© SOAS | 3742

Centre for Development, Environment and Policy

P132

Energy and Development

Written by Frauke Urban

Energy and Development Module Introduction

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ABOUT THIS MODULE

This module explores the main issues around energy and development. As 1.3 billion

people worldwide do not have access to electricity and 2.7 billion people rely on

traditional biomass for basic needs such as cooking and heating (World Bank, 2014),

access to energy is a key development issue and is a prerequisite to achieving

development goals. At the same time, energy use is closely intertwined with

environmental challenges such as climate change, fossil fuel resource depletion, air

pollution and natural resource management (land, water, forests).

This module elaborates the key issues and concepts in the field of energy and

development; it addresses policy responses such as the energy issues underlying the

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the United Nations’ (UN) target of

universal energy access. The module further outlines various options for delivering

energy access (both low carbon and fossil fuel based) and their environmental,

socioeconomic and technological implications, and how this links to contemporary

global challenges in the fields of environmental management and sustainable

development.

The module is highly topical and very timely as the role of energy for development is

a fiercely debated topic that is receiving increasing attention due to climate change,

natural resource scarcity, prevailing global poverty and policy responses to these

issues at the international, regional and national level.

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STRUCTURE OF THE MODULE

The module is divided into three parts:

Part I introduces the linkages between energy and development, as well as

providing a brief overview of the environmental implications of energy use

(Unit 1). In Units 2–4, key issues and concepts of energy and development are

explored, such as energy use, demand, supply and energy systems in different

countries and different contexts and energy transitions from traditional

biomass to fossil fuels to low carbon energy. The units also include a critical

discussion of concepts such as the energy ladder, fuel switching and the

Environmental Kuznets Curve in theory and practice.

Part II explores the social, environmental, economic and technological

implications of energy and development (Units 5–9). This part looks in detail at

the energy–poverty–climate nexus, the role of reducing energy poverty and

increasing energy access for the UN’s target of universal energy access, the

link between energy use and climate change, technological advances in energy

technology and issues of technology transfer. Finally, methods of financing

universal energy access and low carbon energy transitions are considered.

Part III presents some policy responses to energy poverty and critically

discusses how they can be implemented in practice (Unit 10).

Part I The linkages between energy and development

(1) Energy and development: the challenges

(2) Energy and energy systems for development in different contexts

(3) Energy transitions: from traditional biomass to fossil fuels to low carbon energy

(4) Concepts of energy and development

Part II The implications of energy and development

(5) The social implications of energy and development

(6) The environmental implications of energy and development

(7) The energy-poverty-climate nexus

(8) The technological implications of energy and development

(9) The economic implications of energy and development

Part III Overcoming energy poverty

(10) Policy responses to energy poverty

Energy and Development Module Introduction

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WHAT YOU WILL LEARN

Module Aims

The module is aimed at postgraduate students and professionals from a range of

disciplinary and professional backgrounds who realise a need to understand more

about energy and development for their existing work or for branching out into new

fields of work. It provides a foundational understanding of core social, environmental,

technological, economic and policy issues on which students can develop subsequent

more specialised interests, knowledge and skills.

The specific aims of the module are:

To promote students’ understanding of the relationships between energy and

development, as well as between energy and poverty.

To promote students’ understanding of key issues and concepts in the field of

energy and development from a theoretical and practical perspective.

To provide an understanding of how energy production, use and supply

contribute to environmental challenges such as global climate change, peak oil,

natural resource depletion and air pollution.

To enable students to apply this understanding to policy analysis, design and

implementation tasks, particularly with regard to delivering energy access

(both low carbon and fossil fuel based), and their environmental,

socioeconomic and technological implications.

To provide a foundation from which students’ understanding of energy and

development can be maintained as the understanding of energy and poverty,

related sciences, social practices and policy change.

Module Learning Outcomes

By the end of this module, students should be able to:

understand the links and recognise inter-dependencies between energy and

development, as well as between energy and poverty

critically discuss the key issues and concepts in the field of energy and

development from a theoretical and practical perspective

demonstrate understanding of how energy production, use and supply

contribute to environmental challenges such as global climate change, peak oil,

natural resource depletion and air pollution

critically discuss various options for delivering energy access (both low carbon

and fossil fuel based), and their environmental, socioeconomic and

technological implications

be familiar with and interpret national and international policy responses to

energy poverty such as the energy issues underlying the MDGs and the UN’s

target of universal energy access (SE4All).

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ASSESSMENT

This module is assessed by:

an examined assignment (EA) worth 40%

a written examination worth 60%.

Since the EA is an element of the formal examination process, please note the

following:

(a) The EA questions and submission date will be available from the Virtual

Learning Environment (VLE).

(b) The EA is submitted by uploading it to the VLE.

(c) The EA is marked by the module tutor and students will receive a percentage

mark and feedback.

(d) Answers submitted must be entirely the student’s own work and not a product

of collaboration.

(e) Plagiarism is a breach of regulations. To ensure compliance with the specific

University of London regulations, all students are advised to read the

guidelines on referencing the work of other people. For more detailed

information, see the FAQ the VLE.

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STUDY MATERIALS

Textbook

There is one textbook for this module.

Goldemberg, J. and Lucon, O. (2009) Energy, Environment and Development.

2nd edition. Oxford, Earthscan, Routledge.

This book covers the key environmental, social, economic and technological issues

related to energy and development. It thereby provides a comprehensive foundation

for the module.

Individual units of the module make reference to specific sections of the textbook as

Key Readings, but students are encouraged to read other parts too, as

complementary and optional Further Readings.

For each of the module units, the following are provided.

Key Readings

These are drawn mainly from the textbooks, relevant academic journals and

internationally respected reports. They are provided to add breadth and depth to the

unit materials and are required reading as they contain material on which you may

be examined. Readings are supplied as digital copies and ebooks via the SOAS Online

Library. For information on how to access the Library, please see the VLE.

Further Readings

These texts are not always provided, but weblinks have been included where

possible. Further Study Materials are NOT examinable; they are included to enable

you to pursue your own areas of interest.

In addition, the three Further Readings listed below will be useful for the whole

module.

IEA. (2010) World Energy Outlook 2010. Energy Poverty: How to Make Modern

Energy Access Universal? Paris, International Energy Agency (IEA), OECD/IEA.

Available from:

http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/2010/weo2010_poverty.pdf

[Accessed 15 December 2017]

This is an insightful report about the current status of energy poverty and energy access issues

in the developing world. It raises key challenges and offers some solutions of how to overcome

energy poverty.

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IEA. (2011) World Energy Outlook 2011. Energy for All: Financing Access for the

Poor. Paris, International Energy Agency (IEA), OECD/IEA.

Available from:

http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/2011/weo2011_energy_for_a

ll.pdf Accessed 15 December 2017]

This useful report addresses the financial perspectives of providing energy access for all by 2030

(in line with the UN’s sustainable energy for all initiative SE4All). It emphasises the need for

decentralised, renewable energy options as a means of providing modern energy access for the

world’s poor.

Practical Action (2010) The Poor People’s Energy Outlook. [Online]. Rugby, Practical

Action.

Available from: http://practicalaction.org/ppeo2010 [Accessed 15 December 2017]

This report discusses the challenges of energy poverty, relates it to the daily experiences of

poor people in developing countries and introduces methods of how to measure energy poverty

and energy access. This report gives a useful overview of the [Total] Energy Access Index and its

application.

References

Each unit contains a full list of all material cited in the text. All references cited in the

unit text are listed in the relevant units. However, this is primarily a matter of good

academic practice: to show where points made in the text can be substantiated.

Students are not expected to consult these references as part of their study of this

module.

Self-Assessment Questions

Often, you will find a set of Self-Assessment Questions at the end of each section

within a unit. It is important that you work through all of these. Their purpose is

threefold:

to check your understanding of basic concepts and ideas

to verify your ability to execute technical procedures in practice

to develop your skills in interpreting the results of empirical analysis.

Also, you will find additional Unit Self-Assessment Questions at the end of each

unit, which aim to help you assess your broader understanding of the unit material.

Answers to the Self-Assessment Questions are provided in the Answer Booklet.

In-text Questions

This icon invites you to answer a question for which an answer is

provided. Try not to look at the answer immediately; first write down

what you think is a reasonable answer to the question before reading

on. This is equivalent to lecturers asking a question of their class and

using the answers as a springboard for further explanation.

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In-text Activities

This symbol invites you to halt and consider an issue or engage in a

practical activity.

Key Terms and Concepts

At the end of each unit you are provided with a list of Key Terms and Concepts which

have been introduced in the unit. The first time these appear in the study guide they

are Bold Italicised. Some key terms are very likely to be used in examination

questions, and an explanation of the meaning of relevant key terms will nearly

always gain you credit in your answers.

Acronyms and Abbreviations

As you progress through the module you may need to check unfamiliar acronyms

that are used. A full list of these is provided for you at the end of the introduction.

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TUTORIAL SUPPORT

There are two opportunities for receiving support from tutors during your study.

These opportunities involve:

(a) participating in the Virtual Learning Environment (VLE)

(b) completing the examined assignment (EA).

Virtual Learning Environment (VLE)

The Virtual Learning Environment provides an opportunity for you to interact with

both other students and tutors. A discussion forum is provided through which you

can post questions regarding any study topic that you have difficulty with, or for

which you require further clarification. You can also discuss more general issues on

the News forum within the CeDEP Programme Area.

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INDICATIVE STUDY CALENDAR

Part/unit Unit title Study time (hours)

PART I THE LINKAGES BETWEEN ENERGY AND DEVELOPMENT

Unit 1 Energy and Development: The Challenges 10

Unit 2 Energy And Energy Systems for Development In

Different Contexts

15

Unit 3 Energy Transitions: From Traditional Biomass to Fossil

Fuels to Low Carbon Energy

15

Unit 4 Concepts of Energy and Development 10

PART II THE IMPLICATIONS OF ENERGY AND DEVELOPMENT

Unit 5 The Social Implications of Energy and Development 15

Unit 6 The Environmental Implications of Energy and

Development

15

Unit 7 The Energy–Poverty–Climate Nexus 10

Unit 8 The Technological Implications of Energy and

Development

15

Unit 9 The Economic Implications of Energy and Development 15

PART III OVERCOMING ENERGY POVERTY

Unit 10 Policy Responses to Energy Poverty 15

Examined Assignment

Check the VLE for submission deadline

15

Examination entry July

Revision and examination preparation Jul–Sep

End-of-module examination Late Sep–

early Oct

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ADALY averted disability-adjusted life year

AusAID Australian Agency for International Development

BECCS bio-energy with carbon capture and storage

CARE Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere

CCGT Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

CCHP combined cooling, heat and power

CCS Carbon Capture and Storage

CDM Clean Development Mechanism

CER certified emission reduction credit

CHP combined heat and power

CIF World Bank’s Climate Investment Fund

CNG compressed natural gas

CO carbon monoxide

COP Conference of the Parties

COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

CSP concentrated solar power

CTCN Climate Technology Centre and Network

CTF Clean Technology Fund

CTP Climate Technology Program

DALY disability-adjusted life year

DANIDA Danish International Development Agency

DC developing country

DEC Display Energy Certificate

DfID Department for International Development (UK)

DRC Democratic Republic of Congo

EA examined assignment

EAP East Asia Pacific

EDI Energy Development Index

EIA Environmental Impact assessment

EIA US Energy Information Administration

EKC environmental Kuznets curve

EPC Energy Performance Certificate

ERC UK Energy Research Centre

Energy and Development Module Introduction

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EU European Union

EU ETS EU Emissions Trading System

GDP gross domestic product

GDR German Democratic Republic

GE General Electric

GEF Global Environmental Facility

GHG greenhouse gas

GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH (German

Federal Enterprise for International Cooperation)

GJ gigajoule

GNI gross national income

HDI Human Development Index

HRV heat recovery ventilator

IEA International Energy Agency

IGCC (Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle

IMF International Monetary Forum

INDC intended nationally determined contributions

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IPR Intellectual Property Rights

ISDR United Nation’s International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency

JWW Jewish World Watch

LAC Latin American countries

LDC least developed country

LED light-emitting diode

LPG liquid petroleum gas

MAC marginal abatement cost

MDG Millennium Development Goal

MPI Multidimensional Poverty Index

NAMA Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions

NDC nationally determined contribution

NGO non-governmental organisation

NIMBY not in my backyard

NORAD North American Aerospace Defense Command

NOx nitrogen oxides

Energy and Development Module Introduction

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O&M operations and maintenance

ODA Overseas Development Assistance

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

OPEC Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries

PM particulate matter

PMDD permanent magnetic direct drive

ppm parts per million

PPP purchasing power parity

PV photovoltaic

R&D research and development

REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation

SCF Strategic Climate Fund

SDG Sustainable Development Goal

SIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency

(Swedish: Styrelsen för Internationellt Utvecklingssamarbete)

SIDS Small Island Developing States

SMEs small- and medium-sized enterprises

SO2 sulfur dioxide

SOE state-owned enterprises

SOx sulfur oxides

SREP Scaling-Up Renewable Energy Programme

SSA sub-Saharan Africa

TNA Technology Needs Assessment

UN United Nations

UN SE4All UN Sustainable Energy for All

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization

USAID United States Agency for International Development

VOC volatile organic compound

WCRWC Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children

WEC World Energy Council

WHO World Health Organization

WRI World Resources Institute

Unit One: Energy and Development: The Challenges

Unit Information 2

Unit Overview 2 Unit Learning Aims 2 Unit Learning Outcomes 2 Unit Interdependencies 2

Key Readings 3

Further Readings 4

References 6

Multimedia 11

1.0 The link between energy and development 12

Section Overview 12 Section Learning Outcomes 12 1.1 What is energy? 12 1.2 What is development? 13 1.3 Energy and development 15 1.4 Energy and poverty 18 Section 1 Self-Assessment Questions 20

2.0 Dealing with energy poverty 21

Section Overview 21 Section Learning Outcomes 21 2.1 Measuring energy poverty 21 2.2 Policy and practice for overcoming energy poverty 25 Section 2 Self-Assessment Questions 28

3.0 Energy and environmental problems 29

Section Overview 29 Section Learning Outcomes 29 3.1 Energy and climate change 29 3.2 Energy and other environmental problems 31 Section 3 Self-Assessment Questions 35

Unit Summary 36

Unit Self-Assessment Questions 37

Key Terms and Concepts 38

Energy and Development Unit 1

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UNIT INFORMATION

Unit Overview

This unit will be an introduction to energy and development. The unit will first define what energy is and discuss why it is needed. The unit will then discuss the link between energy and development, the challenge posed by energy poverty, the scale of the problem, how to define energy poverty, how to measure it and some of the options in policy and practice for reducing energy poverty and providing energy access. The unit will then discuss how energy use is closely intertwined with climate change, fossil fuel resource depletion and air pollution. Energy use has, therefore, become a national and global challenge. Understanding these issues is vital for understanding how policy-makers, institutions and individuals manage energy and development, and how some of the biggest developmental and environmental issues of our times could be solved.

Unit Learning Aims

• To provide overviews and definitions of key terms and ideas for this module, including ‘energy’, ‘development’, and ‘energy poverty’.

• To present a discussion of the link between energy and development.

• To highlight the challenges of energy poverty and energy access.

• To discuss how energy use is intertwined with global environmental challenges such as climate change, fossil fuel resource depletion and air pollution.

Unit Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

• define key terms and ideas, including ‘energy’, ‘development’, and ‘energy poverty’

• understand how energy and development are linked

• state the challenges of energy poverty and energy access

• critically elaborate how energy use is intertwined with global environmental challenges such as climate change, fossil fuel resource depletion and air pollution.

Unit Interdependencies

This unit provides introductory material that underpins Units 2–10, although it is of particular relevance to Units 2–7 in which key issues relating to energy, development and poverty will be elaborated, in addition to the social and environmental implications of energy use. This unit also presents a brief overview that is of relevance to understanding the material presented in Units 8–10.

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KEY READINGS

Sections 1 and 2

Goldemberg, J. & Lucon, O. (2009) Energy, Environment and Development. 2nd edition. Oxford, Earthscan, Routledge.

Section 2 (pp. 3—34) of the book gives an overview of what energy is and some of the physical science background to understanding the concept of energy.

Section 4 (pp. 45—64) of the book provides a useful overview of different sources of energy.

Section 5 (pp. 65—100) provides a good discussion of how energy and development are linked. Section 5 takes into account income issues, the Human Development Index (HDI) and other concepts that will be elaborated throughout this module.

You are not expected to read the entire book, nor the entire sections mentioned above. Please do, however, read the sections ‘The concept of energy’ and ‘power’ in Section 2 (pp. 3—15), the section ‘Classification of energy sources’ in Section 4 (pp. 45—49) and the sections the ‘Energy and development’ (p. 65—76), ‘Human Development Index (HDI)’ (pp. 85—89) and ‘The relationship for energy and development’ (pp. 90—93). We will discuss many of these issues in more detail in Units 2—10. You may therefore wish to return to this reading again while studying the module or after you have completed Units 2—10.

Section 3

Goldemberg, J. & Lucon, O. (2009) Energy, Environment and Development. 2nd edition. Oxford, Earthscan, Routledge.

Section 6 (pp. 101—181) of the book gives an overview of the environmental impacts of energy production and use. These issues will be elaborated in more detail throughout this module.

Section 8 (pp. 243—336) provides detailed information about technical solutions to the environmental problems caused by energy production and use. These issues will be elaborated in more detail throughout this module.

You are not expected to read the entire book, nor the entire sections mentioned above. Please do however read the sections ‘Environmental impacts due to energy production and use’ (pp. 101—107) and ‘Global aspects: the greenhouse effect’ (pp. 139—166) in Section 6. You may also want to read the section ‘Renewable energies’ (pp. 257—281) in Section 8, although this will be covered in more detail in Units 3 and 7.

We will discuss many of these issues in more detail in Units 2—10. You may therefore wish to return to this reading again while studying the module or after you have completed Units 2—10.

Energy and Development Unit 1

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FURTHER READINGS

IEA. (2010) World Energy Outlook (2010) Energy Poverty: How to Make Modern Energy Access Universal? Paris, International Energy Agency (IEA), OECD/IEA.

Available from: http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/2010/weo2010_poverty.pdf

This is an insightful report about the current status of energy poverty and energy access issues in the developing world. It raises key challenges and offers some solutions of how to overcome energy poverty.

IPCC. (2013) Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013. The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex & P.M. Midgley (Eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

Available from: http://www.climatechange2013.org/spm

Please read the summary for policy-makers of this overview of the latest 2013/2014 findings on climate change — the physical science — by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

IPCC. (2014a) Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2014. Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1–32.

Available from: https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/ar5_wgII_spm_en.pdf

Please read the summary for policy-makers of this overview of the latest 2014 findings on climate change — impacts, adaptation and vulnerability — by the IPCC.

IPCC. (2014b) Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2014. Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

Available from: http://ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg3/ipcc_wg3_ar5_summary-for-policymakers.pdf

Please read the summary for policy-makers of this overview of the latest 2014 findings on climate change mitigation by the IPCC.

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Practical Action (2010) The Poor People’s Energy Outlook. Rugby, Practical Action.

Available from: http://practicalaction.org/ppeo2010

This report discusses the challenges of energy poverty, relates it to the daily experiences of poor people in developing countries and introduces methods of measuring energy poverty and energy access. This report gives a useful overview of the [Total] Energy Access Index and its application.

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REFERENCES

Anderson, K. (2009) Climate Change in a Myopic World. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research. Briefing Note No 36.

Available from: http://oldsite.tyndall.ac.uk/sites/default/files/bn36.pdf [Accessed 15 December 2017]

Ban Ki-moon (21 September 2010) United Nations Secretary General, at the launch of the target of universal energy access by 2030. New York.

Bhattacharyya, S.C. (2006) Energy access problem of the poor in India: is rural electrification a remedy? Energy Policy, 34 (18), 3387–3397.

Chambers, R. (1995) Poverty and livelihoods: whose reality counts? Environment and Urbanization, 7 (1), 173–204.

Collier, P. (2007) The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries are Failing and What Can Be Done About It. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Cowen, M. & Shenton, R. (1996) Doctrines of Development. London, Routledge.

Cutnell, J.D. & Johnson, K.W. (2012) Introduction to Physics. 9th edition. Singapore, John Wiley & Sons.

Goldemberg, J. & Lucon, O. (2009) Energy, Environment and Development. 2nd edition. Oxford, Earthscan, Routledge.

Hart, G. (2001) Development critiques in the 1990s: Cul de sac and promising paths. Progress in Human Geography, 25 (4), 649–658.

Hickey, S. & Mohan, G. (2005) Relocating participation within a radical politics of development. Development and Change, 36 (2), 237–262.

Humphrey, J. (2007) Forty years of development research: transformations and reformations. IDS Bulletin, 38, 14–19.

IEA. (2002) Electricity in India: Providing Power for the Millions. Paris, International Energy Agency (IEA), OECD/IEA.

IEA. (2007) World Energy Outlook 2007. Paris, International Energy Agency (IEA), OECD/IEA.

IEA. (2010) World Energy Outlook 2010. Energy Poverty: How to Make Modern Energy Access Universal? Paris, International Energy Agency (IEA), OECD/IEA.

Available from: http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/2010/weo2010_poverty.pdf [Accessed 15 December 2017]

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IEA. (2011) World Energy Outlook 2011. Energy for All. Financing Access for the Poor. Paris, International Energy Agency (IEA), OECD/IEA.

Available from: http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/2011/weo2011_energy_for_all.pdf [Accessed 15 December 2017]

IEA. (2012) Understanding Energy Challenges in India. Paris, International Energy Agency (IEA), OECD/IEA.

Available from: http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/India_study_FINAL_WEB.pdf [Accessed 15 December 2017]

IEA. (2017) Statistics. Paris, International Energy Agency (IEA), OECD/IEA.

Available from: http://www.iea.org/statistics/ [Accessed 15 December 2017]

IPCC. (2007) Climate Change 2007. Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). [Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (Eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 104 pp.

Available from: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_fourth_assessment_report_synthesis_report.htm [Accessed 15 December 2017]

IPCC. (2013) Climate Change 2013. The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex & P.M. Midgley (Eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1535 pp.

Available from: http://www.climatechange2013.org/ [Accessed 15 December 2017]

IPCC. (2014a) Climate Change 2014. Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

Available from: http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/ [Accessed 15 December 2017]

IPCC. (2014b) Climate Change 2014. Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

Available from: https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/ [Accessed 15 December 2017]

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Jiahua, P., Wuyuan, P., Meng, L, Wu, X., Wan, L., Zerriffi, H., Elias, B. Zhang, C. & Victor, D. (2006) Rural Electrification in China 1950–2004: Historical Processes and Key Driving Forces. Program on Energy and Sustainable Development. Stanford University. Working Paper No 60.

Available from: http://pesd.fsi.stanford.edu/publications/rural_elec_china [Accessed 15 December 2017]

Jolly, R. (2003) Human development and neo-liberalism: paradigms compared. In: Kukudar-Parr, S. & Shiva Kumar, A.K. (Eds.) Readings in Human Development. New Delhi, Oxford University Press.

Mohan, G. & Holland, J. (2001) Human rights and development in Africa: moral intrusion or empowering opportunity. Review of African Political Economy, 88, 177–196.

OPHI. (2010) Multidimensional Poverty Index. Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative (OPHI). University of Oxford.

Available from: http://www.ophi.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/OPHI-MPI-Brief.pdf [Accessed 15 December 2017]

OPHI. (n.d. a) Policy – A Multidimensional Approach. [Online]. Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative (OPHI). University of Oxford.

Available from: http://www.ophi.org.uk/policy/multidimensional-poverty-index/ [Accessed 15 December 2017]

OPHI. (n.d. b) Measuring Multidimensional Poverty: Insights from Around the World. Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative (OPHI). University of Oxford.

Available from: http://www.ophi.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/Measuring-Multidimensional-Poverty-Insights-from-Around-the-World.pdf?7ff332&cc8bca [Accessed 15 December 2017]

Practical Action (2010) The Poor People’s Energy Outlook. Rugby, Practical Action.

Available from: http://practicalaction.org/ppeo2010 [Accessed 15 December 2017]

Pye, S., Watkiss, P., Savage, M. & Blyth, W. (2010) The Economics of Low Carbon, Climate Resilient Patterns of Growth in Developing Countries: A Review of the Evidence. Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) Report to UK Department for International Development (DFID).

Available from: http://sei-international.org/mediamanager/documents/Publications/Climate/economics_low_carbon_growth_report.pdf [Accessed 15 December 2017]

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Richardson, K., Steffen, W., Schellnhuber, H. J., Alcamo, J., Barker, T., Kammen, D. M., Leemans, R., Liverman, D., Munasinghe, M., Osman-Elasha, B., Stern, N. & Wæver, O. (2009) Synthesis Report. Climate Change. Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions. 10–12 March 2009, Copenhagen. University of Copenhagen.

Available from: https://www.pik-potsdam.de/news/press-releases/files/synthesis-report-web.pdf [Accessed 15 December 2017]

Rist, G. (2007) Development as a buzzword. Development in Practice, 17 (4–5), 485–491.

SE4All. (2014) United Nations Sustainable Energy for All Initiative. [Online]. United Nations (UN).

Available from: http://www.se4all.org/ [Accessed 15 December 2017]

Tans, P. & Keeling, R. (2013) Recent Monthly Average Mauna Loa CO2. NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

Available from: http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ [Accessed 15 December 2017]

UK Government (2000) Warm Homes and Energy Conservation Act 2000. UK National Renewable Energy Centre (Narec).

Available from: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/31/contents [Accessed 15 December 2017]

UNDESA (n.d.) Sustainable Development Goals. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA).

Available from: http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=1300 [Accessed 15 December 2017]

UNDP. (n.d.) Human Development Reports. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).

Available from: http://hdr.undp.org/en [Accessed 15 December 2017]

UNDP and WHO. (2009) The Energy Access Situation in Developing Countries – A Review Focusing on Least Developed Countries and Sub-Saharan Africa. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the World Health Organization (WHO).

Available from: http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/Environment%20and%20Energy/Sustainable%20Energy/energy-access-situation-in-developing-countries.pdf [Accessed 15 December 2017]

Urban, F. & Nordensvärd, J. (2013) Low Carbon Development: Key Issues. Oxon, Earthscan, Routledge.

Urban, F. (2014) Low Carbon Transitions for Developing Countries. Oxon, Earthscan, Routledge.

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Urban, F., Mohan, G. & Zhang, Y. (2011) The understanding and practice of development in China and the European Union. IDS Working Paper, 372.

WEC. (2007) 2007 Survey of Energy Resources. World Energy Council (WEC).

Available from: http://minihydro.rse-web.it/Documenti/WEC_2007%20Survey%20of%20Energy%20Resources.pdf [Accessed 15 December 2017]

WHO. (2000) Addressing the Links between Indoor Air Pollution, Household Energy and Human Health. Geneva, World Health Organization (WHO).

WHO. (2005) Household Air Pollution and Health. [Updated February 2016]. Geneva, World Health Organization (WHO). Factsheet No 292.

Available from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs292/en/ [Accessed 15 December 2017]

WHO. (2006) Indoor Air Pollution. Fuel for Life: Household Energy and Health. Geneva, World Health Organization (WHO).

Available from: http://www.who.int/indoorair/publications/fuelforlife/en/index.html [Accessed 15 December 2017]

World Bank (2014) Data. [Online]. Washington DC, The World Bank.

Available from: http://data.worldbank.org/ [Accessed 15 December 2017]

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MULTIMEDIA

Practical Action (2010) Access to Energy – Fighting Poverty. [Video]. Duration 2:55 minutes.

Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2JHs2y9x-pw

A video by the NGO Practical Action that talks about the challenges of energy poverty and suggests solutions of how to overcome it.

SE4All (2012) SE4All. [Video]. Duration 30 seconds.

Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eyFZ8BQeRro

A very brief video on the purpose and the benefits of the SE4All.

Urban, F. (2015) Energy and Development: Unit 1 Introduction. [Audio]. SOAS University of London. Duration 2:00 minutes.

This audio file is available on your e-study guide.

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1.0 THE LINK BETWEEN ENERGY AND DEVELOPMENT

Section Overview

This section presents overviews and definitions of some key terms and issues: energy and development and energy poverty. It discusses the link between energy and development, as well as the link between energy and poverty. Knowledge of these issues is vital to understanding how policy-makers, institutions and individuals manage energy and development and how some of the biggest developmental issues of our time could be solved.

Section Learning Outcomes

By the end of this section students should be able to:

• define key terms and ideas, including ‘energy’, ‘development’, and ‘energy poverty’

• understand how energy and development are linked.

1.1 What is energy?

Define the term ‘energy’.

Energy is a physical term that describes the capacity of a physical system to perform work. Energy exists in several forms such as thermal energy (heat), radiant energy (light), mechanical energy (kinetic), electric energy, chemical energy, nuclear energy or gravitational energy. There is also a difference between potential energy that is being stored, such as the water in the reservoir of a hydropower dam, and kinetic or working energy, such as the energy produced when the water is released and the turbines are operating (Cutnell & Johnson, 2012).

Energy is also a physical unit. It is usually measured in Joules (J).

In physics, the law of conservation of energy suggests that within a closed system the total energy remains constant and cannot change. This means that energy is conserved. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, however, it can change its form (Cutnell & Johnson, 2012). An example is thermal energy – such as from a thermal coal-fired power station – that is being converted into electric energy; or kinetic energy – such as from the water of a hydropower dam that produces electric energy (Goldemberg & Lucon, 2009).

Energy carriers and energy sources can be differentiated. Energy carriers are a substance or system that contains potential energy than can be released and used as actual energy in the form of mechanical work, heat or to operate chemical and physical processes. For example, energy carriers include batteries, coal, dammed water, electricity, hydrogen, natural gas, petrol and wood. Energy carriers do not produce energy; however, they ‘carry’ the energy until it is released.

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Energy sources can be divided in renewable and non-renewable energy sources. The term refers to the resources that are being used for the energy, for example coal or wind. Renewable energy resources are abundantly available and can be renewed over time, such as energy from wind, the sun (solar), water (hydropower) and biomass. Non-renewable energy sources come from resources that are finite and can be depleted, such as fossil fuel energy resources like coal, oil and natural gas, but also nuclear energy, such as uranium (Goldemberg & Lucon, 2009).

We can differentiate between primary and secondary energy. Primary energy has not been subject to any conversion or processing and contains raw fuels, such as crude oil or solar energy. Secondary energy has been subject to conversion or processing, such as from crude oil to petrol for powering vehicles. Another example is the conversion of solar power to electricity (Goldemberg & Lucon, 2009).

The next section will discuss the term development. Section 1.3 will then elaborate the links between energy and development.

1.2 What is development?

Define the term ‘development’.

There are various definitions for development and despite its universal use; there is no universally agreed definition. Some scholars such as Chambers simply define development as ‘“good” change’ (Chambers, 1995: p. 174); others associate it with progress and/or modernisation, or economic growth. Even others make a distinction between formal development, such as development aid, and development as a deeper process of change, such as capitalism (Urban et al, 2011). Hart (2001: p. 650) distinguishes between ‘big D’ and ‘little d’ development whereby ‘“big D” development [is] defined as a post-second world war project of intervention in the “third world” that emerged in the context of decolonization and the cold war, and “little d” development or the development of capitalism as a geographically uneven, profoundly contradictory set of historical processes’ (cited by Urban et al, 2011: pp. 6–7; Urban & Nordensvärd, 2013: p. 10).

There are various approaches to Western development thinking, including rights-based approaches, which focus on human rights and/or increasing the voice of marginalised groups (Mohan & Holland, 2001; Hickey & Mohan, 2005; Urban et al, 2011). There are also human development approaches, which incorporate broader development objectives than economic ones and aim to expand human choices and strengthen human capabilities related to education, health and income (Jolly, 2003; Urban et al, 2011). There are also approaches that are based on concerns for the poorest ‘bottom billion’ (Collier, 2007; Urban et al, 2011). There are also approaches that come from different disciplines such as anthropology, economics and political science, and different perspectives such as gender, globalisation and the environment. In other parts of the world, such as China, different streams of non-Western development thinking prevail which are more related to these countries own experiences, culture and philosophy of development (Urban et al, 2011; Urban & Nordensvärd, 2013).

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While humans have been concerned about economic development and social transformation for centuries, the concept of international development and development studies as a discipline is reported to have emerged in the late 1940s, 1950s and early 1960s. Development studies began as a post-Second World War project in support of poorer ‘developing countries’. ‘Development’ was driven by so-called ‘developed’ Western/Northern countries. ‘Development’ has often been accused of paternalism and trusteeship (Cowen & Shenton, 1996; Urban et al, 2011). Back in the 1950s, development policy was dominated by the goal of achieving modernity, by an optimist worldview, by expecting the state to play an active, positive role and by focussing on national development (Humphrey, 2007; Urban et al, 2011; Urban & Nordensvärd, 2013).

[Please note: The terms ‘developing’ country and ‘developed’ country are used in line with international practice. Nevertheless, the author acknowledges the following: First, there is a wide range of so-called developing countries, ranging from the least developed countries to low-income countries, lower-middle-income countries, upper-middle-income countries to emerging economies. Some of these terms overlap. For example, China is an emerging economy and an upper-middle-income country, whereas Haiti is a least developed country and a low-income country. However, these categories are changing from year to year, meaning that one year a country can be in the low-income group and the next year can be classified by the World Bank as a middle-income country. Second, the categorisation into ‘industrialised countries’ is not helpful either as some emerging economies, such as China, are increasingly industrialised and no longer predominantly agrarian-based economies. Third, there is a geographical confusion with regards to the global ‘North’ and the global ‘South’. The global North is often referred to as developed, industrialised countries including mainly North America (US and Canada), Europe (the EU), Australia (Australia and New Zealand) and Japan. Obviously, Australia, for example, is situated in the southern hemisphere, therefore this classification is false. The global South includes all developing countries; however, several of these are not located in the southern hemisphere, including most of Asia, Northern Africa and some parts of Latin America. Fourth, these classifications often conceal information about income distribution. While a country such as Angola may be classified as an upper-middle-income country, this does not imply that most of its citizens would be classified as living on a middle income. The reality is that stark differences exist between the poor and the rich in a mineral-rich country such as Angola, thereby creating an average middle-income classification that conceals the realities for many of its citizens. Fifth, many of these classifications, such as developing versus developed, industrialised versus agrarian, South versus North, East versus West are outdated and stem from a time when globalisation did not exist to the same extent as today and the world was much easier to classify, both in terms of income and in terms of ideologies (eg East versus West). These classifications for grouping countries are flawed. In the absence of a valid alternative, the author has chosen to refer to developed/industrialised and developing countries as well as low income, middle income, high income, emerging economy and specific country names as appropriate.]

While development studies started with optimism after the Second World War, the concept of development, and development studies as a discipline, has endured criticism in recent years (Urban et al, 2011). This is linked to ongoing problems such as widespread poverty in many parts of the world; global neo-liberalism, which sees states as part of the problem rather than part of the solution (Humphrey, 2007), as

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well as the occurrence of various transboundary phenomena. Challenges like the global financial crisis, terrorism and large-scale environmental problems, such as climate change and natural resource depletion, are seen to require international and multilateral solutions (Urban et al, 2011). One other major shift in development policy is due to the so-called ‘Rising Powers’: the rise of countries like China, India, Brazil, South Africa and states of the Middle East (Urban et al, 2011). This questions dominant ‘Western’ approaches to development (Humphrey, 2007). Unfortunately, the optimism of earlier decades has been replaced by some pessimism, including development being declared dead in the 1990s by both the political right and the political left (Hart, 2001; Urban et al, 2011). Fifteen years later, Rist argued that development as practiced and imposed by the West was ‘toxic’ (Rist, 2007; Urban et al, 2011; Urban & Nordensvärd, 2013).

The notion of ‘reimagining development’ therefore prevails within the discipline of development studies, with new thinking on what development policy and practice means today, who is driving it and for whom, particularly with view of achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (see UNDESA, n.d.). In the field of energy and development, the UN energy access initiative SE4All is a major milestone that provides a positive and forward-looking pathway to achieving access to sustainable energy access for everyone worldwide to enable sustainable development (SE4All, 2014).

1.3 Energy and development

Explain what energy is used for and why it is important for development.

Energy is used for virtually everything. Energy is required for basic human needs: for cooking, lighting, boiling water, heating and cooling, and for other household activities. Energy is also required to sustain and expand economic processes such as agriculture, electricity production, industries, services and transport. Energy is also needed for health care, telecommunications and to provide clean water and sanitation.

In 2010, Ban Ki Moon, the United Nations Secretary General said in a speech:

‘Universal energy access is a key priority on the global development agenda. It is a foundation for all the MDGs. […] Without energy services, the poor are cut off from basic amenities. They are forced to live and work in unhealthy, polluted conditions. Furthermore, energy poverty directly affects the viability of forests, soils and rangelands. In short, it is an obstacle to the MDGs.’

Source: Ban Ki-moon (21 September 2010)

In line with this statement, it is commonly suggested that access to energy is closely linked with development and economic growth (eg UNDP & WHO, 2009; IEA, 2010b; SE4All, 2014) and that alleviating energy poverty is a prerequisite for fulfilling the MDGs (IEA, 2010; SE4All, 2014). This has been acknowledged in the UN Sustainable Energy for All Initiative (SE4All), which aims to provide access to modern energy

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services to everyone worldwide by 2030 (as well as double the rate of improvement of energy efficiency and double the share of renewable energy in the energy mix) (SE4All, 2014). Access to modern energy services is important for reducing the time, burden and danger of fuel wood collection, to power industries and services that generate economic growth and to increase energy security.

When we talk about modern energy services we refer to options other than traditional biomass (such as fuel wood, dung, agricultural residues and charcoal) and rather refers to electricity and other modern energy options such as biogas. This will be discussed in more detail in the following sections and units.

Access to modern energy services is therefore crucial for development. There are, however, various ways of defining energy access. Practical Action defines ‘total energy access’ as having access to energy for lighting, cooking and water heating, space heating and cooling, information and communications and energy for earning a living (Practical Action, 2010). Partial energy access is defined as having access to energy for some of these activities, for example energy for cooking, but not energy for lighting. There is therefore a differentiation between access to electricity, access to household fuels (such as for cooking) and access to mechanical power (such as a treadle pump for pumping water).

Access to modern energy services is often equated with access to electricity. The definition of electrification differs between various institutions and countries. In principle, a household or village should only be classified as electrified once everyone in the household or village has access to reliable electricity. This is, however, not the case. The IEA (2007) uses the definition that a village or neighbourhood is electrified when at least 10% of the households have access to electricity. Other interpretations are that a village or neighbourhood is electrified if electricity is being used there for any purposes. This may not necessarily mean that people have access to electricity at home, it may however mean that one household or building (eg a school, a clinic) has access to electricity. Statistics on electrification rates therefore have to be viewed with caution as they might overestimate the actual number of people who have access to electricity. The electrification rates also do not give information about the reliability of the supply, as power cuts (black outs or load shedding) are common in many countries around the world. Bear this in mind when reading the following paragraph and looking at the figure in 1.3.1.

There is a link between income levels and energy access. A correlation has been found between rising income levels, both at household level and at national level, and rising energy access. This is valid for electricity access and access to modern fuels (World Bank, 2014). Consequently, countries which have higher incomes tend to have higher electricity access rates (Urban & Nordensvärd, 2013). [Please note. While a clear trend can be seen there are always exceptions. An exception is for example China, which is a middle-income country, but has an electrification rate of almost 100%. This is due to consolidated government efforts over several decades for rural electrification.] The figure in 1.3.1 shows the national electrification rates in several Asian developing countries. The countries are displayed in the graph according to their gross national income (GNI) per capita and their electrification rates in percentages. It is evident that countries that have higher per capita incomes, such as China and the Philippines have higher electrification rates, whereas countries with lower per capita incomes, such as Cambodia and Bangladesh, have lower electrification rates.

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1.3.1 Electrification rates in several Asian developing countries vs. GNI/capita (PPP) for the year 2010

The y axis shows GNI/capita (PPP) in US$, the x axis shows electrification rates in %.

Source: Urban (2014), based on data from IEA (2010) and World Development Indicators from the World Bank (2014)

Similar to the correlation between per capita incomes and electricity access, the International Energy Agency IEA has calculated a correlation between the Human Development Index (HDI) and the Energy Development Index (EDI).

The United Nations’ HDI is an indicator that shows how developed a country is. It takes into account the GNI per capita, life expectancy and an education index that is composed of average education level and expected length of schooling in the country. OECD countries, particularly the Nordic countries such as Norway, have traditionally been very high in the HDI ranking. Sub-Saharan countries, particularly those affected by armed conflict, have traditionally been low in the HDI ranking. For more information about the HDI and the Human Development Reports see UNDP (n.d.).

The IEA’s EDI is an indicator that shows how developed a country is in energy terms. The EDI takes into account per capita commercial energy consumption (excluding traditional biofuels that were not purchased), per capita electricity consumption in the residential sector, the share of modern fuels in the total residential sector energy use, and the share of the population with access to electricity. The EDI is only being calculated for developing countries, as for developed countries the EDI would be 1, the highest value. The highest ranking countries are typically located in the Middle East and Latin America. The lowest ranking countries are typically located in sub-Saharan Africa. For more information about the EDI and the Energy and Development Reports of the IEA see IEA (2010).

The figure in 1.3.2 shows the correlation between the HDI and EDI.

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1.3.2 Correlation between the Human Development Index and the Energy Development Index for developing countries

Source: IEA (2010) p. 32.

More details about the social implications of energy and development will be discussed in Units 5 and 7. Unit 10 will discuss in more detail how to enable energy access and how to overcome energy poverty, while the next sections will provide an introduction to energy poverty.

1.4 Energy and poverty

Despite the importance of energy access, 1.1 billion people worldwide do not have access to electricity and 2.8 billion people rely on traditional biomass – such as fuel wood and dung – for basic needs such as cooking and heating (IEA, 2017). This means that about 20% of the global population does not have access to electricity, although in many developing countries the figure can be as high as 80 or 90%. About 85% of these people without access to electricity live in rural areas and 95% of them live in sub-Saharan Africa and developing Asia. About 40% of the global population relies on traditional biomass, although in many developing countries the figure is much higher (World Bank, 2014).

Define the term ‘energy poverty’.

Energy poverty is defined as the lack of access to electricity and a reliance on the traditional use of biomass for cooking (IEA, 2010; Practical Action, 2010).

There are two so-called ‘hotspots’ of energy poverty: one in sub-Saharan Africa and one in developing Asia. In sub-Saharan Africa, almost 70% of the population does not have access to electricity and 80% rely on traditional biomass. The entire population of sub-Saharan Africa (excluding South Africa) – 791 million people – use as much

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electricity as the 20 million people of New York, USA. The share of access to electricity and modern energy is higher in developing Asia, but, due to large populations, almost 800 million people do not have access to electricity and 50% of them live in India (IEA, 2010). Energy poverty is therefore wide-spread and poses a global development challenge.

While the technical term used in developing countries is ‘energy poverty’, the technical term used to describe a similar situation in developed countries is ‘fuel poverty’. An individual or a household lives in fuel poverty when they cannot afford to pay to keep adequately warm in their home given their low income. The term is mainly used in the UK, Ireland and New Zealand, although similar discussions exist across Europe and the US. In the UK, an individual or a household is classified as living in fuel poverty when they spend 10% or more of their income on the costs of heating (UK Government, 2000). Fuel poverty can have several causes: low income, high fuel prices, poor energy efficiency of homes or under-occupancy of homes. It is often suggested that those affected the most are the elderly as they often tend to live on low pensions in homes that are not of the latest energy efficiency standard.

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Section 1 Self-Assessment Questions

uestion 1

Which of these statements is correct? Choose two out of five options.

(a) Energy is a chemical term that describes the capacity of a chemical system to cause a chemical reaction.

(b) Energy is a physical term that describes the capacity of a physical system to perform work.

(c) Energy exists in several forms such as thermal energy (heat), radiant energy (light), mechanical energy (kinetic), electric energy, chemical energy, nuclear energy or gravitational energy.

(d) Energy exists in only one form, namely electric energy.

(e) Energy exists in only one form, namely thermal energy.

uestion 2

True or false?

Development is a globally accepted definition for progress and economic growth.

uestion 3

How are energy and development linked? Choose two of the five options.

(a) Modern energy access is directly linked to income levels at the household and national level.

(b) Modern energy access is not linked to any development processes.

(c) Only fossil fuel energy plays a role for development, not non-fossil fuels such as renewable energy.

(d) Energy is needed for basic human needs, for sustaining and expanding economic processes like agriculture, electricity production, industries, services and transport as well as for health care, telecommunications, and for providing clean water and sanitation.

(e) Energy plays only a marginal role for development processes, as it is not linked to issues such as income, health and an improvement of living standards.

Q

Q

Q

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2.0 DEALING WITH ENERGY POVERTY

Section Overview

This section discusses the challenges posed by energy poverty, how to measure it and some of the efforts in policy and practice for reducing energy poverty and providing energy access, particularly efforts by the international community. Understanding these issues is vital for understanding how policy-makers, institutions and individuals aim to overcome energy poverty and how to solve some of the biggest developmental challenges of our times.

Section Learning Outcomes

By the end of this section students should be able to:

• state the challenges of energy poverty and energy access and how to measure them

• be aware of efforts in policy and practice for overcoming energy poverty.

2.1 Measuring energy poverty

This section deals with energy poverty and how to measure it.

Can you think of examples of what energy poverty means for the daily lives of poor people?

Keeping in mind how difficult it is to live with energy poverty, we will discuss how to measure it, followed by Section 2.2, which discusses how to overcome energy poverty by providing energy access.

How is energy poverty measured?

There are various ways of measuring energy poverty. Two very simple and rather crude measurements that we elaborated in Section 1.3 are electrification rates and the rates of people cooking with traditional biofuels such as fuel wood, charcoal dung and agricultural residues.

Another measurement, the EDI, was also discussed in Section 1.3. The EDI measures per capita energy use for residential and commercial purposes, the share of the population with access to electricity and the share of modern fuels in the residential energy use (IEA, 2010).

Another useful indicator is the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI). The MPI is not a pure energy indicator, but it measures development levels from a holistic perspective, taking into account energy poverty indicators as some of several development indicators. The MPI measures the lack of access to electricity and the

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prevalence of traditional biofuels for cooking such as fuel wood, charcoal or dung (OPHI, 2010). More on the MPI can be found on OHPI (OPHI, n.d. a; n.d. b).

A further index for measuring energy poverty is the (Total) Energy Access Index developed by the NGO Practical Action (2010). This index specifies the minimum energy standard individuals or households should have for specific energy services, such as lighting, cooking and water heating, space heating, cooling, information and communications, and earning a living. Figure 2.1.1 shows this description of energy access standards for various energy services. Total energy access is defined as meeting all the minimum energy standards as shows in figure 2.1.1.

2.1.1 Minimum energy standard for specific energy services for achieving total energy access

Energy service Minimum standard

1. Lighting 300 lumens at household level

2. Cooking and water heating

1 kg woodfuel or 0.3 kg charcoal or 0.04 kg LPG or 0.2 litres of kerosene or ethanol per person per day, taking less than 30 minutes per household per day to obtain

Minimum efficiency of improved wood and charcoal stoves to be 40% greater than a three-stone fire in terms of fuel use

Annual mean concentrations of particulate matter (PM2.5) < 10 µg/m3 in households, with interim goals of 15 µg/m3, 25 µg/m3 and 35 µg/m3

3. Space heating Minimum daytime indoor air temperature of 12 °C

4. Cooling Food processors, retailers and householders have facilities to extend life of perishable products by a minimum of 50% over that allowed by ambient storage

All health facilities have refrigeration adequate for the blood, vaccine and medicinal needs of local populations

Maximum indoor air temperature of 30 °C

5. Information and communications

People can communicate electronic information beyond the locality in which they live

People can access electronic media relevant to their lives and livelihoods

6. Earning a living Access to energy is sufficient for the start up of any enterprise

The proportion of operating costs for energy consumption in energy efficient enterprises is financially sustainable.

Source: Practical Action (2010) p. ix.

The Energy Access Index then ranks access to energy services on levels from 1 to 5 for access to household fuels, electricity and mechanical power. Depending on the quality of the supply this can, for example, range from no access to electricity (level 1) to reliable 240 V alternating current (AC) connection for all uses (level 5) (Practical Action, 2010). More detail about the Energy Access Index is found in the figure 2.1.2.

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2.1.2 Energy Access Index

Energy supply Level Quality of supply

Household fuels 1 Collecting wood or dung and using a three-stone fire

2 Collecting wood and using an improved stove

3 Buying wood and using an improved stove

4 Buying charcoal and using an improved stove

5 Using a modern, clean-burning fuel and stove combination

Electricity 1 No access to electricity at all

2 Access to third party battery charging only

3 Own low-voltage DC access for home applications

4 240 V AC connection but poor quality and intermittent supply

5 Reliable 240 V AC connection available for all uses

Mechanical power 1 No access to mechanical power. Hand power only with basic tools

2 Mechanical advantage devices available to magnify human/animal effort

3 Powered (renewable or fossil) mechanical devices available for some tasks

4 Powered (renewable or fossil) mechanical devices available for most tasks

5 Mainly purchasing mechanically processed services.

Source: Practical Action (2010) p. x.

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The figure in 2.1.3 gives two examples of how the Energy Access Index is being used in practice and what it means for poor people and poor countries. The first example is at the household level from a family in Nepal, whereas the second example is at the national level from Sri Lanka.

2.1.3 Energy Access Index: two practical examples of how to use the index at the household and national level

Source: Practical Action (2010) p. xi.

Why is it important to understand how energy poverty is measured?

It is important to understand how energy poverty is measured to be able to understand the underlying issues that cause energy poverty and the impacts of energy poverty, such as health problems from indoor air pollution, the burden of fuel wood collection, limited opportunities to earn a living, limited access to communications and services, etc. These issues will be discussed in detail in Units 5 and 7. Understanding how energy

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poverty is measured is also important for understanding how policy and practice can be designed to overcome energy poverty and to increase energy access. This will be discussed in the next section and in more detail in Unit 10.

2.2 Policy and practice for overcoming energy poverty

As 1.1 billion people worldwide do not have access to electricity and 2.8 billion people rely on traditional biomass for basic needs such as cooking and heating (IEA, 2017), there is an urgent need to overcome energy poverty. As mentioned in earlier sections, energy poverty is linked to low national per capita incomes, to low development levels and to a wider range of social, economic and environmental challenges. Overcoming global energy poverty is therefore one of the biggest challenges of our times. This is recognised by the fact that none of the MDGs can be achieved without energy access. For example, MGD 1 states that the global community needs to overcome extreme poverty and hunger. Poverty can, however, only be reduced when there are opportunities for income generation, which are often constrained by lack of energy access. Hunger can only be overcome when fuels for cooking and preparing meals are available. The link between the MDGs and energy access will be discussed in Unit 10.

Omitting energy targets from the MDGs has therefore displayed a major lack of understanding energy poverty and energy access issues. The MDGs have not been reached, as global poverty and hunger continue to exist as well as many other problems related to underdevelopment. The MDGs will therefore be followed up by a new set of targets for global development after 2015, namely the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). Fortunately, the understanding of energy poverty has improved and its importance has gained some global attention in recent years, hence the SDG present an opportunity to include energy targets.

Efforts to reduce energy poverty and increase energy access have been ongoing for several decades, however they have had limited success. While many country- and local-level initiatives aimed (and still aim) at alleviating energy poverty and increasing energy access there have been no far-reaching international energy access targets in the past. This has changed with the United Nation’s targets for universal energy access. Through an initiative called Sustainable Energy for All (SE4All), the UN has set a target for providing universal modern energy access by 2030. Their aim is to provide access to electricity and clean cooking facilities to all people in all countries worldwide. This goal is linked to renewable energy provision as the UN estimates that about two-thirds of the rural population in developing countries will get access to electricity through decentralised renewable energy, delivered by renewable-energy-powered mini-grids and off-grid solutions. Decentralised renewable energy, such as biogas, also plays a key role in providing access to clean cooking facilities (IEA, 2010).

One of the key questions is how the universal energy access targets will be financed. It is suggested that parts of the costs will have to be borne by national governments and authorities, other parts may be funded by the international community and NGOs and other parts by the private sector as a means of investing in energy infrastructure and technology. Nevertheless, some of the costs will be borne by consumers, who in this case are predominantly poor and have limited ability to pay (IEA, 2011).

The figure in 2.2.1 indicates the targets for the SE4All initiative and how energy access should be provided in the urban and rural areas.

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2.2.1 Targets for the UN’s universal modern energy access to be achieved by 2030

2015 2030 Rural Urban Rural Urban Access to electricity

Provide 257 million people with electricity access

100% access to grid

100% access, of which 30% connected to the grid and 70% either mini-grid (75%) or off-grid (25%)

100% access to grid

Access to clean cooking facilities

Provide 800 million people with access to LPG stoves (30%), biogas systems (15%) or advanced biomass cookstoves (55%)

Provide 200 million people with access to LPG stoves

100% access to LPG stoves (30%), biogas systems (15%) or advanced biomass cookstoves (55%)

100% access to LPG stoves

Source: IEA (2010) p. 16.

After examining international policy and practice for overcoming energy poverty, we will briefly examine examples from two national governments.

We will first look at India. With about 390 million people without access to electricity in 2010, India hosts the world’s largest population deprived of electricity. About 90% of this population lives in rural India, equalling about 350 million people or 65 million households (IEA, 2007). Energy poverty is clearly an issue: electrification rates were as low as 50% in rural areas and 62% overall in 2005, while electrification rates had increased to 75% in total by 2010 (IEA, 2017; Urban, 2014).

Indian rural electrification schemes were in the past mainly linked to rural development in form of promoting irrigation for increased agricultural productivity. Recent electrification schemes mainly aimed at electrifying villages and households, with an emphasis on households below the poverty line, as in the Kutir Jyoti programme (Bhattacharyya, 2006). The government’s ambitious plans to achieve complete village and household electrification by 2010, under the Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidhyutikaran Yojana scheme, were challengeable from the outset, as 71.7 million households were still non-electrified in 2005 (IEA, 2007). This target was not achieved; in 2010, 25% of the total population, equalling 65 million rural households, was still without access to electricity (IEA, 2017). However, this was followed up with a new target to achieve electricity access for all of India’s population by 2012 (UNDP & WHO, 2009). This target was not achieved. The IEA estimates that complete rural electrification is unlikely to be achieved before 2030 (IEA, 2010). The Indian government has initiatives in place to achieve rural electrification increasingly through decentralised renewable energy, as grid connections are very expensive, particularly

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in remote areas. There are several bottlenecks with regards to electrification as India has for decades suffered from an under-financed power sector, poor infrastructure, customers who are too poor to pay, electricity theft and problematic restructuring of mostly state-owned utility firms (IEA, 2002; IEA, 2012).

After looking at India, the country hosting the world’s largest population without electricity access, we will look at China. China has achieved an electrification rate of almost 100% in recent years due to a decade-long history of providing rural electricity access through small-scale hydropower and recent large-scale government-funded electrification programmes. The first large-scale rural electrification initiatives in the 1950s to 1970s were based on small-scale hydropower and aimed at increasing agricultural productivity by means of improved irrigation, driven by a centrally planned state. Over time, the policy on rural electrification became driven by local governments that made considerable investments, thereby helping to roll out rural electrification efforts all over the country as a means of providing access to electricity for millions of people. This happened at a time when China shifted from being mainly agrarian based to becoming increasingly industrialised in the 1980s and 1990s. Since 2000, the aim has been to invest in upgrading rural grids and extending electricity access to remote areas of China (Jiahua et al, 2006). In recent years, China launched the China Township Electrification Programme to provide electricity from renewable energy to 1000 townships, which was one of the largest of such programmes worldwide. This was followed by the China Village Electrification Programme, which aimed to bring electricity from renewable energy to 3.5 million households and to achieve complete electrification by 2015. Renewable energy, particularly small hydropower, has therefore always played a prominent role for reducing energy poverty in China. At the same time, it has to be acknowledged that China sets itself apart from many other countries due to its formerly centrally planned state and what Chinese may today call a ‘market economy with Chinese characteristics’ that has abundant investments, well-operating state-owned enterprises and access to modern power technology.

The two examples above highlight some historic and current developments in the policy and practice of overcoming energy poverty. While the focus of these policies and programmes is often on electrification, household fuels are often less prominent. There are several NGOs, such as Practical Action, that work on improved cook stoves and cleaner fuels, nevertheless national efforts and investments in this area are often limited.

Unit 10 will discuss some of the issues mentioned here in more detail. It will also discuss key issues related to delivery models for energy access for developing countries.

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Section 2 Self-Assessment Questions

uestion 4

What is energy poverty? Choose one of the three options.

(a) Energy poverty is defined as lack of access to fossil fuels, particularly oil and natural gas.

(b) Energy poverty is defined as having access to electricity, but being on a low-income level.

(c) Energy poverty is defined as a lack of access to electricity and a reliance on the traditional use of biomass for cooking.

uestion 5

True or false?

Common indicators of energy poverty include the Energy Poverty Index, the Energy Development Index, the Energy Access Index and electrification rates.

uestion 6

What initiatives exist in policy and practice to overcome energy poverty? Choose two of the five options.

(a) The UN’s Sustainable Energy for All (SE4All) initiative to achieve universal modern energy access for everyone by 2030. This includes access to electricity and clean cooking fuel.

(b) Saudi Arabia’s initiative to provide all households in the Middle East with private diesel generators.

(c) The World Nuclear Association’s initiative to provide universal electrification through nuclear energy-based electricity.

(d) There are no initiatives to overcome energy poverty.

(e) Rural electrification schemes that aim to increase electricity access in rural areas, for example in India, China and many other countries.

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3.0 ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Section Overview

This section discusses the wider environmental implications of energy use and why energy use poses a global environmental challenge. The section focuses particularly on the links between energy and global climate change, natural resource depletion and air pollution. The section then discusses alternative, non-fossil energy options that can mitigate some of these environmental implications. Understanding these issues is vital for understanding how policy-makers, institutions and individuals manage energy and development and how to solve some of the biggest developmental and environmental issues of our times.

Section Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit students should be able to:

• understand how energy use is intertwined with global environmental challenges such as climate change, fossil fuel resource depletion and air pollution

• be aware of alternative, non-fossil energy options that can mitigate these environmental implications.

3.1 Energy and climate change

How is energy linked to climate change?

About 80% of the global primary energy supply comes from fossil fuels, primarily oil and coal (IEA, 2017). Fossil energy resources are limited and fossil energy use is associated with a number of negative environmental effects, most importantly global climate change, but also natural resource depletion and air pollution. The next section discusses how energy use and climate change are linked.

The IPCC estimates that about 70% of all greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions worldwide come from energy-related activities. This is mainly from fossil fuel combustion for heat supply, electricity generation and transport, and includes carbon dioxide (CO2), methane and some traces of nitrous oxide (IPCC, 2007). It is well documented that these emissions contribute to global climate change. Energy use has potentially significant climate impacts, which are assumed to exceed the impacts from other sources like land-use and other industrial activities. It is therefore considered crucial to promote GHG emission reduction technologies for fossil fuel combustion processes (Urban, 2014).

The IPCC states that the ‘atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have increased to levels unprecedented in at least the last 800 000 years. CO2 concentrations have increased by 40% since pre-industrial times, primarily from fossil fuel emissions and secondarily from net land use change emissions’ (IPCC, 2013: p. 7). Energy use from fossil fuels therefore contributes directly to GHG emissions and

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thereby contributes to rising temperatures and other observed effects of global climate change.

The IPCC has an extremely high confidence level of 95% probability that global climate change is anthropogenic, caused due to excessive GHG emissions (IPCC, 2013; 2014a; 2014b). At the global scale, the atmospheric concentration of CO2 has increased from a pre-industrial value of approximately 280 parts per million (ppm) to around 380 ppm in 2005 (IPCC, 2007), with a reported peak level of 396 ppm in 2007 (Richardson et al, 2009). In summer 2013, it was reported that the atmospheric concentration of CO2 had even surpassed the 400 ppm level at one stage (Tans & Keeling, 2013; Urban, 2014). See the figure in 3.1.1 for details.

3.1.1 Atmospheric CO2 concentrations in part per million (ppm) at Mauna Loa Observatory between 1960 and 2013, reported in September 2013

Source: Tans and Keeling, NOAA (2013)

According to the IPCC (2013), the global mean surface temperature has risen by 0.85 ± 0.2°C between 1880 and 2012 (IPCC, 2013; 2014a; 2014b). This increase has been particularly significant over the last 50 years. From a global perspective, the IPCC (2013; 2014a; 2014b) reports that they found high increases in heavy precipitation events, while droughts have become more frequent since the 1970s, especially in the (sub)tropics. They also document changes in the large-scale atmospheric circulation and increases in tropical cyclone activity since the 1970s (IPCC, 2013; 2014a; 2014b). The IPCC’s latest 5th Assessment Report highlights the observed and partly irreversible changes to the Earth’s ecosystems, particularly the changes to the oceans, that absorb a large part of the CO2 and thereby become acidified, and the cryosphere (IPCC, 2013; 2014a; 2014b; Urban, 2014).

Today, the majority of climate scientists agree that ‘the possibility of staying below the 2 degree Celsius threshold by 2100 between “acceptable” and “dangerous” climate

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change becomes less likely as no serious global action on climate change is taken’ (Urban, 2014: p. 4 also citing Anderson, 2009; Richardson et al, 2009; Urban, 2009;). Climate scientists estimate that for a 50% chance of achieving the 2 degree target, a global atmospheric CO2 equivalent concentration of 400 to 450 ppm should not be exceeded (Richardson et al, 2009; Pye et al, 2010), which would require an immediate reduction of global GHG emissions of about 60–80% by 2100 (Richardson et al, 2009). Nevertheless, the 400 ppm target is reported to have been reached recently (Richardson et al, 2009; Tans & Keeling, 2013) and still emissions are rising. Emissions in 2018 even reached 410 ppm. There is therefore a need to reduce emissions rapidly and significantly to avoid dangerous climate change (Urban, 2014).

Energy from non-fossil fuels, such as renewable energy and lower carbon energy, is therefore crucial for mitigating the GHG emissions that lead to climate change. This will be discussed briefly in Section 3.4. Other strategies such as reducing energy use and increasing energy efficiency are also required. We will discuss the issue of climate change and its link to energy issues in more detail in Units 6 and 7.

3.2 Energy and other environmental problems

Natural resource depletion

Another key environmental impact of energy use is natural resource depletion. Energy resources are a form of natural resource. One differentiates between fossil and non-fossil resources. Fossil resources have been formed over millions of years from the organic remains of pre-historic animals and plants. They have a high carbon content and include coal, oil and natural gas. These fossil fuels are non-renewable energy sources as their reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being formed. For example: It took millions of years to form an oil field, but it can take only several years of exploitation to deplete it. Mining and extraction are therefore major causes for depleting fossil fuel resources (Goldemberg & Lucon, 2009).

Non-fossil resources include renewable non-finite, non-depletable energy such as wind energy, solar energy and hydropower that are abundantly available from the wind, sun and water. Renewable energy comes from the Earth’s elements that are always available such as sun and wind.

Biomass-based energy is another of energy source that is being classified as renewable. Nevertheless, there is a division between traditional biomass, such as fuel wood, modern biomass, such as pellets and wood briquettes, biogas such as for cooking, as well as biofuels that are divided in first-generation, second-generation and third-generation groups. First-generation or conventional biofuels are usually based on edible biomass-based starch, sugar or vegetable oil. This means these fuels are usually based on food products such as corn, wheat or other cereals, cassava, sugar beet and sugar cane, which are used for making bioethanol. Soy, jatropha and palm oil are used for making biodiesel. Second-generation biofuels are usually made from feedstock and waste (eg municipal waste). Third-generation biofuels or advanced/unconventional biofuels do not usually depend on food products or feedstock, but can be derived from algae, cellulose and other forms of plant biomass, which makes it harder to extract fuel (Goldemberg & Lucon, 2009).

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Nuclear energy also falls into the category of non-fossil resources. While nuclear energy is a non-fossil resource, it is finite and depletable as it relies on uranium resources. There is heated debate on whether uranium will become a rare and near-depleted resource, similar to oil, any time soon or whether uranium resources will remain abundant for hundreds or even thousands of years to come.

At the same time, the harvesting and use of traditional biomass such as fuel wood can contribute to the depletion of natural forest resources. While many people rely on the collection of fallen down branches from trees, others depend on felling trees. The production of charcoal also involves the felling of trees. This can lead to a degradation and/or decrease of woodlands and forests that can eventually lead to larger-scale deforestation, erosion and desertification. This practice can also lead to a decrease in biodiversity, negative impacts on water and food security. In areas where forests offer some protection again natural disasters, felling trees for access to fuel wood can have devastating impacts. For example, as mangrove forests are cleared for fuel wood this reduces the natural protection from floods, tsunamis and sea-level rise, thereby leaving people, economies and ecosystems even more vulnerable to natural disasters and climatic impacts than before.

Another key issue around energy use and natural resource depletion is linked to peak oil. Peak oil is a concept that describes first an increase in oil production up to a peak and afterwards a decline in oil production. This is based on an observed rise of oil production, a peak and then a fall in the production rate of oil fields over time as the oil resources are depleted. This is due to rapid oil extraction from finite natural resources that can be depleted and that needed millions of years to be built. Peak oil is therefore the point of maximum oil production. There is lively debate among scientists and the oil lobby over whether peak oil has already happened or whether it still lies ahead.

These issues will be discussed in more detail in Unit 6.

Air pollution

Energy use is not only likely to contribute to global climate change, but also gives rise to other negative impacts such as air pollution (Goldemberg & Lucon, 2009). This includes indoor air pollution and outdoor air pollution.

Indoor air pollution is caused by the combustion of traditional solid fuels such as fuel wood and charcoal. The combustion of these solid fuels causes indoor air pollution through the release of smoke, soot and small particles that are linked to negative impacts on health. This is associated with pneumonia, chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer and adverse pregnancy outcomes due to exposure to indoor air pollution (WHO, 2000; 2005; 2006). The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that about 5% of all deaths in least developed countries could be due to traditional solid fuel use (WHO, 2000). According to WHO and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP & WHO, 2009), almost 2 million people – mostly women and children who spent much of their time close to the hearth – are likely to die every year, because of exposure to indoor air pollution from traditional biofuels. Introducing modern renewable and low carbon energy sources as a replacement for traditional biofuels is likely to increase the health of the population in developing countries.

Outdoor air pollution is another observed phenomenon that is linked to the combustion of fossil fuels from energy generation, transport and industry. Outdoor air

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pollution can create smog and cause adverse health effects. Many of the world’s mega-cities, such as Beijing, Cairo, Delhi, Dhaka, Karachi, Mexico City, Shanghai as well as London and Los Angeles, have considerable air pollution problems. Air pollution has been a serious problem in the world’s mega-cities for decades. Health problems linked to local air pollution, such as lung cancer and chronic respiratory diseases, are a serious problem. These diseases also result in high cost burdens to the world’s health systems (WHO, 2000; 2005).

Increased car ownership in emerging economies such as China, India and Mexico is likely to worsen the air pollution problem. Some countries and cities have regulations in place to reduce urban air pollution, for example by (temporarily) closing down polluting industries and introducing a license plate regulation and restriction system for private vehicles. The city of Beijing is following this approach; however there are various ways around the system.

Outdoor air pollution also brings with it the case of transboundary air pollution. Transboundary air pollution means that the pollution is caused at one specific geographic location, for example in one city in country A, but due to wind and climatic conditions the pollution is transported to other areas, for example over the border into country B. Transboundary air pollution was a major issue in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s in relation to acid rain that had its origins in the polluting coal-fired factories of Russia and Eastern Europe, but was swept over to Northern and Northwestern Europe with the prevailing winds and caused acidification of lakes and water bodies there.

These issues will be discussed in more detail in Unit 6.

Alternative energy options

The above sections discussed key issues related to energy use and its implications for development as well as the contribution of energy use to climate change, resource depletion and air pollution. The combustion of fossil fuels leads to GHG emissions that cause climate change, the extraction of fossil fuels depletes finite natural resources that have formed over millions of years and the use of fossil fuels contributes to air pollution. So-called ‘low carbon energy technologies’, such as renewable energy technology, nuclear energy technology and Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS), are therefore key mechanisms to reducing carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions. Low carbon energy emits less GHGs than conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas. Some low carbon energy technologies, such as large hydropower and nuclear energy, have witnessed a recent revival due to climate change concerns. Nevertheless, this brings with it other adverse effects, such as concerns about health, safety and environmental impacts with regard to nuclear power (Goldemberg & Lucon, 2009).

While about 80% of the world’s energy supply comes from fossil fuels there is an increasing trend towards using alternative non-fossil energy options, such as renewable energy (IEA, 2017). Renewable energy has high growth rates around the world. Due to its rapid implementation time, renewable energy may also avoid carbon lock-in and path dependency. Implementing renewable energy technology today may provide low carbon energy quickly and may avoid lock-in effects, such as dependence on fossil fuel power plants for decades.

Renewable energy comes from renewable natural resources, such as sunlight, wind, water, tides, geothermal heat and biomass. Unlike fossil fuels and nuclear energy,

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which are finite and depletable, these energy resources are renewable and non-depletable. The most widely used and commercialised renewable energy technologies are wind turbines, solar photovoltaic (PV) panels and hydropower technology. This will be discussed in detail in Unit 3.

While the environmental benefits of renewable energy are well established, renewable energy also offers an alternative for improving energy access and reducing energy poverty. As we discussed in Section 2.2, the UN’s universal modern energy access target by 2030 is expected only to be achievable if a large part of the rural population in developing countries gets access to electricity and clean cooking fuels through renewable energy. This includes options such as mini-grids and off-grid renewable energy, particularly solar and micro-hydro, as well as biogas for cooking (IEA, 2010). This also reduces the reliance on traditional biofuels such as fuel wood, which has adverse health impacts. Nevertheless, there are major barriers, particularly of economic, political and social nature.

These issues will be elaborated from various perspectives throughout the following nine units.

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Section 3 Self-Assessment Questions

uestion 7

Which environmental problems are directly linked to energy use? Choose three of the five options.

(a) global climate change

(b) tsunamis

(c) natural resource depletion

(d) invasive species

(e) air pollution

uestion 8

How is climate change linked to energy use? Choose one of the five options.

(a) The drilling for fossil fuels in the Artic leads to melting of glaciers and sea ice which causes global climate change.

(b) Renewable energy use, particularly solar energy use, leads to an excessive warming of the planet which causes global climate change.

(c) Renewable energy use leads to the emission of GHGs, most importantly carbon dioxide, that cause global climate change.

(d) The combustion of fossil fuels leads to the emission of GHGs, most importantly carbon dioxide, that cause global climate change.

(e) The combustion of fossil fuels leads to the emission of GHGs, most importantly uranium, that cause global climate change.

uestion 9

Fill in the missing words/phrases.

Non-fossil fuels such as _______ energy sources have near-zero _______ emissions and thereby contribute to _______ carbon energy generation that _______ the carbon _______ leading to global _______ _______. Renewable energy sources are _______ available worldwide and do not deplete finite _______ _______ resources.

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UNIT SUMMARY

This unit provided an introduction to energy and development. Energy is a vital commodity and is closely intertwined with development and economic growth. Alleviating energy poverty is a prerequisite for fulfilling the MDGs and achieving the UN’s universal energy access targets by 2030. Despite the importance of energy access, about 1.1 billion people worldwide do not have access to electricity and approximately 2.8 billion people rely on traditional biomass – such as fuel wood and dung – for basic needs such as cooking and heating (IEA, 2017). Energy poverty is therefore widespread and poses a global development challenge.

At the same time, energy use is closely intertwined with climate change, fossil fuel resource depletion and air pollution. Energy use has therefore become a national and global challenge. Understanding these issues is vital for understanding how policy-makers, institutions and individuals manage energy and development and how to solve some of the biggest developmental and environmental issues of our times.

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UNIT SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

uestion 1

Which two of the following ten options are NOT energy sources?

(a) wind

(b) batteries

(c) coal

(d) sun

(e) water

(f) natural gas

(g) wood

(h) oil

(i) electricity

(j) uranium.

uestion 2

Which one of the following three statements is correct?

(a) There is a correlation between the Energy Development Index and the Human Development Index.

(b) There is no correlation between electrification rates and per capita income levels measured as GNI/per capita (PPP).

(c) The Multidimensional Poverty Index and the Total Energy Access Index have nothing in common and are therefore not correlated.

uestion 3

How much of the global energy supply comes from fossil fuels today? Choose one option.

(a) 50%

(b) 60%

(c) 70%

(d) 80%

(e) 90%

(f) 100%

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KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

air pollution The pollution of the air by pollutants, such as chemicals,

particulates or biological materials. Common sources of pollution are fossil fuel combustion from energy generation, transport and industrial activity.

carbon dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide (chemical formula CO2) is the most important GHG as its concentration in the atmosphere has risen rapidly in recent decades. It is emitted when fossil fuels are combusted, for example for energy generation, transport and industrial activity.

climate change

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines climate change as ‘a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods’. The effects of climate change are rising temperatures, melting glaciers and ice sheets, sea-level rise, acidification of the oceans, changes in precipitation, increases in extreme weather events like floods, droughts and cyclones, changes to biodiversity and impacts on socioeconomic systems.

climate change mitigation

The IPCC defines climate change mitigation as ‘an anthropogenic intervention to reduce the anthropogenic forcing of the climate system; it includes strategies to reduce GHG sources and emissions and enhancing GHG sinks.

decentralised energy

Energy that comes from off-grid or mini-grid energy sources and is not connected to the central grid.

development

There are many different definitions for development. Some scholars and organisations equate development with ‘good change’ (eg Chambers, 1995), others associate it with progress, others with economic growth, others with right-based approaches, others with human choices and capabilities.

development studies The study of the process of development.

electrification

A term for which various definitions exist. In principle, a household or village should only be classified as electrified once everyone in the household or village has access to reliable electricity. This is, however, not the case. The IEA (2007) uses the definition that a village or neighbourhood is electrified when at least 10% of the households have access to electricity. Other interpretations are that electricity is being used in a village or neighbourhood for any purpose, rather than for residential purposes.

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energy

A physical term that describes the capacity of a physical system to perform work. Energy exists in several forms such as thermal energy (heat), radiant energy (light), mechanical energy (kinetic), electric energy, chemical energy, nuclear energy or gravitational energy.

energy carrier

A substance or system that contains potential energy than can be released and used as actual energy in the form of mechanical work, heat or to operate chemical and physical processes. Energy carriers include batteries, coal, dammed water, electricity, hydrogen, natural gas, petrol and wood. Energy carriers do not produce energy; however, they ‘carry’ the energy until it is released.

Energy Development Index (EDI)

The EDI is an indicator that shows how developed a country’s energy setting is. It takes into account per capita commercial energy consumption (excluding traditional biofuels that were not purchased), per capita electricity consumption in the residential sector, the share of modern fuels in the total residential sector energy use and the share of the population with access to electricity.

energy poverty

The lack of access to electricity and a reliance on the traditional use of biomass for cooking.

energy source

A natural resource that is being used to provide the energy, for example coal or wind.

fossil fuel energy

Energy that is based on fossil fuels that have been formed over millions of years from the organic remains of prehistoric animals and plants. Fossil fuels have a high carbon content and include coal, oil and natural gas.

greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is a process in which the GHGs in the atmosphere absorb infrared radiation and thereby warm the Earth. The natural greenhouse effect can be differentiated from the anthropogenic or enhanced greenhouse effect. The natural greenhouse effect creates an average surface temperature of around 15°C on Earth, which makes it a place ideal for human habitation. Without the natural greenhouse effect, the Earth’s temperature would be about −18°C. The anthropogenic greenhouse effect is caused by the excessive emissions of climate-relevant GHGs, particularly carbon dioxide, that warm up the Earth by trapping excessive amounts of infrared radiation in the atmosphere.

greenhouse gases (GHGs)

GHGs include carbon dioxide (chemical formula CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). These GHGs are emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels, from land use changes and deforestation, from industrial activity and transport.

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Human Development Index (HDI)

The HDI is an indicator that shows how developed a country is. It takes into account the GNI per capita, life expectancy and an education index that is composed of average education level and expected length of schooling in the country.

kinetic energy

Working or operational energy, such as when the water from a dam is being released and the turbines are operating.

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

A set of 10 development goals that were launched in 2000 with the ultimate goal to eradicate world poverty, hunger and achieve global development by 2015. Some improvements have been made, however the goals fell short and will therefore by replaced by a new set of goals in 2015: the Sustainable Development Goals.

mini-grid

Decentralised, connected to a small local grid, such as a local system of interconnected solar PV panels.

modern energy

Other energy options than traditional biomass (such as fuel wood, dung and agricultural residues). This often refers to electricity and modern cooking options such as biogas.

Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)

The MPI is an indicator that measures development levels from a holistic perspective, taking into account energy poverty indicators as some of several development indicators. The MPI measures the lack of access to electricity and the prevalence of traditional biofuels for cooking such as fuel wood, charcoal or dung.

natural resource depletion

The depletion of natural resources such as fossil fuel resources.

off-grid

Decentralised, not connected to the central grid, often stand-alone energy technology such as a solar cooker.

peak oil

A concept that describes first an increase in oil production up to a peak and afterwards a decline in oil production. This is based on an observed rise of oil production, a peak and then a fall in the production rate of oil fields over time as the oil resources are depleted. The theory is that this phenomenon of peaking oil production is not only limited to oil fields, but that it applies globally as all oil resources could be depleted at some point. The exact timing of peak oil is yet uncertain.

potential energy Stored energy that can be released at point in time, such as dammed water in a reservoir.

primary energy

Energy that has not been subject to any conversion or processing and contains raw fuels, such as crude oil or solar energy.

renewable energy

Energy that comes from non-fossil fuels and is abundantly available worldwide such as energy from the sun, the wind, water and biomass. These resources are renewed within short time frames.

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secondary energy

Energy that has been subject to conversion or processing, such as petroleum from crude oil to or electricity from solar energy.

Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)

A set of post-2015 development goals set by the UN that will come in force at the end of the MDG era. The SDGs include targets for energy access and climate change.

Sustainable Energy for All (SE4All) initiative

The UN’s SE4All initiative aims to achieve universal modern energy access in the form of electricity access and access to modern cooking fuels by 2030.

traditional energy/biomass

Fuel wood, dung, agricultural residues and other forms of traditional biomass that are not classified as modern energy.

(Total) Energy Access ndex

This index specifies the minimum energy standard individuals or households should have for specific energy services, such as lighting, cooking and water heating, space heating, cooling, information and communications, and earning a living. Total energy access is defined as meeting all certain minimum energy standards. The Energy Access Index then ranks access to energy services on levels from 1 to 5 for access to household fuels, electricity and mechanical power.