painpain an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue...
TRANSCRIPT
Pain
1
Pain
An unpleasant sensory and emotional
experience associated with actual or
potential tissue damage, or described in
terms of such damage.
International Association for the Study of Pain
MYTHS
“Anesthetics mask symptoms”
“Patient will harm itself if there’s no pain”
“Pain is difficult to assess”
The Truth!
• Pain is BAD:
– Decreased cardiovascular function
– Decresed appetite
– Slows wound healing
– Decreased immune function
• Greater chance of infection
– Increased fear and anxiety
از لحاظ فیزیولوژیک درد چهار مرحله دارد
• STIMULATION ( تحریک)
• TRANSMISSION ( انتقال)
• PERCEPTION ( درک)
• MODULATION (متعادل کردن درد)
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Mechanism
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Process #2—Transmission
• Impulse spinal cord brain stem
thalamus central structures of brain pain
is processed.
• Neurotransmitters are needed to continue the
pain impulse from the spinal cord to the
brain—opioids (narcotics) are effective
analgesics because they block the release of
neurotransmitters
Process #4—Modulation of Pain• Changing or inhibiting pain impulses in the
descending tract (brain spinal cord)
• Descending fibers also release substances such as norepinephrine and serotonin (referred to as endogenous opioids or endorphins) which have the capability of inhibiting the transmission of noxious stimuli. Helps explain wide variations of pain among people.
• Cancer pain responds to antidepressants which interfere with the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine which increases their availability to inhibit noxious stimuli.
Process #3—Perception of Pain
• The end result of the neural activity of pain
transmission
• It is believed pain perception occurs in the cortical
structures—behavioral strategies and therapy can be
applied to reduce pain. Brain can accommodate a
limited number of signals—distraction, imagery,
relaxation signals may get through the gate, leaving
limited signals (such as pain) to be transmitted to the
higher structures.
Nociceptive Neuropathic
-soft tissue
-bone
-skeletal muscle
-smooth muscle
Nerve
Compression
Nerve
Injury
Classification of Chronic Pain
تفاوتهای این دو نوع درد
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Nociceptiveدردای دردای وريپاتیک
گب سبثق ضرث یب آسیت )آسیت ث اعػبة جد دارد اهب گب یچ سبثق ای وی تاى
(یبفت
آسیت ث ثبفت ثذىعلت درد(عضل، استخاى یبپست)
درد هجن ک هکبى آى یس هجن است حبلت ثرق گرفتگی سزش یب از ایي دست دارد
درد تیس ثب هکبى هطخع مشخصات دردضذیذ
ثسیبر هطکلداربی ضذ غرع ضذ افسردگی س حلق
ای
پبسخ ث درهبى هبست استNSAID ب ، استبهیفي
هخذربدرمان
رپبتی دیبثتیدرد ثعذ از یرس رپسدردبی هسهي ثعذ از عول
درد پطت
مثالاستئ آرتریت
Classification of Pain
Acute Chronic
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Postoperative pain can be divided into:
Acute pain is experienced immediately after
surgery (up to 7 days)
Pain which lasts more than 3 months after the
injury is considered to be chronic pain
مقایسه دو نوع درد
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درد حاددرد مسمهرایی از دردبسیار خشایىذبسیار خشایىذ
مقايمت ي يابستگی ب دارياوادرشایع
مشکالت ريحی ي رياویوادرشایع
علت بذوی ي فیسیکی ياضحاغلب مجد استعمما يجد وذارد
درگیری محیط ي خاوادبسیار واچیس استکامال بارز است
بی خابیوادریک جس تقریبا ثابت است
اذاف درماویدرمان قطعی درد ي بیماری زمیى ایببد فعالیت
افسردگیوادرشایع
―Describing pain only in terms of its
intensity is like describing music only
in terms of its loudness‖
von Baeyer CL; Pain Research and Management 11(3) 2006; p.157-162
PAIN HISTORY
• Description: severity, quality, location,frequency,
aggravating & alleviating factors
• Previous history
• Context: social, cultural, emotional, spiritual
factors
Patient
Assessment
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Treatment
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Treatment
• Non-pharmacologic
• Pharmacologic
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Non-Pharmacologic
• Stimulation Therapy:
– electrical nerve stimulation
• Psychological Intervention
– relaxation training, and hypnosis, have proven
effective in the management of postprocedure pain
and in cancer-related pain
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Pharmacologic Therapy
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General Treatment Principles
• In general, common causes of treatment failure
is Under-dosing
• When treating chronic pain, elimination and
prevention of pain is best accomplished by
using analgesics at fixed time intervals rather
than on an as-needed basis
• Effective analgesic therapy begins with an
accurate assessment of the patient
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+/- adjuvant
Non-opioid
Weak opioid
Strong opioidBy the
Clock
W.H.O. ANALGESIC LADDER
+/- adjuvant
+/- adjuvant
1
2
3
Guidelines for Cancer pain
The WHO 3-step Analgesic Ladder
Strong opioid
+non opioids+ adjuvants
Weak opioid
+non opioid
+ adjuvants
Non opioid
(antipyretic)
+ adjuvants
Pain
Pain persisting or
increasing
Pain persisting or
increasing
Step 1.
Step 2.
Step 3.
90% respond well to oral medicines
Adjuvant Analgesics
• first developed for non-analgesic indications
• subsequently found to have analgesic activity in specific
pain scenarios
• Common uses:
– pain poorly-responsive to opioids (eg. neuropathic
pain), or
– with intentions of lowering the total opioid dose and
thereby mitigate opioid side effects.
Adjuvants Used In Palliative Care
• General / Non-specific– corticosteroids– cannabinoids (not yet commonly used for pain)
• Neuropathic Pain– gabapentin– antidepressants– ketamine– topiramate– Clonidine– Pregabaline
• Bone Pain– bisphosphonates– (calcitonin)
inflammation
edema
spontaneous nerve depolarization
tumor mass
effects
CORTICOSTEROIDS AS ADJUVANTS
}
Steroids: MOA
inhibit phospholipase A2>>>
inhibits prostoglandin/leukotrienes
Membrane Phospholipid
Arachidonic Acid
“Bad” Prostaglandins
Pain/Inflammation
“Good” Prostaglandins
GI Protection
Renal Blood Flow
Thromboxane
“Platelets”
COX-2
COX-1
Phospholipase A2 Steroids inhibit here
NSAIDS inhibit here
Pain Level
Description
Numerical
Rating (0 to
10 Scale)
WHO Therapeutic
Recommendations
Example Medicines for
Initial Therapy
―Mild‖ pain 1–3
Nonopioid analgesic: taken
on a regular schedule, not as
needed (prn)
•Acetaminophen 650 mg
every 4 hr
•Acetaminophen 1,000 mg
every 6 hr
•Ibuprofen 600 mg every 6
hr
―Moderate‖ pain 4–6
Add opioid for moderate pain
(e.g., moderate potency
analgesic). Use on a
schedule, not prn
•Acetaminophen 325
mg/codeine 60 mg every 4 hr
•Acetaminophen 325
mg/Oxycodone 5 mg every 4
hr
•Tramadol 50 mg every 6 hr
―Severe‖ pain 7–10
Switch to a high potency
(strong) opioid; administer
on a regular schedule
•Morphine 15 mg every 4 hr
•Hydromorphone 4 mg every
4 hr
•Morphine controlled release
60 mg every 8 hr
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Dosing
• The management of chronic pain is also best
accomplished by around-the-clock
administration
• As-needed schedules are to be used in
conjunction with around-the-clock regimens
and are used when patients experience
breakthrough pain
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TOLERANCE
physiological phenomenon normalA
in which increasing doses are required
to produce the same effect
3.2.4: Chapter 1993Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine Inturrisi C, Hanks G.
PHYSICAL DEPENDENCE
physiological phenomenon in normalA
which a withdrawal syndrome occurs
when an opioid is abruptly discontinued
or an opioid antagonist is administered
3.2.4: Chapter 1993Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine Inturrisi C, Hanks G.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DEPENDENCEand ADDICTION
A pattern of drug use characterized by a
continued craving for an opioid which is
manifest as compulsive drug-seeking
behaviour leading to an overwhelming
involvement in the use and procurement
of the drug
3.2.4: Chapter 1993Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine Inturrisi C, Hanks G.
میلي گرم هروئین 60
دو هفته
ساعت بعد از آخرین مصرف 12
احساس ضعف
خمیازه
لرز
عرق
عطسه
ترشحات
موقع بیداري
ساعت 24تا 18
عمق جهنم
وابستگي
روز 7-8ترک
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Type of Pain Nonopioids Opioids Other
Medications Comments
Chronic low
back pain
Acetaminophen,
NSAIDs
Short-term use for
mild-to-moderate
flare-ups
TCAs, AEDs
Acetaminophen and
NSAIDS first; opioids in
selected patients; AEDs or
TCAs if neuropathic
symptoms
Fibromyalgia Acetaminophen,
NSAIDs
Long-term use not
recommended
Tramadol,
TCAs; AEDs
Acetaminophen and
NSAIDs considered first;
tramadol may be better
alternative than opioids
Neuropathic
pain
Acetaminophen
or NSAIDs are
rarely effective
Considered first-
line therapy but
usually are tried
after AEDs and/ or
TCAs, tramadol,
lidocaine 5% patch
TCAs, AEDs,
SNRIs, trama
dol, topical
(e.g., 5% lido
caine patch,
capsaicin)
Gabapentin, 5% lidocaine
patch, tramadol, nortrip
tyline, desipramine, all
considered first-line agents;
opioids considered first-line
agents but usually are tried
after above
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نام دارو دوز رایج حداکثر دوز عوارض توضیحات
Acetaminophen
Tynelol®
Panadol®
هیلی گرم ر 1000الی 500سبعت یب 4ر 650الی 325سبعت 6 4000
عبرض کجذی در غرت هسوهیت
Mefenamic acid
Ponstan®سبعت 6هیلی گرم ر 250هیلی گرم سپس 500اثتذا 1000
اثر ثیطتر ثری اعقبد خى
سبل تغی وی ضد 14ثرای زیر حذاکثر تب یک فت هػرف ضد
Naproxen
Aleve®
6ر 250سبعت یب 12ر 500هیلی گرم سپس 500اثتذا سبعت 8تب 1000
Ibuprofen
Advil®
سبعت 8الی 6هیلی گرم ر 400الی 200سبعت 8هیلی گرم ر OTC 400ث طر
هیلی گرم ث ازای ر کیل زى ثذى 10الی 5دز اطفبل سبعت 8تب 6ر
32001200
حذاکثر دز ثرای هػرف
OTCثطر
کن عبررض تریي NSAID
هب 6ایي دار ثتر است در اطفبل زیر استفبد طد
Celecoxib
Celebrex®
Cobix®
یک ثبر در رز 200د ثب در رز یب 100 200
احتوبل ایجبد هطکالت قلجی
تبخیر در ترهین استخاى
ثبعث 200افسایص دز هػرفی از افسایص هطکالت قلجی عرقی هیطد
Diclofenac
Voltaren®
سبعت 8الی 6هیلی گرم ر 50تب 25هیلی گرم از فرآرد آست رص یک تب حذاکثر د 100
ثبر در رز200
ضیع ثیطتر عبرض کجذی
Indomethacin
Indocin®
یس دز را 150ثبر هی تاى تب رزا 3الی 2رزی 25افسایص داد
عذد 2قرظ آست رص را هی تاى رز ییک تب سبعت 6ر 25در حوالت حبد قرس
150پر عبرض تریي
NSAIDعارؼ عػجی
Tolmetin سبعت 8هیلی گرم ر 400تب 200 1800
Meloxicam
Mobic®هیلی گرم یک ثبر در رز 15تب 7.5 15
ثیطتریي عارؼ پستی
ترکیجبت هبر کذ اختػبغی هطبث COX2
Piroxicam
feldene ®
هیلی گرم رزی یک 20ثبر در رز یب 2هیلی گرم 10ثبر
ثیطتریي عارؼ پستی
ث علت طل اثر ثلذ، اثر کبهل آى ضبیذ ثعذ از یک فت ظبر ضد
Patient Control Analgesia (PCA)
Treatment of Neuropathic Pain
Pharmacologic treatment
• Opioids
• Steroids
• Anticonvulsants – gabapentin, topiramate
• TCAs (for dysesthetic pain, esp. if depression)
• NMDA receptor antagonists: ketamine, methadone
• Anesthetics
Radiation therapy
Interventional treatment
• Spinal analgesia
• Nerve blocks
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