianparents who demand obedience but are not responsive to theneeds of the child. Children with this parenting profile (i.e.,authoritarian) have lower positive self-concept and internallocus of control than Cluster 1 and Cluster 2 parenting

profiles. They also possess lower math and reading scores thanchildren with parents with a Cluster 1 parenting profile (author-itative style). Consistent with our research findings, Jones,Rickel, & Smith (1980) linked an authoritarian parentingstyle with children who exhibit less proficient psychosocialcompetence and maturity. Poor academic performances andan increase in teacher-cited classroom behavioral disturbanceswere also associated with the authoritarian parenting style(Dornbusch, Ritter, & Leiderman, 1987; Shumow, Vandell, &Posner, 1998).

Limitations

Because we used an existing database (NELS:88), itemsare limited for specific variables. For example, the family rulevariable included only three items that reflect the generalparent discipline. These items of the family rule variable did notreveal how the parents respond to the child’s specific behav-ior (e.g., verbal or corporal punishment). Second, in the cur-rent study, the researchers chose to collapse race and ethnicitydata into one category. Therefore, we recommend that futurestudy should expand the current research exploring the impactof different ethnic and cultural backgrounds on parenting prac-tices and adolescent outcomes. Finally, NELS database is basedon self-report questionnaires. Future studies could employmultiple measures (e.g., behavioral observation) to assess theparenting practices, thereby giving a clearer picture of thelong-term effect of the types of parenting practices.

Implication for Counselors

The current study offers support for Brenner and Fox’s(1999) view of the potential benefits derived from descriptiveclusters of parenting practices. As such, several implications forcounselors and family therapists may be drawn from the currentstudy. For starters, given the family’s role as a primary social-izing agent, each cluster offers counselors and family therapistsan abundance of criteria for helping parents and their childrenexplore the implications of historical, current, and future pat-terns of relating. Parents who exhibit a Cluster 4 pattern(authoritarian parenting style), for example, may benefit fromthe knowledge that this parenting pattern has been associatedwith adolescents who show less psychosocial competence andmaturity in schools (Jones et al., 1980). Because parentalinfluence is known to affect their adolescents’ social andmoral development (Powers, 1988; Speicher, 1992, 1994), theparenting-cluster profiles could serve as a template for identi-fying relational patterns that promote more-effective moral rea-soning and, ultimately, social competence among adolescents.

Counselors and family therapists could also utilize theinformation detailed in each cluster to foster deeper explo-ration among adolescent clients relative to how parent-practicepatterns affect family levels of cohesion, adaptability, andcommunication (Olson et al., 1992). In the case of authoritar-ian parents (Cluster 4 pattern), a well-timed confrontationwithin the context of a positive therapeutic environment couldbe the first step to improving the global functioning of the

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family system. Counselors could also help these parentscontrast the elements that enhance family cohesion such aswarmth, boundaries, decision making, and space with theirauthoritarian parenting pattern that typically stipulates strictcompliance with rules while remaining unresponsive to theneeds of the adolescents. Knowledge of such patterns and theirsystemic ramifications could help parents reconceptualizetheir role in family conflict. Deciphering ineffective parentingpatterns and implementing more-effective parenting behaviorscan have significant positive benefits, as evidenced by therelationship between healthier family functioning and highlevels of cohesion, adaptability, and constructive communica-tion patterns (Olson et al., 1992).

In addition to these systemic issues, counselors could uti-lize the profiles identified in the current study as a basis forconstructing effective interview and/or assessment questionsthat bring to light ineffective parenting styles and practices.Individualized treatment plans could then be devised toaddress the systemic implications of ineffective parentingstyles and practices within the context of a safe therapeuticenvironment. For example, negative behaviors or poor self-concepts exhibited by adolescents could be reframed withinthe context of the family system rather than assuming theproblem is the sole province of a child with a negative dis-position. Clearly, however, counselors need to remain sensi-tive to the wishes of the parents, even in cases when it is clearthe parents do not wish to make fundamental changes to theirparenting style despite strong evidence that modificationscould potentially benefit the family system. In such cases,knowledge of specific parenting profiles may help counselorsdevise treatment plans that “reflect different parental inter-vention and foci” (Brenner & Fox, 1999, p. 354). For example,a treatment plan for a student who is defiant of neglectingparents (Cluster 3 in the current study) could be addressed bysuggesting slight modifications to the preferred parent style,such as using more authoritative responses that support free-dom of expression within reasonable disciplinary boundaries.Overall, the profiles identified in the current study, in con-junction with prior research on parenting styles (Baumrind,1966, 1991; Brenner & Fox, 1999), appears to offer usefulinsights into parenting styles and practices that can help coun-selors and family therapists better address the holistic needsof their clients.

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Sang Min Lee and Daniel B. Kissinger are assistant professorsin the Department of Educational Leadership, Counseling andFoundations at the University of Arkansas.

M. Harry Daniels is professor and chairperson of the Departmentof Counselor Education at the University of Florida.

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