page 1 of 44 mgp 2020 | test 12a/b solutions (310 12

MGP 2020 | Test 12A/B – Solutions (31012) | ForumIAS (20 Questions | 250 Marks | Duration 3 Hours)

ForumIAS Offline Guidance Centre

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Q.1) The vagaries of Indian Monsoon are not only a product of meteorological factors

but also anthropogenic causes. Illustrate.

Approach:

Introduction: Introduce by explaining the significance of monsoon in India.

Body: Elaborate about how different anthropogenic activities which are contributing to

vagaries of monsoon

Conclusion: Write a concise conclusion highlighting that control in anthropogenic

activities may reduce the vagaries of the monsoon.

Answer:

The Indian Monsoon plays a very crucial role in bringing rains to India, as it causes more

than 75 per cent of India's annual rainfall. Indian Agriculture and hence its economy

strongly depend on the monsoon rain. The fate of the Kharif crops depends on the

performance of the southwest Monsoon.

Interference by humans in the natural landscape and changes made by them to suit their

needs (like urbanization, industrialization etc.) leads to disturbances in hydrological cycle of

atmosphere.

Reasons behind variability of Indian monsoon due to meteorological factors:

Variability in the monsoon is caused by several meteorological phenomena such as

variable Sea Surface Temperature (SSTs) leading to El-Nino, and La Nina, shifting of

ITCZ, movement of westerly jetstream, differential heating patterns of Tibetan plateau

and Indian Ocean etc.

El-Nino leads to weakening of Indian monsoon.

La-Nina leads to more rains than normal years

If ITCZ doesn’t establish fully above the Tibetan plateau, then monsoon remains weak

and abrupt changes occur

Strength of monsoon also depends on the shifting of southern branch of the westerly

jetstream to the north of the Himalayas. If the southern branch doesn’t shift to the

north of himalayas, monsoon remains weak.

South-west monsoon also depends on the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) wave for

normal monsoon.

Impact on Indian monsoon due to man made changes

● Anthropogenic interventions are leading to excessive deforestation, increase in

pollution and pollutants, rise of built-up area, global warming, etc.

● Increased availability of pollutants and dust particles are leading to an increase in

the number of condensation nuclei, which in turn leads to the urban regions receiving

increased rainfall than the rural regions.

● Increased built up area allows increased heating of the surface. This increased

temperature causes more evaporation and further affects rain patterns

● Deforestation also creates an adverse impact on monsoon.

- Increased concretization leads to increased run-off and less water

percolation thereby affecting water cycle and disrupting monsoon cycle.

- The pressure differences which are vital for monsoonal precipitation have

been unbalanced and unpredictable

- High rise buildings cause variations in local wind patterns and alter

precipitation.

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● Global warming

- Rise in sea level temperature etc. make the monsoon erratic and unpredictable.

They cause droughts in one region and floods in another. Such extreme weather

events have been on the rise primarily due to human activities.

● Destruction of Wetlands

- Wetlands help in water purification, flood control, shoreline stability, and act

as a carbon sink. Destruction of wetlands such as lakes or ponds in urban

areas is one of the major reasons of irregular rain pattern in big cities like

Chennai or Srinagar.

● Concrete Use: Use of concrete in urban areas causes poor recharging of groundwater

and changes the hydrological cycle of environment which ultimately disturbs the

Monsoon system of India.

● Agriculture: Large scale use of chemicals and bore well irrigation in agriculture also

influences the hydrological cycle.

- Increasing irrigation using groundwater in North West India is leading to pre

monsoon greening & wetter surface causes cooling that weakens the strength

of low pressure necessary for monsoons to progress into northern India. while

urban areas experiencing more rainfall.

- Monsoon requires a warm, dry surface to advance but increased irrigation leads

to a wet, green area, which does not allow the monsoon to reach far enough

north.

● Creation of large dams in hilly areas which have changed the ecological flow of rivers

is also an example of man-made changes.

Though other reasons like El-Nino, Cloud cover, Differential heating patterns of Tibetan

plateau and Indian Ocean also causes the monsoon change, but man-made factors can be

easily controlled that are affecting the Indian monsoon badly.

Q.2) Discuss the difference in the process of formation of Lakshadweep and Andaman

$ Nicobar Island of India.

APPROACH

Give brief introduction about Andaman& Nicobar Island.

Explain formation of Andaman & Nicobar group of Island

Give brief introduction about Lakshadweep Island.

Explain formation of Lakshadweep island

ANSWER

Andaman & Nicobar Island consists of 572 group of island / Islets located in the Bay of

Bengal and Andaman Sea. The entire group of islands is divided into two broad categories:

The Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in the south. The Andaman & Nicobar Islands

form the continental islands that are the peaks of submerged young fold mountains. The

Andaman & Nicobar archipelago is the emergent part of a ridge which extends from the

Arakan–Yoma ranges of western Myanmar in the north to Sumatra (Indonesia) in the south.

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands have a geological continuity with the tertiary formation of

the Himalayas, and form a part of southern extension of the Arakan Yoma which is the

extension of Purvanchal range.

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Process of formation of Andaman & Nicobar Island

● The Andaman-Nicobar Island has evolved through a complex history of tectonics

associated with convergent plate boundaries between Indian plate and west

Burmese plate. Its formation is initiated with northward drift of Indian Plate with

respect to Asia. Andaman and Nicobar Islands were formed due to collision between

Indian Plate and Burma Minor Plate.

● The continued thrusting caused uplift and formation of the Andaman Nicobar Ridge as

a chain of Islands. The Andaman chain of islands form a part of geo-tectonic regime;

“The Great Indonesian Island Arc System” of the East Indies and it extends upto Burmese Arc i.e. Arakan Yoma fold belt.

● The Andaman Group also includes two islands of volcanic origin, Barren and

Narcondam islands, located in the Andaman Sea. The India's only active volcano is

located on Barren Island which is located at the edge of the Indian and Burmese

tectonic plates.

Lakshadweep Islands are a group of 36 islands located in the Arabian Sea. The entire island

group is made of coral deposits and built over Laccadive ridge. The Laccadive Ridge is

separated from India mainland by Laccadive depression.

Process of formation of Lakshadweep

● The Laccadive ridge is considered as a continental remnant split away from the

western continental margin of India. The origin of the Laccadive Ridge has been

attributed to different processes such as a hotspot related volcanism or transforms

faulting and terrain tectonics. The present day surface features of the reefs are the

results of coral reef formation, erosional and depositional consequence of sea-level

changes over the time.

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● The process of formation of the two island group have some common features such as

role tectonic process but the Island differ substantially in their physical features. The

difference in physical features are as under

Difference

Andaman & Nicobar Island Lakshadweep

The topography is undulating and relief

features such as hills, streams, valleys, etc.

are present. It has mountains having

elevations of up to 738 metres (Saddle peak).

The topography is flat and relief features

such as hills, streams, valleys, etc. are

absent. The islands have islands have low

elevation not exceeding five metre above sea

level.

The islands are formed as a result of tectonic

and volcanic activity.

All are islands of coral origin.

It has two volcanoes located in Barren island

and Narcondam Island.

It doesn't have presence of any volcano.

It has medium to very deep red loamy soils

including marine alluvium-derived soils

along the coast.

It has highly calcareous and sandy soils.

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Q.3) Describe the concept of upwelling. Illustrate the causes and regions of upwelling

and their socio-economic impact.

APPROACH

Introduce with defining the process of upwelling and describe the process in brief.

Main body should consist of causes and regions of upwelling with maps and diagrams as

question specifically asks for illustration.

Address the second part of the question by pointing out the socio-economic impact of

upwelling.

Conclusion should be made on the correlation between climate change and threatening

the process of upwelling and the need to address the issue.

ANSWER

Upwelling is an oceanic process in which cold, nutrient rich water rises towards the surface.

Winds blowing across the ocean surface push water away. Water then rises up from beneath

the surface to replace the water that was pushed away. Upwelling, generally occurs in the

open ocean and along coastlines. The water that is moved up to the surface is usually cold

and rich in nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, which come from the decomposing bodies

of Dead Sea creatures.

Causes and regions of upwelling:

● The major reason for upwelling is the replacement of surface water which is being

moved by the wind. Upwelling often happens where wind blows along a coastline.

● The wind causes the water at the ocean surface to move perpendicular to it, away from

the coast, because of a process called Ekman transport. When surface water moves

away from the coast, water from deeper in the ocean rises up and takes its place.

Major regions of upwelling:

The major upwellings in the ocean are associated with the divergence of currents that bring

deeper, colder, nutrient rich waters to the surface.

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AREAS OF UPWELLING IN RED

Socio-economic impact of upwelling:

● Marine ecosystem: Nutrient-packed water pushing to the surface forms the basis of

the ocean’s food chain that attracts marine life along with coral reefs. It also promotes species diversity; thus, constant replenishment of nutrients is important to sustain

this cycle and maintain the balance in the marine ecosystem.

● Food security and livelihood source: Upwelling regions, especially along the coast

provides a fertile ground for fishing. Approximately 25% of the total global marine fish

catches come from five upwellings that occupy only 5% of the total ocean area. Any

changes in upwelling pattern can cause major disruption in fishing sector and prove

to be an economic disaster.

● Climate change: There appears to be a strong correlation between upwelling and

oceanic-current/climate cycle. Any changes in upwelling pattern results into adverse

climatic effects with global repercussions.

CONCLUSION

Upwelling is an important oceanic process which is being threatened by the impact of climate

change. El Nino Southern Oscillation system also causes decreased upwelling in the

equatorial regions leading to disruption in marine food chain. Commercial fishing at

unsustainable levels is depleting the marine diversity and exhausting the fish resources. It is

imperative for humankind to address anthropogenic changes in the oceanic ecosystem and

prioritise and integrate this issue with mitigating climate change efforts.

Facts: Ekman transport

● As wind blows across the ocean, it moves water because of friction at the ocean

surface. Because the Earth rotates, surface water moves to the right of the wind

direction in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left of the wind direction in the

Southern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect.

● The speed and direction of the moving water changes with depth. Ocean water at the

surface moves at an angle to the wind, and the water under the surface water turns a

bit more, and the water below that turns even more. This makes a spiral of moving

water 100 to 150 meters (330 to 500 ft) deep called an Ekman spiral.

● The average direction of all this turning water is about a right angle from the wind

direction. This average is Ekman transport.

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Q.4) Differentiate between agro-climatic zones and agro-ecological zones of India. Also

enumerate need for such zoning.

Demand of the Question

Introduction: Briefly mention the types of agricultural zonation in Indian context.

Body: Give some points of difference and add maps for representation. Briefly add the

needs of zonation.

Conclusion: As per the context.

Agro-climatic zone (ACZ) as a land unit represented accurately or precisely in terms of major

climate and growing period, which is climatically suitable for certain range of crops and

cultivars. Agro-ecological zones are defined on the basis of combinations of soil, landform

and climate characteristics. An agro-ecological zone is the land unit carved out of agro-

climatic zone superimposed on landform which acts as a modifier to climate and length of

growing period. The classification or zoning of land is a step towards scientific agricultural

planning and ecological sustainability.

DIFFERENCES

Agro-climatic zones or regions Agro-ecological zones or regions

1. Agro-climatic zone is a land unit in

terms of major climates suitable for a

certain range of crops and cultivars.

1. Agro-ecological zone is a geographical

area exhibiting similar climatic

conditions that determine their ability to

support rain-fed agriculture.

2. Agro-climatic conditions refer to soil

types, rainfall, temperature and water

availability which influence the type of

vegetation in a zone.

2. At regional level agro ecological zones are

influenced by latitude, elevation and

temperature as well as seasonality and

amount of rainfall and its distribution

during the growing season.

3. Delineation of agro-climatic zones is

done by the Planning Commission and

National Agricultural Research project

which divided India into 15 and 127

Agro-climatic zones.

3. Delineation of agro-ecological zones is

done by National Bureau of Soil Survey &

Land Use Planning (NBSS&LUP) which

divided India into 20 such zones and 60

sub-zones.

4. The zoning was based on physiography,

soils, geological-formation, climate and

cropping patterns which eventually

determine the type of crop to be grown.

Out of 15 such regions, 14 were in the

mainland and the remaining one in the

Islands of the Bay of Bengal and Arabian

sea.

4. The zoning was based on growing period

as an integrated criteria of effective

rainfall, soil groups adjusted to district

boundaries with a minimal number of

regions. Here soil and bio-climatic maps

are superimposed to determine the crops

to be grown in the region.

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There are twenty agro-ecological zones in India.

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NEED

Agro-ecological Zoning (AEZ) refers to the division of an area of lend into smaller units, which

have similar characteristics related to land suitability, potential production and environmental

impact.

1. To provide a framework for scientific and sustainable use of natural resources.

2. To optimize agricultural production.

3. Increase share of agriculture in the state's GDP.

4. Diversify and stabilize the earnings of farmers.

5. Create more employment opportunities.

6. Promote resource use efficiency.

Agro Climatic zone and Agro-Ecological Zone Planning aims at scientific management of regional

resources to meet the requirements of food, fibre, fodder and fuel wood without eroding the

status of natural resources and environment which is the need of the hour to arrest climate

change and its after effects.

Q.5) What is apiculture? Explain its importance in agriculture and rural development.


Introduction- Write what is Beekeeping

Body- importance of beekeeping, potential in india.

Conclusion- As per the context

Apiculture or beekeeping is the practice of intentional maintenance of honeybee hives by

humans. A beekeeper may keep bees in order to collect honey and beeswax, or for the purpose

of pollinating crops, or to produce bees for sale to other beekeepers.

Beekeeping is an agro-based activity which is being undertaken by farmers/landless

labourers in rural area as an integrated farming practices. Beekeeping supplements

● income & employment generation and

● nutritional intake of rural population

● Honeybees have been offering services to the society through ensured pollination in

cross-pollinated crops.

● Honey Bees have vital role in sustaining plants bio-diversity resulting in environmental

stability.

IMPORTANCE OF APICULTURE IN AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Beekeeping industry is source of livelihood for rural poor/tribals/forest based population.

Benefits of beekeeping are summarized as under:

In agriculture:

1. Increase productivity of crops through pollination.

2. Increased food and nutritional security

3. Proper utilization of natural resources – nectar & pollen otherwise go waste;

4. Beekeeping is benign: Beekeeping generates income without destroying habitat;

5. Landless farmers can perceive apiculture as it can be done in community or wild forest

lands

6. Creating value from inaccessible land

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In Rural development:

1. Unemployed youth can start this business with minimal funds (INR. 1.00 to 2.00

lakhs);

2. Generates 3.75 lakhs mandays to maintain 10,000 Bee colonies in Bee hives;

3. Different sectors and trades benefit from a strong beekeeping industry;

4. Beekeeping helps in increasing National income;

5. Income from 100 Bee colonies is around INR 2.50-3.00 lakhs per annum; May help in

doubling farmer’s income by supplementing/complementing agriculture/

horticulture;

6. Export of honey/beehive products attracts foreign exchange;

7. It helps in rural development and promotes small village industry;

8. Encouraging beekeeping encourages biodiversity.

Hence, beekeeping may be adopted as an enterprise by anyone after getting training

on the subject.

POTENTIAL AND OPPORTUNITIES

India has vast potential for Beekeeping. The diversity in flora and fauna provides more

opportunities for the development of beekeeping industry. The National Commission on

Agriculture had visualized the need for deploying about 150 million Bee colonies for pollinating

12 major agricultural crops in the country. Presently, 200 million Bee colonies are required

for enhancing their yield which will provide employment to 215 lakh persons and produce 10

million tonnes of honey and increase in crop production.

Thus, direct benefits are those which stem directly from the activity of beekeeping. They are

quantifiable and often obvious, while indirect benefits are less obvious. Example of a direct

benefit would be honey production, and indirect benefit would be an advantage of increased

crop production. Apiculture will help in inclusive and sustainable development.

Q.6) Explain hydrological cycle and its various elements? How do these various

elements interrelated?

APPROACH

Introduction: Explain briefly about the concept and functioning of hydrological cycle.

Body: Explain the elements of the hydrological cycle and the relation between the

elements.

Conclusion: Conclude suitably highlighting the imbalance in the cycle.

ANSWER

The hydrological cycle is the movement of water on the earth in different forms and between

different realms. It is the sum total of all processes in which water moves from the land and

ocean surface to the atmosphere and back in the form of precipitation. It is also a pathway

through which energy is transferred between the surface of the earth and the atmosphere.

The cycle consists of inflows, outflows and storage.

ELEMENTS OF the HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE:

Hydrological cycle can be best understood by analyzing its elements/components:

● Water present in biosphere: All living beings, plants etc are composed of water in the

biosphere, it also includes artificial reservoirs etc.

● Water in the atmosphere: It occurs as water vapour, clouds etc.

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● Water in the lithosphere: It occurs in the form of underground water, streams, lakes

etc.

● Water in the hydrosphere: It occurs in the form of oceans, rivers, ponds, etc.

INTER-RELATION BETWEEN THE ELEMENTS OF THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE:

● Evaporation and evapotranspiration: Through evaporation the liquid water gets

converted into gaseous state and through evapotranspiration the transfer of water from

the surface of the earth takes place towards the atmosphere through evaporation,

sublimation and transpiration. The water from the oceans, streams and rivers etc. gets

heated, gets converted into gaseous state and rises into the atmosphere.

● Condensation: Once water rises to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration, the

gaseous water vapours in the air rise, cool and lose their capacity to hold water, and

as a result excess water condenses to form droplets.

● Precipitation: The water droplets in the atmosphere combine to form clouds. As the

water droplets in the clouds coalesce to form larger drops the water holding capacity

of clouds diminishes resulting in rain or precipitation in the form of rain, sleet, snow

or hail.

● Infiltration and percolation: As water reaches the surface in various forms of

precipitation. Upon reaching the ground, some water infiltrates into the soil, possibly

percolating to the groundwater zone or it may run across the surface as runoff.

Infiltration refers to penetration of water into the ground through cracks etc.

Percolation occurs beneath the root zone as groundwater percolates through the soil,

sand, gravel, rocks, etc. This water forms the underground water.

● Surface Runoff: Water that does not percolate under the ground either evaporates from

the surface directly into the atmosphere or moves along the surface to join the canals,

streams, rivers and finally flows into the oceans, thus completing the hydrological

cycle.

CONCLUSION

Water moves from one reservoir to another through above mentioned processes thus

maintaining the balance of water among the biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere and

hydrosphere. However, incessant exploitation and use of groundwater (lithospheric water)

and surface water in rivers, streams etc (biosphere) for human consumption with a speed

that exceeds the replenishment rate through condensation and precipitation has upset the

balance within the hydrological cycle resulting in water scarcity in the biosphere.

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Q.7) What is Land Degradation Neutrality? In what ways it can act as a centrepiece in

achieving the goals of Sustainable Development Goal by India.Discuss

APPROACH

Explain about Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN).

Discuss how LDN can help achieving Sustainable Development Goals by India.

Conclusion

ANSWER

Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) has been defined by UNCCD as ‘A state whereby the amount and quality of land resources, necessary to support ecosystem functions and services

and enhance food security, remains stable or increases within specified temporal and spatial

scales and ecosystems.’ ● As land is fixed in quantity, there is ever-increasing competition to control land

resources, which has the potential to cause social and political instability, exacerbating

poverty, conflict and migration.

● LDN represents a paradigm shift in land management policies and practices. It is a

unique and innovative approach that counterbalances the expected loss of productive

land with the recovery of degraded areas.

POTENTIAL OF LDN IN ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS:

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development puts a strong emphasis on the integrated

approach to achieving SDGs that can harness synergies and minimize potential trade-offs.

Land can play an important part in accelerating the achievement of many SDGs. Maintaining

and restoring land resources can play a vital role in tackling climate change, securing

biodiversity and maintaining crucial ecosystem services, while ensuring shared prosperity

and well-being.

Healthy and productive land can play an unparalleled role as an engine of economic growth

and a source of livelihood for billions worldwide, including the most vulnerable populations.

Achieving land degradation neutrality (LDN) can become an accelerator of achieving SDGs

across the board. Below are some of the global goals for sustainable development, SDG 1-

poverty elimination, 15- life on land, 14- life under water, 13- climate change etc, which can

be achieved by investing in the future of the land:

● Opportunities for all: Our future economic growth, prosperity and well-being depend

on protecting and restoring working landscapes. Two billion hectares of degraded land

are available to kick-start green economy and develop opportunities for employment,

learning and poverty reduction.

● It is also necessary to recognize the role of women as agents of positive change.

Evidence shows that when women are given equal opportunities and access to

resources and decision-making, communities become more prosperous and more

peaceful. Women’s transformative potential can become the cornerstone for achieving LDN and fulfilling the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

● Doing more and better with less: Estimates show that large amount of people in

India are chronically undernourished, often as a direct consequence of land

degradation, declining soil fertility, unsustainable water use, drought and loss of

biodiversity. The sustainable land management (SLM) and restoration of terrestrial

resources are vital to enhancing agricultural productivity especially for small-scale food

producers. SLM ensures sustainable food production and resilient agricultural

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practices, as well as the efficient use of natural resources, thus contributing to human

well-being.

● Blue lifelines: Water scarcity affects more than half of the population and is projected

to increase. SLM practices that improve water efficiency and quality in a cost-effective

way, as well as the restoration of water-related ecosystems, are essential to mitigating

water scarcity. This is an important precondition to achieving access to adequate and

equitable sanitation and hygiene for all.

● Fuel for life: Climate change requires a rethink and a bold move towards renewable

energy sources. By 2030, nearly three billion people will rely on biomass for cooking

and heating. The sustainable management of land and water is pivotal to ensure a

reliable, affordable and sustainable energy supply for all.

● Working with nature: By 2030, most of the population will live in urban areas. It is

critical to promote integrated spatial development planning approaches to optimize the

allocation of resources, on which human settlements in urban and peri-urban areas

rely. Health benefits and disaster prevention are additional advantages that

sustainable land use planning can provide.

● Land matters for climate: Without proper consideration of the land sector, we cannot

get to a 2° C stabilization pathway and deliver climate-change resilient landscapes.

Improved land use and management, such as low-emissions agriculture, agro-forestry

and ecosystem conservation and restoration could close the remaining emissions gap

by up to 25 per cent, while reducing the risks posed by climate change and developing

the resilience of key sectors.

During implementation following ideas should be focused on:-

● Integrated ecosystem management approaches should be central to achieving LDN.

● Natural resource governance should be strengthened to enable equitable LDN

outcomes.

● LDN should proceed on the basis of adequate evidence and monitoring.

● Achieving LDN should build on the synergy with other conservation approaches and

targets.

● Innovative funding should be developed to support implementation of action towards

LDN.

CONCLUSION

Land Degradation Neutrality is a powerful vision for the future. Land Degradation Neutrality

provides a great opportunity to address one of the most fundamental challenges to

conservation and sustainable development. It is an ambitious target that will allow countries

to track progress towards environmental sustainability across their entire terrestrial area.

LDN is an aspiration that all conservation actors should support.

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Q.8) What do you understand by temperature inversion? Discuss various types of

inversions.


Introduction: Give brief introduction about temperature inversion.

Body: Enlist different type of temperature inversion and briefly discuss each type.

Conclusion: As per context of the question.

In the lower part of the atmosphere up to a height of 8-18 km from the surface, temperature

normally decrease with increasing altitude. The normal lapse rate is 6.5 °C. But sometimes,

under special circumstances, it has reversed and temperature instead of decreasing is found

to increase with elevation, though only in certain layer of the atmosphere. Such inverted vertical

temperature gradient is termed as inversion of temperature.

Such situation may occur near the earth’s surface or at greater height in the troposphere but

the inversion of temperature near the earth’s surface is of very short duration because the radiation of heat from the earth’s surface during daytime warms up the cold air layer which soon disappears and temperature inversion also disappears.

TYPES OF TEMPERATURE INVERSION

According to the process that cause them and the relative heights from earth’s surface at which they develop, the temperature inversion may be classified in the following types.

1. Ground or surface inversion

A. Radiation inversion

B. Air drainage inversion

C. Advection inversion

2. Upper air inversions

A. Subsidence inversion

B. Frontal inversion

Radiation inversion: The surface inversion produced by radiational cooling of lower air is

called radiational inversion. Such inversion normally occurs during the long cold winter

nights in the snow-covered re-gions of the middle and high latitudes. In fact, surface inversion

is caused due to excessive nocturnal cooling of the ground surface due to rapid rate of loss

of heat from the ground through outgoing longwave terrestrial radiation.

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Air drainage inversion: Generally, occurs in the mountainous valleys due to radiation and

vertical movement of air. The temperature of the upper parts of the valleys in mountainous

areas becomes exceedingly low during winter nights because of rapid rate of loss of heat from

the surface through terrestrial radiation. Consequently, the air coming in contact with the

cool surface also becomes cool. On the other hand, the temperature of the valley floor does

not fall considerably because of comparatively low rate of loss of heat through terrestrial

radiation. Thus, the air remains warmer than the air aloft and hence the warm and light air

of the valley floor is pushed upward by the descending cold and heavier air of the upper part

of the valley. Thus, there is warm air aloft and cold air in the valley floor and inversion of

temperature is caused. This situation is responsible for severe frost in the valley floors

causing great damage to fruit orchards and vegetables and agricultural crops.

Advection inversion: It is caused by horizontal movement of air occurs in several situa-tions.

Such inversion is caused when warm air invades the area of cold air or cold air moves into

the area of warm air because warm air being lighter is pushed upward by relatively denser

cold air. When the warm air moves, such inversion is caused over the continents during

winter and over the oceans during summer but when the cold air becomes active and invades

the areas of warm air, such inversion occurs over the continents during summer and over

the oceans during winter. Such surface inversion occurs generally in the low latitudes. The

convergence of cold and warm ocean currents also causes such inversion of temperature.

Subsidence inversion: Occurs well above the earth surface on the account of subsidence of

air current. The sinking air warm at dry adiabatic rate of 10 °C/km. Subsidence inversion

are of common occurrence in region of high pressure that are characterised by sinking of air.

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Frontal inversion is caused in the temperate zones due to temperate cyclones which are

formed due to the convergence of warm westerly’s and cold polar winds in the northern hemisphere. The warm air is pushed up by the cold polar air and thus the warm air overlies

the cold air because it is lighter than the cold air. Thus, the existence of warm air above and

cold air below reverses the normal lapse rate and inversion of temperature occurs. The

inversion layer associated with frontal or cyclonic inversion is always sloping.

Though inversion of temperature denotes local and temporary conditions of the atmosphere but

there are several climatic effects of inversion which are of great significance to human and his

economic activities.

Q.9) Explain the concept of Weather Fronts, also discuss their formation and

characteristics.


Introduction: Give brief introduction by defining the weather front and its type.

Body: Briefly explain formation and characteristics of fronts.

Conclusion: As per the context of the question.

Weather front is that sloping boundary which separates two opposing air masses having

contrasting characteristics in terms of air temperature, humidity, density, pressure, and wind

direction. An extensive transitional zone between two converging air masses is called frontal

zone or frontal surface which represents zone of discontinuity in the properties of opposing

contrasting air masses. The process associated with the creation of new fronts or the

regeneration of decaying fronts already in existence is called frontogenesis. Fronts are

classified into four principal types: Cold front, Warm front, Stationary front and Occluded

front.

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FORMATION OF FRONTS

Conditions for frontogenesis:

Necessary condition for frontogenesis

include presence of two opposing air masses

having contrasting characteristics in terms

of air temperature, humidity, density,

pressure, and wind direction.

1. Temperature difference

One air mass should be warm, moist and

light while the other should be cold, dry and

dense. In such condition, when two air mass

converge, then cold and denser air mass

invades the area of warm and light air mass

and pushes it upward and thus front is

formed.

2. Opposite direction of air masses

Convergence of two contrasting air masses is

a prerequisite condition for frontogenesis,

when they converge they try to penetrate into

the region of one another and thus a wave

like front is formed.

Creation of fronts:

When two contrasting air masses converge

in deformation circulation, they

spreadhorizontally along the axis of outflow

or dialation. In such situation the creation of

front depends on the angle between the axis

of outflow and isotherms. Fronts do not form

when this angle exceeds 45 degrees.

As the convergence of air continues, this

angle decreases and iso-therms try to

become parallel to the axis of outflow and

frontogenesis is activated. The steepness

and intensity of fronts depends on

temperature gradient. If two contrasting air

masses are parallel to each other and there

is no upward displacement of air, stationary

front is formed. Such fronts are climatically

insignificant because they are not conducive

for cloud formation and precipitation.

But such situation is not very common

because two contrasting and converging air

masses are generally separated by sloping

boundary due to deflective force (Coriolis

force) of the earth and cold and dense air

mass pushes warm and light air mass

upward.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF FRONT

The temperature contrast influences the thickness of frontal zone in an inversely proportional

manner. i.e. two air masses with higher temperature difference do not merge readily. So the front

formed is less thick. With a sudden change in temperature through a front, there is a change in

pressure also, which is reflected in bending of isobars towards the low pressure. Also, a front

experiences wind shift, since the wind motion is a function of pressure gradient and Coriolis force.

Since fronts are formed due to convergence of two air masses of contrasting temperatures and

hence contrasting weather conditions are found from north to south or south to north. Differences

in terms of temperature, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, and wind direction are experienced

along different fronts e.g. warm and cold fronts.

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Q.10) Explain the different types of corals. Also explain the challenges and threats faced

by corals.

APPROACH

Introduce by explaining about corals.

Explain different types of coral reefs.

Describe the challenges and threats faced by corals.

ANSWER

Coral reefs are built by and made up of thousands of tiny animals—coral “polyps”—animal

and have a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae (microscopic algae), which lives on coral.

Zooxanthellae assists the coral in nutrient production through its photosynthesis activities,

which provides coral with fixed carbon compounds of energy, enhance calcification and mediate

elemental nutrient flux.

Coral in return provides zooxanthellae with protected environment to live within and steady

supply of carbon dioxide for its photosynthesis processes.

The various types of coral reefs are grouped into three major types:

1. Fringing Reefs: fringing reefs, also called a shore reef, is directly attached to a shore, or

borders it with an intervening narrow, shallow channel or lagoon. They are usually less than

100 metres wide, but some are hundreds of metres wide. Fringing reefs are initially formed on

the shore at the low water level and expand seawards as they grow in size. However, sometimes

reef beds are broken to result into irregular channels called lagoon. The fringing reefs of the Red

Sea are "some of the best developed in the world"

2. Barrier Reef: The barrier reefs are fringing reefs but they are situated in the sea nearly 1 km

to 15 km away from the shore. Therefore, navigable channel called lagoon separates these reefs

from the shore. The Great Barrier Reef on the north-east coast of Australia is 1,200 miles long,

about 20-70 miles wide and situated nearly 90 miles away from the shore.

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3. Atoll Reef: The atoll reef, also referred to as coral island or Lagoon Island, is a circular or

horse-shoe-shaped reef enclosing a lagoon of water which may be small or large up to 50 miles

across.

Atoll reef may be broken to form channels; some suitable for navigation and other may not be

suitable for it. An interesting atoll reef example is Aldabra in the Indian Ocean, about 260 miles

northeast of the Malagasy Republic and 400 miles from the coast of Africa.

Major threats to coral reefs and their habitats include

1. Climate change

Corals cannot survive if the water temperature is too high. Global warming has already led to

increased levels of coral bleaching, and this is predicted to increase in frequency and severity

in the coming decades. Such bleaching events may be the final nail in the coffin for already

stressed coral reefs and reef ecosystems.

2. Destructive fishing practices

These include cyanide fishing, blast or dynamite fishing, bottom trawling, and muro-ami

(banging on the reef with sticks). Bottom-trawling is one of the greatest threats to cold-water

coral reefs.

3. Overfishing

This affects the ecological balance of coral reef communities, warping the food chain and causing

effects far beyond the directly overfished population.

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4. Careless tourism

Careless boating, diving, snorkelling, and fish

ing happens around the world, with people touching reefs, stirring up sediment, collecting coral,

and dropping anchors on reefs.

Some tourist resorts and infrastructure have been built directly on top of reefs, and some

resorts empty their sewage or other wastes directly into water surrounding coral reefs.

5. Pollution

Urban and industrial waste, sewage, agrochemicals, and oil pollution are poisoning reefs.

These toxins are dumped directly into the ocean or carried by river systems from sources

upstream.

Some pollutants, such as sewage and runoff from farming, increase the level of nitrogen in

seawater, causing an overgrowth of algae, which 'smothers' reefs by cutting off their sunlight.

6. Sedimentation

Erosion caused by construction (both along coasts and inland), mining, logging, and farming

is leading to increased sediment in rivers. This ends up in the ocean, where it can 'smother'

corals by depriving them of the light needed to survive.

The destruction of mangrove forests, which normally trap large amounts of sediment, is

exacerbating the problem.

7. Coral mining

Live coral is removed from reefs for use as bricks, road-fill, or cement for new buildings.

Corals are also sold as souvenirs to tourists and to exporters who don't know or don't care about

the long term damage done, and harvested for the live rock trade.

Q.11) What factors govern global distribution of rainfall? Explain how rainfall variation

impacts human activities and vegetation in an area.


Introduction- Rainfall variation- spatial and temporal

Body- Factors governing rainfall distribution, impact on human activities and vegetation

Conclusion- As per context

There is a wide range of spatial and temporal variation in the distribution of precipitation over

the globe. Example: The equatorial region records-the highest mean annual rainfall which is more

or less evenly distributed throughout the year, the tropical and subtropical hot deserts receive the

lowest mean annual rainfall, the monsoon climatic regions receive more than 80% of mean annual

rainfall during four wet months of summer season (June to September), the monsoon lands also

record the highest rainfall in the world (at Cherrapunji and Mawsynram, 1087 cm and 1141 cm

respectively, in India), the polar areas receive precipitation in solid form etc. Not only this, there is

much temporal variation of annual rainfall in a particular area (Example: Bahia Felix of Chile has

325 rainy days, while Arica of the same country has only one rainy day per year)

Mean annual rainfall for the whole globe is 970 mm but this mean annual distribution is highly

variable and unevenly distributed.

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Factors Governing Rainfall Distribution-

The spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation over the globe is controlled by a host of

factors like-

Moisture content of the air is supposed to be positively correlated with rainfall (both type and

amount) while atmospheric humidity is closely related with air temperature through the process

of evaporation. The atmospheric moisture depends on evaporation of water or ice through the

input of heat (solar) energy. Thus, precipitation is also, though indirectly, related to evaporation

and a zonal pattern. The regions having high temperatures and abundance of surface water, and

of course wide open oceanic surfaces for evaporation, receive higher amount of annual rainfall.

Example- Equatorial regions are typical examples of such situation

The convergent or divergent air circulation determines the ascent or descent of air and its

adiabatic cooling or heating which in turn determines the amount of precipitation. Example –

ITC zone, frontal action and cyclonic rainfall in mid-latitudes.

Topographic conditions present both favourable and unfavourable conditions for precipitation.

It the mountain barriers parallel the coastal lands and there is onshore moist air, moist air is

forced by the mountains to ascend and cool adiabatically ultimately yielding precipitation.

Example- Western Ghats receive high rainfall

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Distance from the source of moisture determines the amount of precipitation in different

areas. As the distance from the source of moisture (mainly oceans) increases, the moisture

content and hence the amount of precipitation decreases. For example, trade winds give more

precipitation in the eastern parts of the continents and the amount decreases westward because

the westward moving winds lose moisture. The monsoon winds in India give more rainfall in the

coastal areas than in the interior regions. The continental deserts located in the interior of the

continents are arid because they are far away from oceanic source of moisture.

Impact of ocean currents- warm current increases precipitation in coastal areas of higher

latitude while cold current in tropical latitude results in dryness of area. Example- cold Peru

Current and dryness of Atacama Desert.

Impact of Rainfall Variation on Humans

Agriculture and allied activities- selection of crop depends upon the rainfall conditions in area.

Plantation crops like rubber, palm oil tree etc. are grown in equatorial regions. Wet crops like

sugarcane, rice etc. are grown in tropical regions where as dry crops like millet are grown in

water deficit regions. Commercial animal husbandry is practiced in grasslands of Argentina and

New-Zealand. Also, method of soil conservation for maintaining fertility of soil also depend upon

rainfall.

Settlement- Settlements tend to be compact and clustered around water source in dry regions

example settlement around lakes in dry regions. In wet areas settlement tends to be located on

higher flood plains to avoid periodic flooding.

Industries- some industries like aluminum industry prefer to locate in areas of high rainfall

because of the easy availability of bauxite which is formed because of leaching due to high

rainfall.

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Disaster management- areas of high rainfall are vulnerable to floods especially river flood planes

during rainy season and coastal areas during cyclones. On the other hand dry areas face frequent

droughts.

Rainfall ensures surplus water in river and contribute to human development by providing a

source of transportation and power generation.

Impact of Rainfall Variation On Vegetation-

The areas of high rainfall have dense forests. As the rainfall decreases the vegetation starts

changing from dense forests to monsoon forests to savannah and grasslands and finally into

thorny desert type xerophytes. The vegetation is also controlled by seasonal distribution of

rainfall. Example-

Equatorial rain forest Rainfall all around the year. 80 inches.

Monsoon forest Heavy summer rains. 60 inches

Desert vegetation Little rain, 5 inches.

Mediterranian forests and

shrubs

Winter rains 35 inches

In recent years’ rainfall pattern has been changing and becoming more erratic with rising frequency of extreme events like cyclones and droughts due to human induced global warming and climate

change.

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Q.12) Despite the implementation of various programmes for cleaning of our major rivers

by the government, riverine pollution continue unabated in India. Explain by giving

reasons.


Introduction: Briefly about riverine pollution.

Body: Discuss the various programmes for cleaning of our major rivers by the government.


Rivers are one of the most important water bodies in our Country. Some of the major rivers include

The Brahmaputra, Ganga, Narmada, Kaveri, Godavari, Sabarmati, etc. According to the Central

Pollution Control Board (CPCB), in 2018, the number of polluted stretches of the country's rivers

has increased to 351 from 302 two years ago, and the number of critically polluted stretches —

where water quality indicators are the poorest — has gone up to 45 from 34.

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DESPITE VARIOUS PROGRAMMES, THE RIVERINE POLLUTION CONTINUES UNABATED

1. Sewage treatment plants (STPs): They have been at the centre of all policies and

programmes to control riverine pollution abatement. A look at the status of the STPs

project undertaken makes one doubt whether the government would even achieve its

objective. Example: As per Namami Gange targets, STPs with over 2,000 million litres a

day (MLD) capacity had to be rehabilitated of which only 328 MLD have been done. STPs

get delayed due to land acquisition. The issue is just not with the construction or

rehabilitation of STPs but also their performance.

2. Restoring the flow: There is another fundamental problem that will ensure the rivers

remains dirty. A river is a self-purifying system only when water flows through it. Most of

the rivers fail this basic test except during monsoons. If the flow in the river is maintained,

it can solve the problem of 60-80% of organic pollutants and we may not require such

elaborate programmes. The water level across the rivers is going down at an

unprecedented rate. If the rivers are chained with barrages and canal diversions and its

natural path is altered, it will become more vulnerable.

3. Sludge control: Lack of proper faecal sludge management, would invariably pollute the

rivers. What should cause further concern is that faecal sludge is a bigger pollutant than

sewerage. While the BOD of sewage is 150-300 mg/l, that of faecal sludge would be

15,000-30,000 mg/l.

4. Urbanisation and Encroachment: Rivers and streams have borne the brunt of the recent

urban explosion in India. Unplanned growth has led to the use of water bodies as dumping

grounds for sewage and industrial effluent. According to India’s Central Pollution Control Board, 63% of the urban sewage flowing into rivers (some 62 billion liters a day) is

untreated. In addition, riverbanks, wetlands, and floodplains have been claimed over time

by infrastructure, slums, offices, and housing developments - all of which has narrowed

natural river channels and distorted flow, greatly reducing the ability of India’s rivers to buffer flooding. It also has taken a toll on biodiversity.

5. Governance glitches: The cleaning of the rivers requires seamless coordination between

the agencies responsible for carrying out different tasks. This calls for vision and a clear-

cut governance strategy. Example: The water resources ministry signed MOUS with 10

ministries for better implementation of Namami Gange. However, till date no detail is

available as to how these ministries are functioning for better convergence.

6. The political clout of industries, contractor-driven boondoggles and the politics of states,

weakens the implementation of various programmes for cleaning up rivers.

Example: As per news reports at least 28 kms of the river stretch in Assam is heavily

polluted. However, efforts to clean up the river is mired in political blame-games between

Assam- Arunachal Pradesh and diplomatic issues with China.

WAY FORWARD

1. If we have to reverse this killing and bring back life to our rivers we will need to understand

the complex set of activities which destroy them, then go about reversing them.

2. We will need to create the right river basin institutions which track the fate of our rivers

in real time and inform people about the state of them. Every river in India needs a river

basin institution.

3. Industries should install machineries to remove contaminants from their effluents and

wastewater. Example: Installation of Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP). This way we can

control pollution at the source itself.

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4. All towns and cities must have proper Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) matching to the

capacity of sewage generated.

5. There is a need to regulate chemicals and pesticides in farming and a shift towards

organic methods of farming for reducing chemical pollution of rivers is a much needed

step.

Rivers being a holistic system in itself cannot be dealt in silos. Water, forest, mining and other

departments have to work as one and not with isolated action plan or targets.

Q.13) Explain with evidence, how continental drift theory explained the shifting of world

continents over the earth's surface. Also, highlight its limitations.


Introduction: Give a brief introduction about continental drift theory.

Body: Explain in brief evidence of continental drift theory and the shifting of world continents.

Also highlights the limitation of continental drift theory in short.

Conclusion: As per context.

Continental drift theory was given by Alfred Wagner who accepted the possibility that

Continents are in motion. He rejected the view of the permanency of continents and ocean basins.

Thus, the main objective of Wegener behind his ‘displacement hypothesis’ was to explain the global climatic changes which are reported to have taken place during the past earth history.

Basic premises of continental drift theory: According to Wegener, all the continents formed a

single continental mass, a mega ocean surrounded by the same. The supercontinent called

Pangaea, which meant all earth. The mega-ocean was called Panthalassa, meaning all water.

He argued that, around 200 million years ago, the supercontinent, Pangaea, began to split.

Pangaea first broke into two large continental masses as Laurasia and Gondwanaland forming

the northern and southern components respectively. Subsequently, Laurasia and Gondwanaland

continued to break into various smaller continents that exist today.

EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT

1. The Matching of Continents (Jig-Saw-Fit): The shorelines of Africa and South America

facing each other have a remarkable and unmistakable match.

2. Rocks of the same age across the Oceans: The radiometric dating methods developed

in have facilitated correlating the rock formation from different continents across the vast

ocean. The belt of ancient rocks of 2,000 million years from Brazil coast matches with

those from western Africa. The earliest marine deposits along the coastline of South

America and Africa are of the Jurassic age. This suggests that the ocean did not exist

prior to that time.

3. Tillite: It is a sedimentary rock formed out of deposits of glaciers. The Gondwana system

of sediments from India is known to have its counterparts in six different landmasses of

the Southern Hemisphere. Counter parts of this succession are found in Africa, Falkland

Island, Madagascar, Antarctica and Australia besides India.

4. Placer deposits: The occurrence of rich placer deposits of gold in the Ghana coast and

the absolute absence of source rock in the region is an amazing fact. The gold bearing

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veins are in Brazil and it is obvious that the gold deposits of the Ghana are derived from

the Brazil plateau when the two continents lay side by side.

5. Distribution of fossils: The observations that Lemurs occur in India, Madagascar and

Africa led some to consider a contiguous landmass “Lemuria” linking these three landmasses. Mesosaurus was a small reptile adapted to shallow brackish water. The

skeletons of these are found only in two localities: the Southern Cape Province of South

Africa and Iraver formations of Brazil. The two localities presently are 4,800 km apart

with an ocean in between them.

SHIFTING OF CONTINENTS

Force for Drifting: Wegener suggested that the movement responsible for the drifting of the

continents was caused by pole-fleeing force and tidal force. The polar-fleeing force relates to

the rotation of the earth. The second force that was suggested by Wegener—the tidal force—is due

to the attraction of the moon and the sun that develops tides in oceanic waters. Wegener believed

that these forces would become effective when applied over many million years.

Actual drifting of the continents: The disrup-tion, rifting and ultimately drifting of the

continental blocks began in carboniferous period. Pangaea was broken into two parts due to

differential gravitational force and the force of buoy-ancy. The northern part became Laurasia

(Angaraland) while the southern part was called by Wegener as Gondwanaland. The intervening

space between these two giant continental blocks was filled up with water and the resultant water

body was called Tethys Sea. This phase of the disruption of Pangaea is called ‘opening of Tethys’. Gondwanaland was disrupted during the cretaceous period and Indian peninsula, Madagascar,

Australia and Antarctica broke away from Pangaea and drifted apart under the impact of tidal

force of the sun and the moon. North America broke away from Angaraland and drifted westward

due to tidal force.

Similarly, South America broke away from Africa and moved westward under the impact of tidal

force. Due to the northward movement of Indian Peninsula Indian Ocean was formed while the

Atlantic Ocean was formed due to westward movement of two Americas. The size of the

Panthalassa (primitive Pacific Ocean) was remarkably reduced because of the movement of

continental blocks from all sides towards Panthalassa. Thus, the remaining portion of Panthalassa

became the Pacific Ocean. It may be mentioned that disruption, rifting and displacement (drifting)

of continental blocks continued from car-boniferous period to pliocene period when the present

pattern and arrangement of the continents and ocean basins was attained.

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LIMITATION OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

1. The forces applied by Wegener (the force of buoyancy and tidal force of the sun and the

moon) are not sufficient enough to drift the continents so apart. The tidal force as invoked

by Wegener to account for the supposed westerly drift of the continents would need to be

10,000 million times as powerful as it is at present to produce the required effects, and, if

it had such a value, it would stop the earth’s rotation completely in a year. Similarly, the

differential gravitational force and the force of buoyancy are also not adequate to cause

equator ward movement of the continents, instead the force, if so enormous, might have

caused the concentration of the continents near the equator.

2. Wegener has described several contrasting view-points. Initially, sialic masses

(continents) were considered by Wegener as freely floating over ‘sima’ without any friction

offered by ‘sima’ but in the later part of his theory he has described forceful resistance

of offered by ‘sima’ in the free movement of sialic continents to explain the origin of

mountains along the frontal edges of floating continents.

3. Both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean cannot be completely refitted. Thus, the concept of

juxtaposition’ or ‘jig-saw fit’ cannot be validated. 4. Wegener has not elaborated the direction and chronological sequence of the

displacement of the continents. He did not describe the situations of pre- carboniferous

times. Many questions remain unanswered such as, what kept Pangaea together till its

disruption in Mesozoic era? Why did the process of continental drift not start before

Mesozoic era?

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Though most point of Wegener’s theory was rejected but its central theme of horizontal displacement was retained. In fact, the postulation of plate tectonic theory after 1960 is the result

of this continental drift theory of Wegener.

Q.14) Insensitivity towards ecology of the Western Ghats is making the Southern States

vulnerable to floods and landslides. What measures are required to arrest the widespread

ecological devastation that the fragile Western Ghats are facing?


Introduction: Write about latest examples of floods and landslides.

Body: Reasons. Measures.


Floods, landslides and cave-ins witnessed during 2018 Monsoon in Kerala showcases the

vulnerability of Western Ghats to rampant encroachment and urbanization imposed over its fragile

landscape. Attempts to conserve this ecologically sensitive mountain range and bring it under strict

development rules have been met with stiff resistance from all six state governments.

INSENSITIVITY TO WESTERN GHATS: INTENSIFYING FLOODS AND LANDSLIDES

1. Geological: Unlike many other rivers in India west flowing rivers cover shorter distance

between watershed area and coast. So there is a high chance of floods. Without considering

this aspect many dams and houses built on the river basin.

2. Quarrying: The effect of quarrying and deforestation has intensified the floods. The

presence of stone powder in Pampa River shows quarrying. Iron ore mining, bauxite

mining predominant in Western Ghats. Madhav gadgil says the quarrying in Wayanad and

Idukki regions were the main contributor for Kerala floods

3. Wetland ecosystem: the wetlands and lakes that acted as natural safeguards against

floods have disappeared because of rampant urbanization and infrastructure.

4. Forest ecosystem: The construction of illegal buildings on the slopes of the famous hill

stations like Nilgiri, Munnar have increased the chances of landslides by loosening the soil

particles. IUCN world heritage outlook 2 says pressure from the human population in

Western Ghats is greater than that faced by many protected areas around the world.

5. Construction of dams: the construction of dams across the rivers block the regular flow

of the rivers. Adding this, the unscientific opening of dams are disastrous to the Western

Ghats ecology. First time in history 35 out of 54 dams were opened during the Kerala

floods of 2018.

6. Plantation: The plantation of exotic trees like eucalyptus have absorbed groundwater,

thereby affecting the ground water table of Western Ghats. This also has led to landslides.

Similarly the plantation crops like coffee and tea plantation on Western Ghats

have reduced the native forest trees to capture the moisture laden south west winds. This

makes sudden downpour in certain places leading to floods.

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MEASURES TO ARREST WIDESPREAD ECOLOGICAL DEVASTATION

1. Legislative

a. Need for policy to manage water in reservoirs. A scientific authority has to give policy

on opening and closing of reservoirs during disaster period

b. The implementation of Dam safety bill may be helpful in monitoring and managing

water in dams.

2. Decentralization

a. Governments should impose 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments acts effectively

and give gram panchayats to reject developmental projects

b. Government should set up biodiversity management committees in preparation of

environmental impact assessment

3. Technological Intervention: The usage of modern technologies like drones, satellite

images to curb the illegal quarrying, mining in Western Ghats region.

4. Madhav Gadgil committee Recommendations

a. Carrying out quarrying of stone with cooperatives like Kudambashree will help in

reducing damage to the forests, thereby reducing the vulnerability to floods

b. Madhav Gadgil committee Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel recommended 64% of

Western Ghats under ecologically sensitive area. However Kasturirangan committee

changed to 37% area as ecologically sensitive area striking a balance between

development and environment. Try to implement Madhav Gadgil report

recommendations of announcing 64% of Western Ghats under ecologically sensitive

areas

5. Others

a. Removal of illegal construction in the region on a mission mode basis.

b. The discharge of polluted waters of plantation crops must be restricted.

c. The green corridors for the animals have to be fasten up and projects have to be

scrutinised through EIA

The drought and drying up of wells within a few days after the Kerala floods reminds us of the

need for sensitivity towards the Western Ghats ecology. Hence in the scenario of climate change,

the conservation of our ecology remains predominant and utmost urgent.

Q.15) Why is there a demand for a separate time zone in our country? Discuss its pros and

cons. Also, explain how it is different from daylight saving.


Introduction: Give a brief introduction about why there is demand for different time zone.

Body: Discuss the pros and cons of separate time zone. Explain daylight saving and its

limitations.

Conclusion: As per context of the question.

Time Zone refers to the local time of a region or a country. Indian Standard Time (IST) is the time

observed throughout India, with a time offset of +05:30 with respect to GMT. Since India spans

about 2,933 km between its western and eastern points, demands for two separate time zones

have been persistently there for decades now.

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WHY DEMAND FOR A SEPARATE TIME ZONE

India is the second largest country in the world that runs on a single time zone after China. The

Time difference between the westernmost and easternmost part of India is approximately two

hours and as a result, sun rises as well as sets early in the east than in the rest of the country.

In the North-East, the sun rises at approx. four in the morning and sets at about four in the

evening in the winter. By the time that people start their work, half of the daylight is already

wasted. In winter, this thing becomes even more problematic and results in more electricity

consumption and lag in the economic development in comparison to other states.

Many activists, industrialists, and common people have complained about the effect of IST on

their normal daily life.

PROS OF SEPARATE TIME ZONES

1. Potential energy savings: Advancement of IST is likely to lead to energy savings of 2.7

billion units (0.3% of the yearly electricity consumption totaling 700 billion units).

2. Ensuring schools and offices do not extend working hours.

3. Eastern India is blessed with an abundance of minerals, but still it lags in economic

development from rest of the country because of the less working hours. Therefore, adding

a different Time Zone would provide them more working hours and will help in the

development.

4. Biomedical research has consistently pointed to the physical and psychological benefits

of aligning circadian (sleep) rhythms to the sun’s rising and setting.

CONS OF DIFFERENT TIME ZONES

1. Two time zones will create a lot of confusion and would need extra efforts to educate

people and will also cause the loss of resources & economy of the state.

2. People travelling across the border of two time zones have to change time every time they

cross the border, and it is confusing.

3. Railway signals are not fully automated and many routes have single tracks. Trains may

meet with major accidents due to human errors. Just one such accident would wipe out

any benefits resulting from different time zones in the country.

4. With different time zone from the rest of the country, North Eastern states may feel further

alienated.

DAYLIGHT SAVING

Daylight Saving Time (DST) is the practice of setting the clocks forward 1 hour from standard

time during the summer months, and back again in the winter, in order to make better use of

natural daylight.

Some studies show that DST could lead to fewer road accidents and injuries by supplying more

daylight during the hours more people use the roads. DST is also used to reduce the amount of

energy needed for artificial lighting during the evening hours.

However, if we were to introduce DST in India, the inconvenience of time adjustment during

summer and winter months would involve the whole country, happening twice a year, with

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marginal benefits. The possibilities of rail accidents would still be high. Even in the U.S. and

Canada, road accidents increase discernibly in the days immediately following the change.

WAY AHEAD

One proposal is to introduce neither time zones nor DST, but to advance IST by half an hour to

being six hours ahead of GMT, once and permanently.

It was found that merely advancing IST by 30 minutes would translate into a heft saving of energy

of 2.7 billion units.

This proposal of advancing IST by half an hour avoids the problems apprehended in the other two

proposals (of time zones and DST) but provides maximum energy saving during evening hours

when the utilities fail to supply continuous power.

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Q.16) Defining blue revolution, explain the problems and strategies for pisciculture

development in India.


Introduction: Write about blue revolution.

Body: Problems and Strategies for Pisciculture development.

Conclusion: Challenges faced by this sector and what are the remedies to overcome them

in a sustainable manner.

The concept of rapid increase in the production of fish and marine product through package

programme is called as blue revolution. It was launched in India during the seventh Five-year

plan (1985-1990) when the Central Government sponsored the Fish Farmers Development Agency

(FFDA). Realizing the immense scope for development of fisheries and aquaculture, the Government

of India has restructured the Central Plan Scheme under an umbrella of Blue Revolution for

the Integrated Development and Management of Fisheries (CSS) to increase both fish

production and fish productivity from aquaculture and fisheries resources of the inland and marine

fisheries sector including deep sea fishing. It has been targeted to enhance the fish production

from. 107.95 lakh tonnes in 2015-16 to about 150 lakh tonnes by the end of the financial

year 2019-20. It is also expected to augment the export earnings with a focus on increased

benefit flow to the fishers and fish farmers to attain the target of doubling their income.

India’s fisheries sector faces the challenge of sustainability. The Food and Agriculture

Organisation’s State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture reports note that nearly 90% of the

marine fish stocks have either been fully exploited, or over-fished or depleted to the extent that

recovery may not be biologically possible. Besides this, there are certain other problems in

Pisciculture development in India.

PROBLEMS FOR PISCICULTURE DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

1. Major zoological degradation owing to increased abstraction of water by industrial and

human settlements and wash off of agricultural pesticides.

2. Many reservoirs are understocked, unexploited and not well managed.

3. Sometimes outbreak of major disease like which spot viral disease may damage the growth

and present production.

4. Absence of proper extension network with field and laboratory facilities.

5. Shortage of high quality fish meal for feed.

6. Shortage of quality and healthy fish seeds and other critical inputs.

7. The productivity is low — in terms of per fisher, per boat and per farm. Lack of resource-

specific fishing vessels and reliable resource and updated data.

8. Inadequate awareness about nutritional and economic benefits of fish.

9. Inadequate extension staff for fisheries and training for fishers and fisheries personnel.

10. Absence of standardization and branding of fish products.

India is the world’s second-largest fish producer with exports worth more than INR 47,000 crores.

India has a marine fisher population of 3.5 million; 10.5 million people are engaged in inland

fishery and fish farming. For this the government has launched Mission Fingerling to achieve the

Blue Revolution.

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STRATEGIES FOR PISCICULTURE DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

1. Technology transfer and linkage development: Strong linkages between research

organizations and development agencies are essential not only to transfer the

technologies from the laboratory to the field, but also to obtain feedback on the prevalent

problems and technology adoption levels as recommended by D. Meena Kumari

committee.

2. Infrastructure for quality seed and feed: Seed and feed being two key inputs in

aquaculture, appropriate policy measures need to be taken to provide the infrastructure

for production of quality fish and shellfish seed across the country as also encourage

private entrepreneurship in the sector. For this purpose government has established

’Brood Bank’ for commercially important species to ensure production and supply of

certified broods.

3. Ownership of water bodies: As most water bodies comprising ponds, tanks and small

reservoirs are public waters, fishing and aquaculture rights need to be properly delegated

to aquaculturists with leasing policies allowing reasonable durations of ownership. This

will enable entrepreneurs to invest and develop the water bodies for long-term fish culture

practices as well as for ornamental fisheries.

4. Mobile laboratories: With aquaculture management increasingly becoming scientific and

farms located in far flung areas, the concept of mobile laboratories for soil and water

testing, fertilizer recommendations, fish health checks and advisory services for pond

management, as in Aquatic Animal Health and Environment Management Laboratory

is to be put into practice. Mobile fish disease diagnostic laboratories are particularly

important. This will aid fish culture practices.

5. Eco-friendly aquaculture: With pollution control and environmental management being

of great concern, it is necessary that farming practices incorporate them in management.

This aspect needs to be exploited to develop resource recovery-based waste treatment

measures for which government has approved INR7522 crore Fisheries and Aquaculture

Infrastructure Development Fund.

6. Aquaculture financing: Freshwater aquaculture technologies provide for a wide array of

culture systems. The Union government has identified 20 States based on their potential

and other relevant factors to strengthen the Fish Seed infrastructure in the country.

Similarly various state governments like Maharashtra, Orissa etc. are providing

subsidies for fishermen’ welfare and central governments initiative of National Scheme

of Welfare of fishermen.

7. Data management: Information base for fisheries sector has been found to be weak as

compared to crop systems that is vital for policy decisions at the macro level. For this

purpose government formed National Fisheries Development Board for geographical

information system of the fisheries sector

8. Human resource development: Trained manpower at different levels of management

and application has become a necessity in the wake of increasing entrepreneurial interest

in freshwater aquaculture sector. For this a New National Policy on Marine Fisheries

has been formulated along with a statutory Body called Coastal aquaculture Authority

to regulate coastal aquaculture activities.

9. Insurance coverage: With aquaculture becoming commercial it is necessary to

provide due insurance coverage to operations that involve several risks like natural

calamities, disease incidence and crop failure. This has been catered by the creation of

Fishermen Insurance Scheme. Public education and awareness with regard to

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practices and potentials of freshwater aquaculture will facilitate adoption of aquaculture

practices in a greater magnitude.

10. Modern biotechnology has opened new avenues towards improvement of fish

production and aquatic animal health management. Several genetic and non-genetic

manipulations are being attempted to enhance fish production levels.

11. Efforts like SAMPADA Scheme focus on producing large scale processed products

such as flakes, keema, burgers and canned fish which can be preserved for a longer

period and can support new industries.

There is a need to be cautious of falling prey to the temptation of introducing large-scale industrial

fishing. We must factor in the sustainability challenges and acknowledge that fishing is

a primary livelihood activity for a large number of communities and individuals. The

policies framed by the new department should aim at enhancing productivity, better returns, and

increased incomes.

Q.17) Explain the origin and types of volcanoes. Also, explain various landforms associated

with volcanoes.

Introduction- write in brief about volcanoes

Body- origin, type and landforms with diagram

Conclusion- As per context

A volcano is a place where gases, ashes and/or molten rock material – lava – escape to the ground.

It is from the asthenosphere that the molten rock materials find their way to the surface. The

material in the upper mantle portion is called magma. Once it starts moving towards the crust or it

reaches the surface, it is referred to as lava.

Origin of Volcanoes

The crust is composed of tectonic plates that rest on the upper mantle. Because of the ductile

nature of the mantle, tectonic plates move very slowly, but move nonetheless. Volcanoes are

formed when the edges of tectonic plates meet. These regions are called convergent boundaries.

When they collide, they are called subduction zones. When they move apart, they are called

divergent boundaries.

Volcanos emerge in subduction zones, where two tectonic plates collide. One tectonic plate moves

under another plate, pushing it down into the upper mantle. This causes a change in the

temperature and pressure above the submerged plate. Magma then forms as a result of lower

pressure and increased temperature.

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Illustration of a subduction zone and formation of magma

Although there are several factors triggering a volcanic eruption, three predominate: the

buoyancy of the magma, the pressure from the exsolved gases in the magma and the injection of

a new batch of magma into an already filled magma chamber.

Types of Volcanoes

There are three types of volcanoes: active, dormant and extinct. Volcanoes are said to be active

when they frequently erupt or at least when they have erupted within recent time. Those that

have been known to erupt and show signs of possible eruption in the future are described as

dormant. Volcanoes that have not erupted in historic times but retain the features of volcanoes

are termed extinct. All volcanoes pass through active, dormant and extinct stages but we can

never be thoroughly sure when they are extinct. Mt. Vesuvius and Mt. Krakatau were once

thought by people to be extinct and yet both erupted most violently

VOLCANIC LANDFORMS

Extrusive landforms

Shield volcanoes-. These volcanoes are mostly made up of basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid

when erupted. For this reason, these volcanoes are not steep. They are characterised by low-

explosivity. Example - The Hawaiian volcanoes

Composite Volcanoes These volcanoes are characterised by eruptions of cooler and more

viscous lavas than basalt. These volcanoes often result in explosive eruptions. Along with lava,

large quantities of pyroclastic material and ashes find their way to the ground Example-

Stromboli, the Lighthouse of Mediterranean, Mount Fuji etc.

Flood basalt provinces (Lava plateaus) When a very thin and fluid lava comes out to the Earth's

surface, and flow after intervals for long periods of time, spreading to a large area; it produces a

layered, undulating- wave-like flat surfaces. Example - The Deccan traps of India, Snake basin

of USA, Canadian Shield etc.

Caldera- These are the most explosive of the earth’s volcanoes. They are usually so explosive that when they erupt they tend to collapse on themselves rather than building any tall structure.

The collapsed depressions are called calderas. Example- Lonar in Maharashtra, Krakatoa in

Indonesia, and Lake Caldera in southern Oregon etc.

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Mid-oceanic ridge volcanoes -The mid-oceanic ridges occur in the underwater oceans. There is

a system of 70000 km long mid-oceanic ridges that stretch along all the major ocean basins. The

central portion of the mid-oceanic ridges is associated with frequent volcanic eruptions.

Intrusive Forms

The commonest intrusive landforms are sills and dykes. When an intrusion of molten magma

is made horizontally along the bedding planes of sedimentary rocks, the resultant intrusion is

called a sill. Similar intrusions when injected vertically as narrow walls of igneous rocks within

the sedimentary layers are termed as dykes.

Igneous intrusions on a larger scale are the various types of ‘—liths’: laccoliths, lopoliths,

phacoliths and batholiths. A laccolith is a large blister or igneous mound with a dome-shaped

upper surface and a level base fed by a conduit from below. It arches up the overlying strata of

sedimentary rocks, Example- the Laccoliths of the Henry Mountains, in Utah U.S.A.

A lopolith is another variety of igneous intrusion with a saucer shape. A shallow basin ¡s formed

in the midst of the country rocks. The Bushveld lopoliths of Transvaal, South Africa are examples.

A phacolith is a lens-shaped mass of igneous rocks occupying the crest of an anticline or the

bottom of a syncline and being fed by a conduit from beneath. Example Corndon Hill in

Shropshire, England.

A batholith is a huge mass of igneous rocks, usually granite, which after removal of the overlying

rocks forms a massive and resistant upland region such as the Wicklow Mountains of Ireland. It

is generally believed that large masses of magma rising upwards metamorphosed the country

rocks with which they came into contact.

Although volcanoes are destructive but they also create new islands and lands, provide habitat to

pioneer species, create economic mineral and soil deposits, create beautiful landscape and

generate tourism

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Q.18) What factors are responsible for geographical localization of automobile industries?

Also identify major automobile clusters in the world and in India.


Introduction: Brief introduction of automobile industries.

Body: Factors responsible for location, clusters in world and India

Conclusion: As per context

The automobile industry comprises a wide range of companies and organizations involved in

the design, development, manufacturing, marketing, and selling of motor vehicles. These are not

footloose industries and shop a specific spatial pattern in their localization. Alfred Weber

formulated a theory of industrial location in which an industry is located where the

transportation costs of raw materials and final product is a minimum. For automobile industries

Weber’s theory is applicable but with modifications due to various geographical and non-

geographical reasons.

Factors Controlling Localization of Automobile Industries

Raw material: The automobile industry tends to be located near iron and steel producing centers

because steel is the basic raw material used in this industry. The proximity of places producing

tyres, tubes, storage batteries, paints and other ancillary industries is considered to be an added

advantage. Example- clustering of automobile industries near Great Lake region in USA.

Power: Regular supply of power is a prerequisite for the localization of automobile industries.

Coal, mineral oil and hydr0-electricity are the three important conventional sources of power.

Most of the automobile industries tend to concentrate at the source of power. The iron and steel

industry (main raw material for automobiles) which mainly depends on large quantities of coking

coal as source of power are frequently tied to coal fields. Example- electro-metallurgical processes

in automobile industry require cheap power.

Labour: labour supply is important in two respects (a) workers in large numbers are required;

(b) people with skill or technical expertise are needed. Automobile industries tend to locate near

large urban centers to fulfill labour requirement.

Transport: Transportation by land or water is necessary for the assembly of raw materials and

for the marketing of the finished products. Example- many export oriented automobile

manufacturing plants are located in port cities.

Market- Nearness to market is essential for quick disposal of manufactured goods. It helps in

reducing the transport cost and enables the consumer to get things at cheaper rates. Example-

many automobile industry tend to locate near urban centers as they provide readymade market

like Gurgaon, Pune etc.

Site- Site requirements for industrial development are of considerable significance. The region

should be politically stable with low crime rates. Government incentives like tax holidays also

play an important role in deciding site for manufacturing unit.

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Climate- Harsh climate is not suitable for the establishment of automobile industries. There can

be no industrial development in extremely hot, humid, dry or cold climate.

Capital- Modern automobile industries are capital intensive and require huge investments.

Capital is usually available in urban centers. Example- Detroit, Chicago, Tokyo, Mumbai etc have

developed automobile industries.

Culture of innovation- automobile industry is very innovative and dynamic industry. Areas of

high technological advancements have very well developed automobile industries. Example-

German and Japanese automobile industry

Other important factors determining the location of automobile industries include effects of

agglomeration and industrial inertia, work culture, banking facilities, water availability.

MAJOR AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRIAL CLUSTERS IN WORLD

Mid-Western Region/ lake

region in USA

-Youngstown-Pittsburgh-Johnstown iron and steel

triangle, Cleveland, Louisville, Rook-ford, Flint and

Detroit, Chicago, Anderson, Midland, Iowa, St. Louis,

Minneapolis

-Lake Superior iron ore and Appalachian coal fields

Rhine Industrial Region

aka Ruhr- Westphalia

industrial region, Germany

-Dusseldorf and Dortmund, Wuppertal, Solingel, Essen

-Ruhr coal and Siegerland iron ore, Rhine for transport

Lorraine and Paris

industrial region France

Coal and iron in vicinity, large market

Northern industrial region,

Italy

Lombardy, Piedmon, Venice, Milan, Turin, genoa, Savona

Moscow-Tula Industrial

Region

-Moscow-Tula-Vladimir triangle

-Iron ore of Tula and brown coal of Moscow

Yangtze Valley Region,

China

-Wuhan, Nanchang, Chung-king and Shanghai,

Hangzhou

-Availability of raw material, port location of Shanghai.

Tokyo- Yokohama- Chukyo

region, Japan

-Nagoya, Tokai, Kawasaki

-Joban coalfields and hydel power

MAJOR AUTOMOBILE CLUSTERS IN INDIA

Norther Cluster Faridabad, Ghaziabad, Gurgaon, Delhi

Eastern cluster Jamshedpur, Kolkata

Southern Cluster Banglore, Dharmapuri, Vellore, Chennai, Kanchipuram, Hosur

Western Cluster Mumbai, nasik, Aurangabad, Pune, Vadodara, Sanand

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Automobile industry in India

The automobile industry is a major industrial and economic force worldwide. The automobile

industry provides well-paying jobs with good benefits, has heavy linkages with supplier industries

(which gives it an oversized role in economic development), and has a strong political influence.

Q.19) In light of population explosion in cities assess the importance of land use planning

in assuring sound urban transport.

APPROACH

Introduce with mentioning state of population explosion in Indian cities with facts and

importance of urban transport system.

Main body should highlight the importance of integration of land use planning with

development of Public transport system.

Conclude with policy focus and some suggestions to end with.

ANSWER

United Nations (UN) report on population points out that India’s urban population will take over the rural population by the end of 2050. In this context Indian cities needs to be prepared for

the upcoming challenge of sustaining more than half of the population of India and sound public

transport system needs to be at the centre of this urban transformation.

Importance of land use planning in assuring effective urban transport

• Scarcity of land resource in urban areas: Urban land is a scarce resource and building

urban transport systems like Metro rail, roads evolving technologies like hyperloop requires

a lot of land to be built upon. Efficient urban land-use will not only reduce burden of land

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scarcity but improve productivity of cities with respect to employment, business, cluster

development and connectivity with accessibility.

• Haphazardly planned Indian cities: Most of the cities in India are unplanned and exhibits

challenge to build various urban transport systems along with their interconnectivity.

Thus, any further integration of urban transport requires analysing land usage across the

area and then develop a system to correct the mismatch in urban transport system.

• Legal problems: Acquisition of land for building urban transport remains the major hurdle

in Indian cities. Sustainable land use practises with overhead and underground corridors

for transport can address this challenge of land acquisition.

• Room for all stakeholders: Indian cities especially roads are full of mismatched

stakeholders (pedestrians, cyclist, two wheelers, heavy vehicles etc.). This leads to frequent

traffic jams and accidents. Effective land use planning can mitigate this problem by

planning dedicated corridors for Pedestrians, cyclists, Buses, Heavy vehicles and

smoothing the traffic flow.

• Quality of Public transport: Depending on the density of land use for housing and other

purposes, demand for public transport capacity can be calculated using the results of

household surveys on mobility pattern.

• Parking policy: In metropolitan cities like Mumbai and Delhi, the problem of parking

vehicles for private as well as public buses are prominent. Thus, land management should

consider the aspects of parking. Ex. Metro rails in India provides parking spaces for private

vehicles.

• Increasing boundaries of urban areas: A prominent example of new development

extending beyond city’s previous boundaries but with problematic transport consequences is Pune city in Maharashtra state. Lack of land use planning and integration of public

transport system has led to connectivity issues in many other tier 1 and 2 cities especially

in the satellites areas.

• Providing last mile connectivity: Different transport system requires different land usage.

To provide last mile connectivity, land integration of various public transport system needs

to be planned.

CONCLUSION

An efficient transport system is a prerequisite for sustained economic growth of our cities as well

as country. The most crucial aspects of Land use planning need to be integrated with public

urban transport system policy. Government should also focus on innovative financing for

massive capacity building efforts, cleaner technologies and demand management to provide

future generation better and healthier transport system.

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Q.20) How does sand mining affect the Hydraulic structure in the country? What measures

can be taken to mitigate these effects?

Approach:

Introduction: Give a brief background about sand extraction, why it is needed and its effect.

Body: Discuss in detail as how the rampant sand mining is affecting the water level in the

country.

Conclusion: Give way forward to sustainable use of sand as a natural resource.

Answer:

Sand Mining is an activity referring to the process of the actual removal of sand from the

foreshore including rivers, streams and lakes as it is a valuable natural resource that is needed

for Infrastructure projects and construction activities. India’s increasing infrastructure and

housing needs propelled the illegal sand mining in the country that is the biggest environmental

challenge in the country.

As per UNEP report both China and India top the list of critical hotspots for sand extraction

impacts in rivers, lakes and coastlines.

Sand mining Impacts on the hydraulic structure:

● It transforms the riverbeds into large and deep pits; as a result, the groundwater table

drops leaving the drinking water wells on the embankments of these rivers dry.

● Bed degradation from in-stream mining lowers the elevation of stream flow and the

floodplain water table which decreases wetted periods in riparian wetlands. For locations

close to the sea, saline water may intrude into the fresh water body.

● In-stream sand mining activities will have an impact upon the river's water quality.

Impacts include.

○ increased short-term turbidity

○ sedimentation due to stockpiling and dumping of excess mining materials

○ oil spills or leakage from excavation machinery and transportation vehicles.

● Increased riverbed and bank erosion increase suspended solids in the water at the

excavation site and downstream and adversely affects water users and aquatic

ecosystems.

● Sand extraction results in river and coastal erosion and threatens freshwater, marine

fisheries and aquatic ecosystems and would lead to increased flooding.

● The damming of rivers for hydro-electricity production or irrigation is reducing the

amount of sediment flowing downstream.

● Ecological impacts can be seen by direct loss of stream reserve habitat, disturbances of

species attached to streambed deposits, reduced light penetration, primary production,

and feeding opportunities.

Measures needed:

● Better spatial planning and reducing unnecessary construction like speculative projects

● Investing in infrastructure maintenance and retrofitting rather than demolishing and

rebuilding cycle

● Embracing alternative design and construction methods, even avoiding the use of

cement and concrete where possible and using green infrastructure.

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● Large-scale multi-pronged actions from global to local levels, involving public, private and

civil society organisations to build consensus and reconciling policies with sand

availability.

● The alternative substitute materials like oil palm shell, waste foundry sand, m-sand

(crushed tiles, granite powder), mine waste, bottom ash, and discarded rubber etc should

be promoted for construction.

Conclusion:

To help states deal with the sand mining issues, including demand supply deficit and illegal

extraction, the Union Government has launched a framework prepared after intensive

consultations with all stakeholders. There is a need to reduce demand to responsible levels and

stop environmentally damaging practices to protect sensitive ecosystems and meet biodiversity

conservation goals.

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