page 1 understanding the basic grammar of...

Understanding the basic grammar of sentences Put mostly simply, a sentence is a grammatically complete group of

words that expresses a thought. To be grammatically correct, a sentence must include two major structural components – a subject and predicate. The

subject identifies what the sentence is about, and the predicate says or asks

something about the subject or tells the subject to do something.

Subject Predicate

We shall overcome

I have a dream The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plain

Parts of Speech Verbs are among the most important words, for they move the meaning of

sentences along by showing action (jump, glance), occurrence (become,

happen), or state of being (be, live). Auxiliary verbs (helping verbs) combine with other verbs to create verb phrases. Helping verbs include the forms of be,

do, and have, which are also used as main verbs, and the words can, could,

may, might, must, shall, should, will, and would.

Nouns can name persons (student, child), places (library, park), things

(pencils, toys), concepts (happiness, balance). Proper nouns name specific persons, places, things, or concepts: Isaac, Richmond High School, and

Christianity. (Proper nouns are always capitalized.)

Pronouns function as nouns in sentence and often take the place of specific nouns, serving as short forms so that we do not have to repeat a noun that has

already been mentioned. A specific noun that a pronoun replaces or refers to

is called the antecedent of the pronoun. In the following example, the antecedent of the pronoun: their is students:

The students gathered in the gym to show their school spirit.

**NOTE that there is a clear agreement between the pronoun and its

antecedent. When a collective-noun antecedent (herd, team, audience) refers to a single unit, it requires a singular pronoun.

Finally, our team scored its first victory.

Also, when the antecedent in a sentence is a singular, indefinite pronoun, it requires a singular pronoun.

Nobody was there to welcome him.

Has anyone turned in his or her paper?

Adjectives limit the meaning of nouns or pronouns, usually by describing,

identifying, or qualifying those words.

The red Corvette ran off the road. (DESCRIBES)

That Corvette needs to be repaired. (IDENTIFIES)

We saw several Corvettes race by. (QUANTITIES)

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or entire clauses. One can

recognize many adverbs by their ly endings, though some adverbs do not have such an ending (always, never, very well), and some words that end in ly are

not adverbs, but adjectives (friendly, lovely). Also, adverbs often answer one of

the following questions: How? When? Where? Why? To what extent?

Molly and Herbert recently visited the Grand Canyon. (When)

They very soon realized the awesome beauty of nature. (To what extent)

Prepositions are important structural words that express relationships – in space, time or other senses—between nouns or pronouns and other words in a

sentence.

We did not want to leave during the football game.

The RHS fans waited anxiously for the call.

Some common prepositions:

about

above across

after

against along

among

around as

at

before behind

below

beneath beside

between

beyond by

down

during except

for

from in

inside

into like

near

of off

on

onto out

over

past since

through

toward under

until

up upon

with

without

Conjunctions connect words or groups of words to one another:

Coordinating Conjunctions join equivalent structures—two or more nouns, pronouns,

verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, or clauses. They are and, but, or,

nor, for, yet, and so.

T.S. Eliot wrote poems and plays.

A strong but warm breeze blew across the desert.

The student glanced nervously at the clock, for only ten minutes remained in the

exam period. Correlative Conjunctions also join equivalent elements. They come in pairs. They are:

both...and, neither...nor, either...or, not only...but also, just as...so, whether...or.

Both William Wordsworth and William Blake wrote about nature.

Jeff not only sent a card but also visited me in the hospital. Subordinating Conjunctions introduce adverb clauses and signal the relationship between

the adverb clause and another clause, usually an independent clause. For instance, in the

following sentence the subordinating conjunction, while signals a time relationship.

Sweat ran down her face while she frantically searched for her child.

Some common subordinating conjunctions are: after, if, though, although, in order that,

unless, as, once, until, as if, since, when, before, than, while, and even though.

Interjections express surprise or emotion. Some are: oh, ouch, ah, hey. They often stand alone as fragments.

“Yes! All right!” The RHS fans screamed, jumping to their feet.

Alas, the problem suggested no easy solution.

Using who, whoever, whom, whomever

Who and whoever are the subjective case forms and should be used when the pronoun is a subject or subject complement. Whom and whomever are the objective case forms and

should be used when the pronoun is a direct or indirect object or the object of the

preposition.

Who wrote the novel? (He wrote the novel. He is the subject; thus, who is correct)

The new president was not whom she had expected. (Whom is the object of the verb

had expected in the clause whom she had expected. Though the clause as a whole is

a complement of the subject president, the pronoun should be in the objective case.)

Glossary of Important Grammatical Terms Acronym: A word, usually a noun, formed from the first letter(s) of several words, such as

RADAR for radio detecting and ranging.

Appositive: A noun or noun phrase that identifies or adds identifying information to a

preceding noun phrase.

Wordsworth, the best romantic poet, wrote “Ode: Intimations of

Immortality.”

Article: A, an, or the are the most common articles. A and an are indefinite and do not

specifically identify the nouns they modify. The is definite or specific.

A strange feeling came over me when the essay exam was placed on my

desk.

Clause: A group of words containing a subject and predicate. An independent clause

can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent clause, which cannot stand alone,

is grammatically subordinate to an independent clause, linked to it by a

subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun. The dependent clause can function as an adjective, adverb or noun.

Direct Object A noun or pronoun receiving the action of a transitive verb in an active construction.

I memorized and recited several Shakespearean soliloquies.

Gerund: A verbal identical in form to the present participle but functioning as a noun.

Studying is a bore. (gerund subject)

I enjoy studying. (gerund object)

Indirect Object: A noun or pronoun identifying to or for whom or what a transitive verb’s action is performed. The indirect object almost always precedes the direct

object; it is usually the personal recipient of verbs of giving, showing, telling,

and the like.

I handed the dean my application and told him that I needed financial

aid.

**Note that sentence must have a direct object in order to have an indirect

object.

Phrase: A group of words that functions as a single unit but lacks a subject, a complete

verb in a predicate, or both. Phrases can be grouped not only by the parts of speech that govern or introduce them but also by their grammatical functions

as adjectives, adverbs, nouns, or verbs.

Sentence Fragment: A group of words that is not a grammatically complete sentence,

usually because it lacks a subject or a complete verb. Often fragments are

dependent clauses, introduced by a subordinating word but punctuated as

sentences.

Syntax: The way in which words are put together to form phrases and sentences.

Glossary of Usage

A, an: Use a with the word that begins with a consonant (a book, a forest), with a

sounded h (a hemisphere), or with another consonant sound such as “y” or “w” (a euphoric moment, a one sided match). Use an with a word that begins with

a vowel (an umbrella), with a silent h (an honor), or with a vowel sound (an X-

ray).

Accept, except: The verb accept means “receive” or “agree to.”

Theresa will accept the job offer.

Used as a preposition, except means “aside from” or “excluding.”

All the plaintiffs except Mr. Smith decided to accept the settlement offered

by the defendant.

Affect, effect: As a verb, affect means “influence” or “move the emotions of.” Effect is a noun meaning “result;” it can also be used as a verb meaning “to bring about.”

A nuclear war would have far reaching effects.

Many people are deeply affected by this realization, and some joining groups

aimed at effecting arms reduction.

Some decisions can effect great social change.

A lot: A lot is not one word but two. Do not use it in formal writing to express “a large amount” or “a large number.”

Bad, badly: Bad is an adjective, used to modify a subject or an object or to follow a linking

verb such as be, feel, or seem. Badly is an adverb, used to modify a verb.

The guests felt bad because the dinner was so badly prepared.

Beside, besides: Beside, a preposition, means “next to.” Besides is either a preposition meaning “other than” or “in addition to” or an adverb meaning “moreover.”

No one besides Polly knows whether the tree is still growing beside the

house.

Hanged, hung: Of these two past forms of the verb hang, only hanged refers to execution

while hung is used for all other meanings.

The old woman hung her head as she passed the tree where the murderer was hanged.

Imply, infer: To imply is to suggest. To infer is to make an educated guess. Speakers and

writers imply; listeners and readers infer.

Beth and Peter’s letter implied that they were planning a very small

wedding; we inferred that we would not be invited.

its, it’s: Its is a possessive adjective, even though it, like his and her, does not have an

apostrophe. It’s is a contraction for it is (avoid using it’s and other contractions

in formal writing).

It’s important to begin each observation just before the rat has its meal.

loose, lose: Lose is a verb meaning “misplace.” Loose, as an adjective, means “not securely

attached.”

I have to sew the loose button on before I lose it.

than, then: Use the conjunction than in comparative statements.

The dog was bigger than the cat. Use the adverb then when referring to a sequence of events or emotions.

Teddy finished college and then joined the army.

their, they’re, and there: Their is a pronoun, the possessive form of they.

The gardeners held on to their hats as the storm approached.

There refers to a place.

I lost my keys somewhere over there. They’re is a contraction of they are.

They’re going to fail the test because they did not study.

To, too, two:To is a preposition, generally showing direction or nearness.

I flew to Chicago.

Too means “also.”

Amy is flying there, too.

Two is the number.

I’ll be home in two days.

Who’s, whose: Who’s is the contraction of who is.

Who’s allowed in the garden?

Whose is a possessive form; it may be followed by the noun it modifies.

Whose sculpture is in the garden?

Your, you’re: Your shows possession.

Bring your running shoes.

You’re is the contraction of you are.

You’re in the wrong classroom.

Other Usage Mistakes to Avoid

1. In informal writing, never use you unless the writer wishes to directly address his or her reader.

2. Numbers two words or less should be written out. If a number is more than two

words, write the number (unless at the beginning of a sentence). There were twenty-five kids at the dance. OR There were 325 kids at the dance. (There’s more than two

words).

3. Generally, slang is not appropriate in formal writing, so avoid words such as: like,

stuff, cool, etc. 4. “I seen the movie before.” This sentence is WRONG and should never appear in a

paper. Generally, avoid using seen unless you have a form of the word have with it.

5. Generally, italics or underlining are used to signal the titles of long or complete such as books, periodicals, magazines, and plays; shorter works or sections of works (for

example, short stories, poems, songs, chapters of books, and articles) are set off with

quotation marks. Gone with the Wind, Great Expectations, Time, and Phantom of the Opera should all be underlined. “Tintern Abbey” and “Friends in Low Places” should be

set off with quotes.

6. Use first person only when told to do so. You don’t have to always announce, “I think that….” Or “I found in my research…” It’s your paper: that’s obvious.

7. Proper verb tense. Be sure your paper stays in the same tense all the way through.

When writing about fiction, you should always use present tense. (For example, Boo Radley comes out to put a blanket on Scout’s shoulders.)

TITLES

Numbers

Commonly Used Linking Expressions (or transition words to use in essays)

Be sure to use them appropriately:

To add an idea to one already stated:

again

also

and and then

besides

equally

important further

furthermore

in addition

in the same fashion

likewise

moreover

nor too

To limit or contradict something already said: although

and yet

at the same time but

however

nevertheless

on the contrary on the other hand

otherwise

still

yet

To show a time or place arrangement of your ideas: first

second

finally at this point

meanwhile

later

eventually sooner or later

next

presently

at length afterward

here

nearby

opposite to adjacent to

To exemplify some idea or to sum up what you have said:

as a result as I have said

consequently

for example for instance

in any case

in any event in brief

in conclusion

in fact in other words

in short

on the whole therefore

thus

to sum up

Point of View Pronouns used: First person: (singular) I, me, my (plural) We, us, Second Person: You, your, you’re (Only used when writing directly to someone) Third Person: He, she, it, they, etc. (Most formal essays are written in third person.)

Basic Essay Format

Paragraph 1: Introduction 1. Attention getter: anecdote, rhetorical question (doesn’t have a right or wrong answer/no yes

or no questions), a quote from the text or from some other author related to your topic), a

startling fact. (Freshmen: Avoid asking questions. Don’t use the word YOU!)

2. A quick one to two sentence summary which includes the title of the text (underlined if novel, in

quotes if short story) and the author’s name.

3. Thesis Statement: Should answer the question (or topic of essay) with specific points which will

be addressed in further detail throughout the rest of the paper. DO NOT say, “My essay is going

to be about…” That’s announcing.

4. Short preview of info. Keep it general. Body paragraphs get more specific.

Paragraphs 2-4: Body Paragraphs

Body Paragraph 1: When using a quote Topic Sentence: Atticus held out hope he would win but by the end of the trial he is

very downcast.

Introduce the quote. Who said it, what is going on in the story at the time it is being

said?

o Give the quote. Include a citation at the end of the quote.

o Example: “ ‘ We’re paying the highest respect we can,’ “ (46).

Provide analysis. Explains how the quote proves your thesis statement and topic

sentence for that paragraph. “This passage shows…

Body Paragraph 2: Not using quotes

Topic Sentence

Provide analysis. Explains how the topic sentence proves your thesis statement for that

paragraph.

Two specific examples from the text should provide enough information to prove you

read. Be sure to use names, places, and specifics to show off what you know. (For

example, Don’t tell me Atticus is a good father, show me with examples.)

Body Paragraph 3: Same as #1 or #2 Paragraph 5: Conclusion

Begin with a transition word. (Look at page 7 for a list of them)

Restate your thesis and explain what you have just proved

Don’t provide any new information

Avoid a “moral” of the story or telling me you really like reading it.

The conclusion should clarify the “So what?” Now that you’ve proved Atticus is a good father,

why does that matter? This isn’t a moral of the story but it does justify everything the author

proved to be relevant and should leave the reader thinking.

Use the

TIQA format!

A more advanced way to address essays:

Questions Every Reader Has:

1. What are you talking about? (Introduction)

(This is where you provide any exposition and general information about your topic.)

2. What is your point? (Intro)

(This is your argument, your thesis, and any other main ideas you might want to

include.)

3. Why should I believe you? Prove it. (all body paragraphs)

(This is where you provide your opinions, ideas, and specific detailed evidence to

support them. You should also address the counterarguments or demonstrate the

complexity of the issue/topic. Quotes are always a good idea!)

4. So what? Why should I care? (conclusion)

(This is where you address the significance of your argument and why it matters in the

great scheme of things or on a personal level)

Quotation example

Question: What are the heroic characteristics of Minister Hooper?

Thesis: Minister Hooper, throughout all of "The Minister's Black Veil," demonstrates a

wide range of heroic characteristics including courage, integrity, and self-discipline.

Minister Hooper’s courage truly surfaced when he was met with criticism from

his parishioners. Immediately, upon seeing Minister Hooper wearing the veil at

the story’s beginning, the parishioners began talking about the veil. In fact, upon Hooper's first day of wearing the veil, one of his parishioners, Goodman

Gray, stated, "'Our parson has gone mad'" (338). Gray was one of many people

who were taken aback by Hooper's appearance. Despite the gossip and Gray's

comments, Minister Hooper displayed a great amount of courage by not viciously attacking anyone who gossiped against him. Furthermore, he did not

allow the naysayers to thwart him from carrying on with his main goal of

proving to people the fact that they all are guilty of covering up past sins. To maintain so determined truly demonstrates Minister Hooper's great courage

TIQA Format

Romeo and Juliet Essay Outline

Prompt 1-Cause & Effect

Paragraph 1: Introduction Attention getter: May be a quote from the play related to your topic, a quote from another

person somehow related to your topic, or a question. Usually a rhetorical question works best

(one that can’t be answered with yes or no and doesn’t have an immediate right or wrong

answer).

Summary: in 2-3 sentences, summarize the plot of the play. Be sure to include the author’s

name and the title of the work, which should be put in italics.

Thesis Statement: This tells your audience what your essay will be about. DO NOT say, “This

essay is going to be about.

o Example Thesis: The most important theme in the play is

___________________________because______________________________________

___________________________.

Begin each body paragraph with a transition word (similarly, in addition to, next, likewise, in contrast, etc.) See the transition word list pg 7 After the transition word, follow the rest of the paragraph using the T, I, Q, A method . (topic sentence, introduce the quote, give the quote, analysis.) Paragraph 2-Body Paragraph-Explain a piece of textual evidence that relates to theme you find most important.

Topic Sentence: General statement about the MOST important theme.

o Example: the idea of fate is mentioned at every crucial moment of the play.

Introduce the Quote: tell who said it, to whom, and what was going on in the play at that time.

o Example: At this point in the story, Romeo has just killed Juliet’s cousin, Tybalt, who is

now his own cousin by marriage, in an attempt to avenge the death of Mercutio.

Quote: Now give the quote being sure to tell who said it and to whom. After the quote you

need to give the textual citation-tell where the quote came from. For a play it should look like

this: (ACT #. scene #.line #s).

o Example: Romeo says, “O, I am fortune’s fool,” (III.i.130).

Analysis: Now you will explain

1. How this quote proves your thesis? Why is this quote representative of the

most important theme?

2. How does it prove your topic sentence?

o Example: 1. It is at this point that Romeo begins to question his fate. He feels as though

it is playing a game with him by putting him at risk of losing his new love, Juliet, since he

has just killed her cousin. He knows this will upset her. This is one of the most crucial

points in the play because it is his actions, killing Tybalt, which get him banished from

Verona and set the rest of the action in motion. If he had not killed Tybalt, he would not

have been banished, and as a result, Juliet’s parents might not have rushed a marriage

to Paris to help her get over her assumed grief over the death of her cousin, which

causes her to take desperate measures in faking her own death.

Paragraph 3-Body Paragraph-Explain a piece of textual evidence that you

see as related to the above as a secondary theme Topic Sentence: General statement about the MOST important theme.




this: (ACT #. scene #.line #’s).





Paragraph 4-Body Paragraph-Explain a piece of textual evidence that you

see as related to the above as a secondary theme Topic Sentence: General statement about the MOST important theme.




this: (ACT #. scene #.line #’s).





Paragraph 5-Conclusion Begin with a transition word.

Explain how you have just proven your point drawing on previous information you have given.

In a few sentences explain how the three themes you chose are related to one another.

You may not use the example paragraphs in your own

essay

How to Set Up a Typed Paper:

Name

Date

Hour (press enter once)

Center Your Title

(press enter once) Indent your first paragraph and start typing.

Things to remember: 1. All papers should be in 12 font, Times New Roman, and double spaced.

2. One inch margins all around (top, bottom, left and right).

3. There is only ONE space between paragraphs (i.e. push “enter” only once).

4. After a period, you need to have TWO spaces.

5. Periods go inside the quotation marks and outside (brackets).

6. Don’t rely on spell check. It will not pick up all of your spelling mistakes. Be sure to proofread and, if possible, have an adult or trusted friend help

proofread too.

7. Writing is a process that takes time; don’t wait until the last day to compose a paper. Type it early, forget about it, and go back to edit and

revise.

8. Possible idea for proofreading: Try to read your paper backwards—last sentence first, first sentence last.

COMMA RULES

Use commas to separate items in a series (rules 1-6): 1. Nouns (in a series)

I bought pencils, paper, and pens.

2. Adjectives (in a series)

I love the tall, lovely, vivacious girl.

3. Verbs (in a series)

We danced, sang, and laughed all night.

4. Prepositional Phrases (in a series)

She ran down the stairs, out the door, and across the yard.

5. Verb Phrases (in a series)

He caught the ball, took it from his glove, and threw it home.

6. Gerunds (in a series) I like running, swimming, and skating.

7. Use a comma to separate two independent clauses (sentences) joined by a coordinating conjunction. There are seven such conjunctions: and, or, nor, for,

but, yet, and so.

I went to the movies, and then I went to work. I wanted good grades, but I did not want to study.

You can pay me now, or you can pay me later.

8. Use commas to set off non-essential adjective clauses. Adjective clauses

begin with who, whom, whose, which, and that.

Mary, who is a good student, won a scholarship.

Alice, whose purse was stolen, filed a police report. I was born in Detroit, which is in Michigan.

Greg, whom we love, is a great guy.

9. Use commas to set off non-essential participial phrases. Participial phrases

begin with forms of verbs that end in ing, ed, or some irregular form.

Betty, hoping for a miracle, began the exam. Tom, pounded by the bully, lay in a pool of blood.

Sally, hurt by the nasty comment, ran from the room.

Use the commas to set of introductory elements (rules 10-14):

10. After an introductory adverb clause. Adverb clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions, which are listed below:

after

although as

as if

as long as

as soon as because

before

if in order that

since

so that

than though

unless

until when

whenever

where

wherever while

After you left for school, your parents sold the house. Because no one likes me, I will eat worms.

If you don’t listen, I will beat your face.

11. After introductory prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases begin with

prepositions, many of which are listed below: (hint: Most prepositions are

“anywhere a mouse can go.”)

aboard

about

above across

after

against along

among

around at

before

behind below

beneath

beside

besides between

beyond

but by

concerning

down during

except

for from

in

inside

into like

near

of off

on

out over

past

since through

throughout

till

to toward

under

underneath until

up

upon with

within

without

At the end of the game, we all went home.

In the middle of the night, the snow came. After the night in the woods, I was ready for a shower.

12. After an introductory participial phrase. Remember that a participial phrase begins with a word that ends in ing, ed, or an irregular form.

Hoping for a break, Sam pleaded for a rest.

Crushed by the tank, Betty appeared thinner. Written years ago, the book is still a bestseller.

13. After an introductory infinitive phrase. An infinitive phrase begins with the word to and a verb.

To make the team, one must be talented.

To beat the rush, we left at dawn. To win the race, we will have to have stamina.

14. After an introductory word. The most common are yes, no, gee, well, and

sure. Yes, you may borrow the car.

No, you are not going out tonight.

Gee, I love this class.

OTHERS:

15. Use commas to set off appositives. An appositive is a noun which modifies

another noun. Fred, our team captain, is a great leader.

I like Brittney Spears, a great singer.

I often play tennis, a lively game.

16. Use a comma to set off a direct address.

That suit, Sam, is ugly. Betty, your hair looks terrific.

She won’t go out with you, Herman.

17. Use commas to set off parenthetical expressions. A list of such is below:

after all

as a matter of fact

at any rate consequently

for example

for instance generally speaking

however

I believe

I guess

I hope I suppose

I think

in fact in my opinion

in the first place

moreover

nevertheless

of course on the contrary

on the other hand

therefore to tell the truth

He did not, however, keep his promise

To tell the truth, he lies.

Mom, I think, will approve.

18. Use commas to separate dates and addresses.

I was born on September 12, 1946 in Mt. Clemens, Michigan.

I live at 1213 Huron Drive Fraser, Michigan 48244.

19. Use a comma before an abbreviated title.

I am a fan of William F. Buckley, Jr. This is Carol Smith, M.D.

20. Use a comma to set off short independent clauses. I came, I saw, I conquered.

We ate, we drank, we barfed.

Complex Comma Rules 1. Use a comma to separate an introductory adjective.

Angry, Sherry decided to confront Mary.

2. Use a comma to separate an introductory adverb. Sadly, no one would help her.

3. Use a comma to separate a participial phrase that ends a sentence.

Alice answered the phone, praying it would be Jim. 4. Use a comma to separate an adverb clause that ends a sentence.

She began to cry, though she wasn’t quite sure why.

5. Use a comma to separate an interrupting adjective. He sat there, shocked, not knowing what to do.

6. Use a comma to separate a question that ends a sentence.

You are going, aren’t you?

7. Use a comma to separate interrupting participles and participial phrases. He entered the room, smiling, unaware of what was about to happen.

Bob turned, holding his breath, his eyes fixed on his blind date.

8. Use a comma to separate an interrupting prepositional phrase. Denise, in the middle of a discussion, did not see the accident.

9. Separate a noun or noun phrase that answers a question.

What are you, a nut? 10. Use a comma to separate infinitive phrases introduced by just, only, except. He entered the room, only to find it empty and cold.

11. Use a comma to separate an independent clause from an ending like eh, too, hmmm. Do you like strawberries, too?

12. Use a comma to separate additional information from an independent

clause. He started on Tuesday afternoon, five days after he received the permit.

Comma Rules (Quotations) 1. Use a comma before the source of the quote. “I did not cheat on the test,” she said calmly.

2. Use a comma after an introductory source.

She calmly said, “I did not cheat on the test.” 3. Use a comma after the source if the source interrupts a sentence.

“Your problem,” she began, “is that you have a big ego.”

Semicolon Rules 1. Use a semicolon between independent clauses (complete sentences) not

joined by a coordinating conjunction. (They should be closely related.)

The girls won their first match; the boys were defeated in their first game.

2. Use a semicolon to join independent clauses joined by words such as for example, however, that is, besides, for instance, accordingly, moreover, nevertheless, furthermore, otherwise, therefore, consequently, instead, hence. He is not a very talented player; moreover, he has a bad attitude. 3. Use a semicolon instead of a comma to separate independent clauses that

contain commas.

She will invite Irene, Beth, and Sally; and Graham will ask Leslie and Val.

4. Use a semicolon between items in a series if the items contain commas.

I have lived in Detroit, Michigan; Phoenix, Arizona; and Columbus, Ohio.

5. Use a semicolon between two sentences joined by a coordinating conjunction when one or more commas appear in the first sentence.

If she can, she will attempt that feat; and if her husband is able, he will be there to see her.

Colon Rules 1. Use a colon before a list, especially after expressions like, as follows, or the following.

The equipment you will need is as follows: a jacket, heavy boots, a rifle, and a

tent.

2. Use a colon before a long, formal statement or quotation.

Horace Mann had this to say about dealing with those who disagree with you: “Do not think of knocking out another person’s brains because he

differs in opinion from you. It would be as rational to knock yourself on

the head because you differ from yourself ten years ago.”

3. Use a colon before a quote if the word before the quote is not the action verb.

The authors had this to write about the matter: “The Declaration of

Independence is the seminal document of this republic.”

4. Use a colon to separate chapter and verse in a Biblical passage.

You can find God’s word in Genesis 3:14.

5. Use a colon when a second independent clause explains the first.

He had finally discovered the Holy Grail: He had been accepted into the

club.

Dash Rules 1. Use a dash to indicate an abrupt change in thought or structure of a

sentence.

The dean advised Tom - I am sure he was motivated by a dislike for the abrasive young man – to give up the study of law.

2. Use a dash to make parenthetic, appositive, or explanatory matters stand out more clearly.

Many of the stories about actors – especially those found in tabloids at the supermarkets – are vicious, malicious, and often untruthful.

3. Use a dash before a word, phrase, or clause that sums up preceding details.

Physical strength, courage to face dangers, the ability to make decisions

quickly – these are qualities I seek in those who will join me on this voyage.

To Hyphenate, or Not to Hyphenate

1. To check whether a compound noun is two words, one word, or hyphenated, you may need to look it up in the dictionary. If you can't find the word in the dictionary, treat the noun as separate words.

Examples: eyewitness, eye shadow, eye-opener

2. Phrases that have verb, noun, and adjective forms should appear as separate words when used as verbs and as one word when used as nouns or

adjectives.

Examples: The engine will eventually break down. (verb) We suffered a breakdown in communications. (noun) Please clean up your room. (verb) That Superfund site will require specialized cleanup procedures. (adjective)

http://www.grammarbook.com/punctuation/hyphens.asp

3. Compound verbs are either hyphenated or appear as one word. If you do not

find the verb in the dictionary, hyphenate it.

Examples: To air-condition the house will be costly.

We were notified that management will downsize the organization next year.

4. Generally, hyphenate between two or more adjectives when they come before

a noun and act as a single idea.

Examples:

friendly-looking man (compound adjective in front of a noun)

friendly little girl (not a compound adjective) brightly lit room

(Brightly is an adverb describing lit, not an adjective.)

5. When adverbs not ending in -ly are used as compound words in front of a

noun, hyphenate. When the combination of words is used after the noun, do

not hyphenate.

Examples: The well-known actress accepted her award. Well is an adverb followed by another descriptive word. They combine to form

one idea in front of the noun.

The actress who accepted her award was well known. Well known follows the noun it describes, so no hyphen is used.

A long-anticipated decision was finally made. He got a much-needed haircut yesterday. His haircut was much needed.

7. Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.

Examples:

The teacher had thirty-two children in her classroom. Only twenty-one of the children were bilingual.

Rule 8

Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions.

Examples:

You need one-third of a cup of sugar for that recipe. More than one-half of the student body voted for removing soda machines from campus.



Write the correct definition after each term.

1. Protagonist

2. Antagonist

3. Exposition

4. Genre

5. Irony

6. Rising Action

7. Characterization

8. Theme

9. Conflict

10. Falling action

11. Connotation

12. Denotation

13. Mood

14. Tone

15. Climax

16. Resolution

17. Foreshadowing

18. Setting

19. Flashback

20. Epic

21. Plot

22. Symbol

23. Allegory

24. Foil

25. First, second, third person

26. Omniscient, Limited (in relation to writing)

27. Fiction/Non Fiction

28. Memoir/Biography/Autobiography

29. Editorial writing

30. Satire

Poetic Terms

1. Alliteration

2. Assonance

3. Consonance

4. Allusion

5. Ballad

6. Blank Verse

7. Bound Verse

8. Free Verse

9. Couplet

10. Elegy

11. Epitaph

12. Hyperbole

13. Imagery

14. Metaphor

15. Ode

16. Onomatopoeia

17. Paradox/Oxymoron

18. Refrain

19. Simile

20. Stanza

21. Personification

22. Sonnet

23. Enjambment

Second Semester English 9:

Plays/Epics

1. Aside

2. Soliloquy

3. Monologue

4. Epithet/Kenning

5. Myth

6. Iambic Pentameter

Types of Irony:

1. Dramatic

2. Situational

3. Verbal

Close and Critical Reading (ACT prep) What does the text say?

(Summarize at the literal level)

ACT expects a nice paragraph with 8-10 points about the article.

Go paragraph by paragraph and explain the basic plot of the text

How does it say it? In other words, how does the author develop the text to convey his/her purpose? (Think

genre, format, organization, person, features—think literary terms that are more advanced).

ACT expects a detailed analysis of each section of the article. Look at spaces between words,

what person they are written in, word choice (why he chooses specific words), who the article

refers to and why.

Options (but you aren’t limited to these!)

1. Allegory?

2. Person written in? 1, 2, 3? Limited? Omniscient?

3. Conflict/problem?

4. Fiction/Non-Fiction (genre)

5. Informational/Opinion (editorial)/Biographical

6. Set up/Features

7. Word choice—connotation

8. Resolution

Whatever you choose to write about, you MUST have specific proof from your text. Use quotes

or paraphrase.

What does the text mean? What message/theme/concept is the author trying to get across?

ACT expects a sentence or two here relating to what’s in the parenthesis.

Give examples to prove point.

So What? What does the message/theme/concept mean in your life and/or in the lives of others? Why is

it worth sharing/telling? What significance does it have to your life and/or to the lives of

others?)

ACT expects a response that may be personal. 5-6 sentences should be enough.

Make 2-3 points and give specific examples from your person experiences.

Powerful Words- E9 The following are words you need to know in your freshman

year. Use them in your essays to improve in the “word choice”

column of the rubric. They will also help prepare you for the

ACT 1. acumen

2. Illicitly

3. amiable

4. wrathfully

5. demise

6. adamant

7. recluse

8. omniscient

9. furtively

10. reconnaissance

11. explicit

12. benevolence

13. repertoire

14. malevolent

15. eluded

16. disheveled

17. ominous

18. termination

19. imperative

20. condolences

21. apothecary

22. compromise

23. heathen

24. cynical

25. turmoil

26. gaunt

27. astutely

28. mammoth

29. asinine

30. sullen

31. dictum

32. auspicious

33. churlish

34. epiphany

35. homogeneous

36. incognito

37. metamorphosis

38. Omnipotent

39. Epithet (kenning)

40. pernicious

41. ruinous

42. augmenting

43. tedious

44. abhors

45. wayward

46. loathsome

47. dismal

48. haughty

49. ambiguities

50. assuage

51. bereft

52. plundered

53. squall

54. dispatched

55. insidious

56. titanic

57. ardor

58. dissemble

59. incredulity

60. maudlin

61. picturesque

62. bemused

63. plagiarized

64. vehement

65. melancholy

66. banished

NOTES

_How to answer short answer questions:____________

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