parasites of three economically important fishes
TRANSCRIPT
Applied Tropical Agriculture Volume 22, No. 2, 52-62, 2017. © A publication of the School of Agriculture and Agricultural Technology, The Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria.
52
Parasites of Three Economically Important Fishes (Ethmalosa fimbriata,
Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus and Sarotherodon melanotheron) from Lagos
Lagoon, Southwestern Nigeria
Emmanuel, B.E.* and Aromodiu, H.A.W.
Department of Marine Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Lagos, Akoka Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria
*Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Parasites in three economically important fishes (Ethmalosa fimbriata, Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus and Sarotherodon
melanotheron) from Lagos Lagoon were studied between March and August, 2015. Out of 90 specimens analyzed, a total of
41 (45.6%) specimens were infected with parasites having a total parasite count of 735. Glochida accounted for the most
abundant parasite in the gills and skin of C. nigrodigitatus having a prevalence of 43.81%, Ergasilus sp. had the least amount
of prevalence with 0.41%, Gyrodactylus had a prevalence of 6.80%, Neobenedenia had a prevalence level of 0.95%. Larvae
forms of Eustrongylides from S. melanotheron had a prevalence level of 4.08% while Piscinodinium which was identified
from the gills of both S. melanotheron and E. fimbriata had a prevalence level of 41.36%, an unidentified worm had a
prevalence of 2.59%. Human beings who consumed raw or under - cooked fish that are infected with larval stages of
Eustrongylides have experienced gastritis or inflammation of the stomach and intestinal perforation requiring surgical
removal of worms.
Key words: Parasite, fish, gill, skin, under - cooked, gastritis intestinal perforation
INTRODUCTION
Fishes are important to man as they serve as a good source
of animal protein for both man and livestock. It also serves
as a source of income in Nigeria and other countries in sub-
Saharan Africa where some 35 million people depend
wholly or partly on the fisheries sector for their livelihood
(FAO, 1996).
Many diseases found in fish are closely linked to
environmental degradation and stress; once the
environment is disturbed the organisms too become
stressed (SEAFDEC, 1999). Parasitism, according to
Marcogliese (2002) reflects a life style whereby one or
more individual organisms (the parasites) live in close
obligate association in or on another (the host) and derives
nutritional benefits at the host’s expense, usually without
killing the host. Parasites are a major concern to freshwater
and marine fishes all over the world, and of particular
importance in the tropics (Iyaji and Eyo, 2008; Bichi and
Dawaki, 2010; Ekanem et al., 2011). They constitute a
major limiting factor to the growth of farmed fish in Nigeria
(Bichi and Yelwa, 2010). The effects of parasites on fish
include nutrient devaluation (Hassan et al., 2010);
alteration of biology and behaviour (Lafferty, 2008);
lowering of immune capability, induction of blindness
(Echi et al., 2009 a, b); morbidity, mortality, growth and
fecundity reduction (Nmor et al.,2004) and mechanical
injuries depending on the parasite species and load (Echi et
al., 2009a, b). Fish is the most parasitized vertebrate and the
presence of parasite is detrimental to fish population which
may cause high mortality, weight loss and reduced
fecundity on both farmed and wild fish species especially
in waters contaminated with industrial and urban pollutants
(Ramollo, 2008). In instances where host are overcrowded
such as in aquaria’s and fish ponds, parasitic disease can
spread very rapidly causing large mortalities (Parpena,
1996) while in natural systems they may threaten the
abundance and diversity of indigenous fish species
(Mashego, 2001).
Parasites can be divided into micro-parasites and
macroparasites on the basis of size, the micro-parasites
include viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, micro-
sporidians and mixozoans. Surveys for microparasites in
fish hosts, most often consider only protozoans
(Marcogliese, 2002). Macro-parasites are multicellular
organisms mainly comprised of the helminthes and
arthropods. Furthermore, parasites can also be divided into
ecto-parasites and endo-parasites on the basis of their
location in the fish’s body. Ecto-parasites are those found
on the external surfaces such as skin or gills while endo-
Parasite in fishes from Lagos lagoon
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parasites are those housed within internal organs or cavities
of a host (Marcogliese, 2002). Klinger and Floyd (2002)
noted common parasites of fishes to include: Protozoans
(Ciliates, Flagellates, Myxozoa, Microsporidia, Coccidia),
monogenean trematodes, digenean trematodes, nematodes
or roundworms (Camallanus, Capileria, Eustrongylides),
Cestodes or tapeworms, acanthocephalans or thorny headed
worms, parasitic crustaceans (Ergasilus, Lernaea, Argulus)
and leeches. It is usually known that external parasite
constitutes the largest group of pathogenic parasites in
warm water fishes. Parasite infection of the body cavity and
the musculature of fishes have been reported as presenting
marketing problems for commercially exploited species
(Petersen et al., 1993). For instance, heavy infestation of
the Alaska Pollack (Theragra chalcogramme) with
pleroceroid of Nybelinia surmenicola has reduced the
consumable part of the fish to the dorsal musculature
(Grabda, 1970). Similarly, infestation with plerocerocoids
of Gymnorlynchus thyrsitae has seriously affected the
exploitation of the highly valued Thyrsite atun in New
Zealand (Mehl, 1970).
The Piscinodinium pillulare recorded in this study causes a
condition known as velvet disease in which it coats the gills
of the infected fish and heavy infestation is known to cause
mass mortalities as reported by Kunz and Pung (2004).
Other effects of parasite on fish include muscle
degeneration, liver dysfunction, interference with nutrition,
cardiac disruption, nervous system impairment, castration
or mechanical interference with spawning, weight loss and
gross distortion of the body (Kunz and Pung, 2004). Other
severe pathological disorders reported by Bauer (1959);
Sweeting (1977); Mitchell and Hoffman (1980) include
inflammation and atrophy of the viscera, resulting from
compression and displacement of organs by the parasites,
often together with accumulation of blood stained ascetic
fluid.
A review from Nigeria indicated that freshwater fish
parasites belong to protozoans, trematode, nematode,
cestode, acanthocephalan, copepod and hirudinea groups
(Iyaji and Eyo, 2008). Okaeme and Ibiwoye (1988)
revealed that the protozoans constitute an important
economic disease of catfishes in Lake Kainji area in
Nigeria. Ibiwoye et al. (2006) reported the prevalence rate
of 22.5, 76.25 and 1.25% for gastro-intestinal parasites,
Procamallanus laevionchus and Sprironoura petriea
(Nematodes), Polyonchobothrium clariae (Cestode) and
Clinostomum clarias (Trematode) in Clarias anguillaris in
Onitsha area along River Niger. Nyaku et al. (2007) also
reported the occurrence of platyhelminthes parasites as the
most common ectoparasites of three species of fish
(Oreochromis niloticus, Auchenoglanis occidentalis and
Bagrus bayad) in River Benue, Nigeria. Obiekezie et al.
(1988) recorded infections with larval stage of nematode
Hysterothylacium sp of C nigrodigitatus throughout the
year with 64% prevalence. The pericardium inhabiting
nematode, Contracaecum sp, Amplicaecum sp and
Eustrongylides sp were most prevalent in freshwater fish
hosts. Nematode parasite, Procamallanus laevionchus was
found with highest prevalence of 62.2% in S. schall at rivers
Niger and Benue confluence (Iyaji, 2011).
Elsewhere, Raissy et al. (2008) reported the presence of
Dactylogyrus spiralis in the gills of Cyprinus carpio in Iran.
The microsporidean Plistophora sp infections of
Haplochromis angustifrons and H. elegans in Lake George
had very low prevalence of less than 1% out of 302 fish
examined from both sexes (Paperna, 1973). Infections by
Nosemoides tilapia in Tilapia zilli, T. guinensis and
Sarotheradon melanotheron were common in Lake Nakoue
and Porto Novo lagoon with prevalence of 13-30% (Sakiti
and Bouix, 1987). The visceral myxobolus infections of
Oreochromis sp in East African lakes were quite high
(prevalence 89-100%) while in Haplochromis sp they were
only rarely above 25% (FAO, 1996). Prevalence of skin and
gill infections of Myxobolus sp was very low (Paperna,
1973). Prevalence of Henneguya sp infecting Clarias
gariepinus of Okavanga River and the Delta in Botswana
were also generally low, 14.3% in the cartilage of the
accessory breathing organ and primary gill lamallea (Reed
et al., 2003). Kostoingue et al., (2001) reported primary gill
lamellae infections of Henneguya sp and their prevalence
in the following fish genera: Auchinoglanus occidentalis;
Citharinus citherus; Mormyrus cashive; Lates niloticus;
Clarias auguilaris with prevalences of 36.8% (21/57)
25.8% (16/32) 13.3% (12/90) 4.4% (3/63) and 9.1% (4/44)
respectively from freshwater ecosystem of Chad, Central
Africa. Henneguya chrysichthyi gill infection in C.
nigrodigitatus had a prevalence of 37% (Obiekezie et al.,
1988) with the highest intensity of infection in the 21-30
cm class, corresponding to fish in their second year
(Ezenwa and Ikusemiju, 1981).
Among the heminths, Obiekezie et al. (1988) found the
monogenean Protancylodiscoides chysichthes occurred
throughout the year on the gills of the fish with monthly
prevalence of infection consistently above 70% (Except in
August) and low mean intensity during heavy rain months
(July - Oct). Data on cestode infestations of fish are mostly
from wild fish species (FAO, 1996).
Despite all these reports, very little is known about the
parasitic infestation and prevalence in Ethmalosa fimbriata,
Chrysicththys nigrodigitaus and Sarotherodon
melanothron in Lagos lagoon. The aim of this study is
provide information on the types and relative abundance of
several parasitic species found in three brackish water fish
families of economic importance (E. fimbriata, C.
nigrodigitatus, S. melanotheron) in Lagos lagoon and the
effects of these parasites on the survival of these species in
the lagoon.
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Emmanuel and Aromodiu / Applied Tropical Agriculture 22 (2), 52-62, 2017
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
Description of study site The Lagos lagoon shares its name with the city of Lagos,
Nigeria. The Lagoon (Fig 1) lies between longitudes 30 20’
and 30 40’E and latitudes 60 15’ and 60 40’ the estimated
area of the main body is 150.56km2 and has an area of 208
km2 (FAO, 1969 cited by Nwankwo, 2004) and an average
depth of less than two meter. The lagoon is the largest of
the of the four lagoon systems of the gulf of guinea (Webb,
1958 cited by Nwankwo, 2004 ) and is one of the nine
coastal lagoons of South-western Nigeria (Webb, 1958;
Nwankwo, 2004; Onyema, 2008a). It provides the only
opening to the sea for the nine lagoons of South Western
Nigeria. Owing to the dynamics of river inflow and
seawater incursion, the Lagos lagoon experiences brackish
condition that is more discernable in the dry season
(Nwankwo, 2004). In the wet season, the increased river
inflow creates freshwater and low brackish conditions in
various parts of the lagoon. The harmattan, a short season
of dry, dusty North-East Trade winds are experienced
sometimes between November and January in the region
reducing visibility and lowering temperatures (Onyema et
al., 2003). Characteristically, Lagos Lagoon has a seasonal
fluctuation in salinity and high brackish water during the
dry season (From December to May), while freshwater
condition exists in the rainy season (June – November)
(Kusemiju, 1975; Ugwumba and Kusemiju, 1992; Solarin,
1998; Lawal-Are, 2006). The lagoon is fairly shallow and
is not plied by ocean going ships but by smaller barges and
boats. Lagos Lagoon receives freshwater from Lekki
Lagoon via Epe Lagoon in the North-east, and dis-charges
from Majidun, Agboyi and Ogudu creeks as well as Ogun
River in the North-west (Soyinka, 2008; Lawal-Are et al.,
2010).
In the dry season, freshwater inflow is greatly reduced and
seawater enters the lagoon through the harbour giving rise
to marine conditions near the harbour and brackish water
extending far inland (Hill and Webb, 1958; Nwankwo,
1996; Onyema et al., 2003). Hence, areas located in close
proximity to the harbour experience greater marine
influence than places further inland.
Collection of fish specimens Fish species were landed at the market by artisanal
fishermen using casts nets, drag nets and set gill nets.
Samples of Ethmalosa fimbriata (30), Sarotherodon
melanotheron (30) and Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus (30)
were collected from the Better-life fish market in Makoko
area of Lagos state between March-August 2015 (6
months). Five 5 specimens of each species was collected
each month for analysis of parasitic prevalence throughout
the six months of the project.
Laboratory analysis of fish samples
Determination of Morphometric Characteristics
In the laboratory, the total length (TL) and standard length
(SL) of each individual fish was measured in centimeters
(cm) using a fish measuring board. The weight of each
individual fish was also taken in grams (g) using a weighing
balance (Camry EK 5055).
Gill Examination for Parasites
The gill of the individual fish specimen was extracted by
dissecting the fishes using a dissecting scissors. The
extracted gill sample was placed on a microscopic glass
slide, a drop of water was added and the sample is covered
using a cover slip then view under microscope for parasitic
prevalence using a magnification of 60X as described by
omeji et al. (2010); Bichi and Ibrahim (2009) and Emere
and Egbe (2006). This procedure was repeated for all fish
samples for consistency.
Skin Mucus Examination for Parasites The body mucus from the caudal part of fish was scrapped
using a scrapper. Scraping was done carefully so as to avoid
scales in the mucus which may impair the visibility of small
protozoan. Mucus was then placed on glass slide and a drop
of water was added and then covered with a cover slip
before being viewed under microscope for ecto-parasites as
described by omeji et al. (2010); Bichi and Ibrahim (2009)
and Emere and Egbe (2006). The procedure was repeated
for all samples.
Ecto-parasites found were identified and their number
counted. Examination of fish gill and mucus from skin were
done on the same day the fish were caught (live or fresh) as
some ecto-parasites die after the host is dead.
Analysis of Parasitic Infestation
The analysis for parasitic infestation for finding the
incidence and prevalence were carried out by following
equations (Poulin and Rhode, 1997)
Prevalence of infection = �������� ��
�� � �� �� ����� x 100
Incidence of infection = �.� � � ���� �������� �� � ����
�.� �������� ��
Prevalence of individual parasites = �� �� �������� �!!� ��" �# � ��$�!�
�� �� �#�� ��" %��� & '((
Analysis of Data All data were analyzed using descriptive statistics.
Prevalence (P) was represented in bar graphs and pie chart
using Microsoft excels.
54
Parasite in fishes from Lagos lagoon
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RESULTS
Length - weight relationship of the fishes used for
the study The 90 specimens used consisted of different size groups,
the length of S. melanotheron mean ranged from
17.42±0.77cm - 20.38±2.41cm with average range weight
from 103.4±12.26 g - 138.4±16.37g (Table 1), C.
nigrodigitatus mean ranged from 26.92±1.20`cm -
35.76±2.61cm with average range weight from
165.2±28.07 - 412.4±114.14g (Table 2) and E. fimbriata
mean length ranged from 13.12±1.42cm- 17.76±1.88cm
with average range weight from 20.4±6.68 - 53.6±19.47g
(Table 3).
Table 1: Mean monthly variation of length and weight for S.
melanotheron
Month Total length
(cm)
Standard
length (cm) Weight (g)
March 20.38±2.41 15.16±1.78 135.6±50.07
April 18.31±1.31 13.96±1.02 125.6±24.14
May 19.62±1.39 15.18±1.03 138.4±16.37
June 17.42±0.77 13.20±0.57 107.0±10.26
July 19.42±1.20 14.64±1.34 132.4±12.26
August 18.06±0.95 13.68±0.59 103.4±12.26
Table 2: Mean monthly variation of length and weight for C.
nigrodigitatus
Month Total length
(cm)
Standard
length (cm) Weight (g)
March 33.36±2.29 24.60±1.46 285.6±53.20
April 35.76±2.61 26.88±2.71 412.4±114.14
May 30.72±4.54 22.84±3.74 236.8±119.72
June 33.38±2.46 24.68±2.13 311.4±98.88
July 31.54±3.87 22.72±1.77 240.8±45.41
August 26.92±1.20 20.28±0.76 165.2±28.07
Table 3: Mean monthly variation of length and weight for E.
fimbriata
Month Total length
(cm)
Standard
length (cm) Weight (g)
March 14.68±1.62 12.10±1.36 28.2±8.97
April 17.76±1.88 14.14±1.65 53.6±19.47
May 15.36±1.98 13.78±3.42 32.0±13.52
June 15.46±0.66 12.62±0.49 33.4±5.08
July 13.12±1.42 10.44±1.36 20.4±6.68
August 14.28±1.02 11.34±0.96 25.4±6.15
Parasites of fishes in Lagos Lagoon Parasite species recorded in 90 specimens analyzed are
Glochida (parasitic larvae of mussels), Gyrodactylus,
Neobenedenia, Ergasilus (parasitic copepod),
Piscinodinium (protozoa) and Eustrongylides (nematode)
as shown in Table 4.
Out of the 90 specimen analyzed, a total of 41 (45.6%)
specimens were infected with parasites having a total
parasite count of 735 from infected specimens. Glochida
accounted for the most abundant parasite in the gills and
skin of C. nigrodigitatus having a prevalence of 43.81%,
Ergasilus sp. had the least prevalence value with 0.41%,
Gyrodactylus had a prevalence of 6.80%, Neobenedenia
had a prevalence level of 0.95, larvae forms of
Eustrongylides from S. melanotheron had a prevalence
level of 4.08% while Piscinodinium which was identified
from the gills of both S. melanotheron and E. fimbriata had
a prevalence level of 41.36%, an unidentified specimen had
a prevalence of 2.59%. This is shown in Fig. 2.
Prevalence with respect to species Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus had a total prevalence 50.16%
of parasite consisting of Gyrodactylus (6.8%) and Glochida
(43.36%) making it the species of fish having the highest
amount of parasitic infestation. S. melanotheron had a total
prevalence of 28.57% comprising of Ergasilus (0.41%),
Piscinodinium (23.13%), Eustrogylides (4.08%) and
Neobenedenia (0.95%). E. fimbriata had a total prevalence
of 20.82% comprising of Piscinodinium (18.23%) and
unidentified worm (2.59%). This relationship is shown in
Table 5 and Fig. 3.
Prevalence of Parasites with respect to size of fish Glochida was discovered to be more prominent in larger
sized C. nigrodigitatus while Gyrodactylus was found to
infest fish of different sizes but with an increased
prevalence in larger species of C. nigrodigitatus,
Eustrongylides and Neobenedenia was found in matured
S.melanotheron, Piscinodinium was found to affect S.
melanotheron and E. fimbriata irrespective of their size.
This relationship is represented in Table 6 and Fig. 4.
DISCUSSION
This study recorded a parasitic prevalence of 45.6% from
all infected specimens, C. nigrodigitatus recorded the
highest prevalence of parasitic infection with 50.16%. This
agrees with the finding of Olorin and Somorin (2006) which
recorded the highest parasitic burden in C. nigrodogitatus
which was found to be infected with the metacerceria of the
trematode (Clinostomum tilapiae) and the adult of the
acanthocephalan (Neochinorynchus rutili). S.
melanotheron had the highest number of parasite diversity
with four different families of parasite, Ergasilidae
(Ergasilus sp), Capsilidae (Neobenedenia mellari),
Oodinidae (Piscinodinium pillulare) and
Dioctophymatidae (Eustrongylides sp).
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Table 4: The species of parasites identified from specimens and the part of fish they were found
Fish Site of infection Family of parasite Specie of parasite
S. melanotheron Gill Ergasillidae Ergasilus sp.
S. melanotheron Gill Dioctophymatidae Eustrongylides sp.
C. nigrodigitatus Gill and skin Unionidae Glochida (Anodonta grandis)
C. nigrodigitatus Skin Gyrodactylidae Gyrodactylus arcuatus
C. nigrodigitatus Skin Gyrodactylidae Gyrodactylus derjavini
E. fimbriata Gill Oodinidae Piscinodinium pillulare
S. melanotheron Skin Capsalidae Neobenedenia mellari
S. melanotheron Gill Oodinidae Piscinodinium pillulare
E. fimbriata Gill Unidentified worm
Figure 1: Map showing the sampling sites in Lagos lagoon
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Parasite in fishes from Lagos lagoon
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Figure 2: Prevalence (%) of parasite from all infected specimens of S. melanotheron, C. nigrodigitatus and E. fimbriata
Figure 3: Prevalence of parasite with respect to species
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Emmanuel and Aromodiu / Applied Tropical Agriculture 22 (2), 52-62, 2017
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Figure 4: Prevalence of parasite with respect to size of fishes
PLATE 1a: (A) Slide of Eusrongylides sp. from gill infected of S. melanotheron. (Mg x60), (B) Slide of Neobenedenia mellari
from skin of infected S. melanotheron (Mg x60), (C) Slide of Piscinodinium pillulare from gill of infected E. fimbriata (Mg x60),
(D) Slide of Ergasilus sp. from gill of infected S. melanotheron (Mg x60),
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Parasite in fishes from Lagos lagoon
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PLATE 1b: (E) Slide of Gyrodactylus derjavini from skin of infected C. nigrodigitatus (Mg x60), (F) Slide of Glohida (Anodota
grandis) from gill of infected C. nigrodigitatus (Mg x60).
Chen (1973) and Wang et al. (1997) reported the larvae of
Eustrongylides from the fish species of the families
Engraulidae, Cyprinidae, Siluridae, Bagridae, Channidae
and Percichthyidae. The prevalence of parasitic infections
corresponds with fish length which also in turn corresponds
to fish size and age as reported by Lagler et al. (1979), with
exceptions from Piscinodinium sp. Poulin, (2000) stated
that larger fish have more internal and external space for
parasite establishment and therefore tend to have heavier
infestations. This study recorded similar case of higher
prevalence of parasitic infestation in agreement with the
work of Omeji, et al., (2010) who reported higher rate of
protozoan parasites in bigger C. gariepinus and
Heterobranchus longifilis than the smaller ones. Emere and
Egbe (2006) reported higher rate of protozoan parasites in
bigger Synodontis clarias than the smaller ones an
indication that parasites infest fish based on the size and the
surface area. Gyrodactylus show an increase in prevalence
with respect to size to a certain level then declines in this
study, these results are in accordance with those of Ramollo
et al (2006), who reported that the prevalence and intensity
of infestation generally increased with the host’s size, up to
a certain point and then declined. The prevalence of
gyrodactylus in the fish species could be as a result of the
fact that gyrodactylus are host specific (Marcogliese and
Price, 1997). Combination of factors, such as infection rate,
survival, reproduction, population growth and virulence,
determine host optimality (King and Cable, 2007). Parasite
infection rate from all specimen was generally low and this
could be attributed to several factors which include:
temperature, salinity, season (raining or dry), this is in line
with Ramollo (2008), which reported that good biological
indicators are sensitive to environmental alterations so that
changes in their numbers can be used as warning of
deteriorating conditions before the majority of less
sensitive organisms are seriously affected. In the same vein,
Vidya and Sukumar (2002) noted that potential factors
determining the transmission of parasites include
environmental conditions (affect the viability and behavior
of parasites) and feeding, movement and defecation
patterns of the host (determine the parasites encountered).
In the wild it is difficult to isolate and quantify the effects
of any single factor on parasitized fish population
dynamics. However, studies of fish in captivity or under
culture conditions have provided much information about
the effects of parasites on fish survival. From this study
parasite infestation was known to cause swelling in the
gills, rotting of fin and loss of scale. It was reported by Cruz
– Lacierda (2001) that Glochidia destroy the gills and
disrupt the respiratory function of the gill. Nematollahi et
al. (2013) also reported that parasites are among the
important factors responsible for weight loss, disruption of
reproduction or impotency blindness, abnormal behavior,
epithelial lesions, deformities of gills and other symptoms
that ultimately lead to economic loss in fish industry.
Evidences suggest that parasites can act as severe
pathogens, causing direct mortality or rendering the fish
more vulnerable to predators (Kunz and Pung, 2004).
Parasites are a natural component of the environment and
may be viewed as an indicator of the relative health of an
ecosystem. The majority of species of parasites present on
and within fish are not hazardous to human and those which
are hazardous tend to have complex life-cycles which
involve more than one type of host for development.
Eustrongylides is known to affect birds that feed on infected
fish and they cause a condition known as Eustrongylidosis
(Franson and Custer, 1994). Humans who consumed raw or
under-cooked fish that carry the larval stages of
Eustrongylides have experienced gastritis or inflammation
of the stomach and intestinal perforation requiring surgical
removal of worms (Measures, 1988).
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CONCLUSION
Parasites are a natural component of the environment and
may be viewed as an indicator of the relative health of an
ecosystem. The majority of species of parasites present on
and within fish are not hazardous to human and those which
are hazardous tend to have complex life-cycles which
involve more than one type of host for development.
Humans who consumed raw or under-cooked fish that carry
the larval stages of Eustrongylides have experienced
gastritis or inflammation of the stomach and intestinal
perforation requiring surgical removal of worms.
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