p 0720 embedded microcomputer for avionics

8/11/2019 p 0720 Embedded Microcomputer for Avionics

1/146

JgklYd ;\\j]kk6 Pakalaf_ ;\\j]kk6 N]d]hgf]6


2/146

JgklYd ;\\j]kk6 Pakalaf_ ;\\j]kk6 N]d]hgf]6


3/146

Frord

i

Frord

Pa kcmdd] nadbY lY[cY YddY kge _bgjl \]l ewbda_l Yll _]fge^wjY \]llY ]pYe]fkYjZ]l](^jYe^wjYddl nvjY Yf\d]\Yj]( HebYXffbe J[Tf[\ ChTe ^wj Yfk mf\]jZYjY mhhkacl(

jv\_anfaf_ kYel d]\faf_ Yn \]llY hjgb]cl( kujkcadl e]\ YcY\]eakcY l]eYf7KbeU]seaEqaXY]beW ^wj Yll Yf _]ll gkk ladd^udd]l Yll YjZ]lY e]\ ]ll kvfl hjgb]cl hv M;;uj^wj Zwj eYf Z]YclY \]kkY uef]fmlwn]j hj]klYf\Y na\ mlnuj\]jaf_af Yn afZq__\Y eacjg\Ylgj]j*

>]llY ]pYe]fkYjZ]l] ^wj]kdvj ]f afjYefaf_ ^wj hj]klYf\Ymlnuj\]jaf_ Yn lnve]\d]eeYj Yn Jgo]jJ= eacjghjg[]kkgj ^Yeadb]f( fueda_]f GJ=1110 ^jvf@j]]k[Yd] g[ JJ=00,?Jp ^jvf ;G==( kYel YfYdqk]jYj j]kmdlYl]f afge g[e]ddYf \]kkY hjg[]kkgj]j* CejYefaf_]f cYf _]f]jYdak]jYk ladd Yll Yfnuf\Yk a fv_gfeacjghjg[]kkgj ^Yeadb( na\ Z]gn*

Olwn]j hj]klYf\Ymlnuj\]jaf_( kv ^wj]kdvj \]l uj ]pYe]fkYjZ]l]l g[ckv ]f fql]jeafgdg_a( _]fge Yll af^wjY Z]_j]hh]l ge \]l]jeafake fanv]j ^wj Yll cmffYmhhkcYllY \]l]jeafake^jv_gj a ^dq_]d]cljgfac YhhdacYlagf]j lq\da_Yj]( nadc]l ^vj

Yn_wjYf\] Z]lq\]dk] fuj \]l _udd]j cjYn g[ YjZ]lk^wjvddYf\]f ^wj bmkl \]ffYYhhdacYlagf* Mv\Yf mhhkcYllfaf_ af_vj afl] fv_jY hjYclakcY j]kmdlYl kge amlnuj\]jaf_ Yn hj]klYf\Y( mlYf \]l uj kfYjYj] l]gj]lakcY* Fackge ;mlgeYjc}kgeYfnuf\k Yn ;mlg]l]jeafake( Nadd^wjdalda_]l( ;mlgeYjc( ;nageYjc( AOC


7/146

Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Frord .............................................................................................. i

Acknowledgements ........................................................................ ii

Abstract ......................................................................................... iii

List of Figures .............................................................................. viii

List of Tables .................................................................................. x

List of Abbreviations ..................................................................... xi

1. Introduction ............................................................................. 1

1.1. BACKGROUND.................................................................................................................. 11.2. EMBEDDEDSYSTEMS........................................................................................................ 1

1.2.1. Debugging ................................................................................................................... 21.2.2. BIOS vs. Boot-loaders .................................................................................................. 3

1.3. AVIONICS......................................................................................................................... 31.4. EMBEDDEDSYSTEMS INAVIONICS..................................................................................... 5

1.4.1. Functionalities ............................................................................................................. 51.4.2. Determinism ................................................................................................................ 5

1.4.3. Timing ......................................................................................................................... 61.4.4. Reliability .................................................................................................................... 61.4.5. Radiation ..................................................................................................................... 7

1.5. HARDWARE ARCHITECTURE SCHEME FORAVIONIC EMBEDDED SYSTEMS........................... 8

1.5.1. CPU ............................................................................................................................ 81.5.2. Primary Memory.......................................................................................................... 81.5.3. Non-volatile Memory ................................................................................................... 8

1.5.4. Parameter RAM (PRAM) ............................................................................................. 81.5.5. Communication Interfaces............................................................................................ 9

1.6. THESIS OBJECTIVES.......................................................................................................... 91.7. THESIS SCOPE................................................................................................................. 101.8. THESIS LAYOUT.............................................................................................................. 10

2. Embedded Microprocessors and Memories ........................ 12

2.1. EMBEDDEDMICROPROCESSORS....................................................................................... 122.2. CLOCKSPEED................................................................................................................. 132.3. MICRO-ARCHITECTURE................................................................................................... 14

2.3.1. Super-pipeline vs. Superscalar ................................................................................... 142.3.2. Look-ahead Execution................................................................................................ 152.3.3. Out-of-Order-Execution (OOOE) ............................................................................... 16

2.3.4. Speculation ................................................................................................................ 182.3.5. Branch Prediction ...................................................................................................... 192.3.6. Prefetching ................................................................................................................ 22

2.4. FLOATING POINT............................................................................................................. 222.5. MEMORYHIERARCHY..................................................................................................... 232.6. CACHE MEMORY............................................................................................................. 24

2.6.1. Line Size .................................................................................................................... 27

2.6.2. Cache Size ................................................................................................................. 272.6.3. Associativity .............................................................................................................. 272.6.4. Early Restart & Critical Word First ........................................................................... 29

2.6.5. Non-blocking Caches ................................................................................................. 292.6.6. Multi-level Caches ..................................................................................................... 30


8/146

Table of Contents

2.6.7. Simple and Small Caches ........................................................................................... 30

2.6.8. Unified vs. Separate Caches ....................................................................................... 302.6.9. Write Policy ............................................................................................................... 312.6.10. Allocation Policy ........................................................................................................ 322.6.11. Write Buffers .............................................................................................................. 33

2.6.12. Replacement Policy .................................................................................................... 35

2.6.13. Cache Locking ........................................................................................................... 362.7. VIRTUALMEMORY (VM) ................................................................................................ 362.8. MEMORYTECHNOLOGIES................................................................................................ 38

2.8.1. Volatile Memory ........................................................................................................ 382.8.2. Non-volatile Memory ................................................................................................. 432.8.3. Memory Technologies Timeline .................................................................................. 46

2.9. POWERPC ....................................................................................................................... 472.9.1. Background ............................................................................................................... 472.9.2. Architecture ............................................................................................................... 48

2.9.3. The 440EPx and 5554 in Real Life ............................................................................. 512.9.4. PowerPC Timeline ..................................................................................................... 52

3. Benchmarking and Performance Evaluation ....................... 53

3.1. BACKGROUND................................................................................................................ 533.2. CLASSICALBENCHMARKS............................................................................................... 54

3.2.1. Whetstone .................................................................................................................. 543.2.2. Dhrystone .................................................................................................................. 553.2.3. SPEC Benchmarks ..................................................................................................... 563.2.4. EEMBC Benchmarks.................................................................................................. 56

3.2.5. MiBench .................................................................................................................... 573.3. COREMARK ................................................................................................................ 573.4. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION METRICS............................................................................ 58

3.4.1. Classical Metrics ....................................................................................................... 583.4.2. Arithmetic and Geometric Performance Mean ............................................................ 593.4.3. Iterations per Second and Total Run Time .................................................................. 60

3.5. R ELATED WORK............................................................................................................. 61

4. Methodology ........................................................................... 62

4.1. HARDWARE CONFIGURATION.......................................................................................... 624.2. SOFTWARETOOLS........................................................................................................... 62

4.2.1. MULTI Environment .................................................................................................. 624.2.2. Benchmarks ............................................................................................................... 63

4.2.3. GUI ........................................................................................................................... 644.3. TASKS FOR EVALUATION OF A BOARD.............................................................................. 654.4. THE METHODOLOGY FORBOARD EVALUATION................................................................ 654.5. ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES............................................................................................... 68

4.5.1. Script Files: .rc...................................................................................................... 684.5.2. Setup Files: .mbs ................................................................................................... 68

4.5.3. MULTI output files: .txt ......................................................................................... 70

5. Results ..................................................................................... 71

5.1. AMCCPPC440EPX....................................................................................................... 715.1.1. Performance Parameters ........................................................................................... 715.1.2. Configurations ........................................................................................................... 735.1.3. Determinism .............................................................................................................. 735.1.4. Performance .............................................................................................................. 77

5.2. FREESCALE MPC5554 ..................................................................................................... 905.2.1. Performance Parameters ........................................................................................... 915.2.2. Determinism .............................................................................................................. 93

5.2.3. Performance .............................................................................................................. 955.2.4. Effect of Memory Technology: SRAM vs. FLASH...................................................... 105

6. Conclusions and Future Work ............................................ 107


9/146

Table of Contents

6.1. CONCLUSIONS............................................................................................................... 1076.2. CONTRIBUTIONS........................................................................................................... 1086.3. FUTUREWORK............................................................................................................. 108

References .................................................................................. 110

Appendix A: Processor Architecture Comparison ................. 119

Appendix B: Processor Register Maps ..................................... 123

Appendix C: EEMBC AutoBench Algorithms ...................... 125

Appendix D: GUI Manual .......................................................... 128


10/146


11/146

List of Figures

FIGURE 5-26: INCREASE OF PERFORMANCE WITH BUFFERS, STREAMING AND BTB

(AUTOMARK) 95FIGURE 5-27: A DETAILED LOOK INTO THE EFFECT OF BUFFERS AND BTB BY USING THE 96FIGURE 5-28: A DETAILED LOOK INTO THE EFFECT OF BUFFERS AND BTB BY USING

AUTOMARK GRADES AS A PERCENTAGE COMPARED TO THE HIGHEST

PERFORMANCE CONFIGURATION 96

FIGURE 5-29: INCREASE OF PERFORMANCE WITH BUFFERS, STREAMING AND BTB 97FIGURE 5-30: INCREASE OF PERFORMANCE WITH BUFFERS, STREAMING AND BTB (AVIOMARK MOTORC) 97

FIGURE 5-31: A DETAILED LOOK INTO THE EFFECT OF BUFFERS AND BTB BY USING THE AVIOMARK HIGHL GRADES 98

FIGURE 5-32: A DETAILED LOOK INTO THE EFFECT OF BUFFERS AND BTB BY USING AVIOMARK HIGHL GRADES AS A PERCENTAGE COMPARED TO THE HIGHEST PERFORMANCE CONFIGURATION 98

FIGURE 5-33: A DETAILED LOOK INTO THE EFFECT OF BUFFERS AND BTB BY USING THE 98FIGURE 5-34: A DETAILED LOOK INTO THE EFFECT OF BUFFERS AND BTB BY USING

AVIOMARK MOTORC GRADES AS A PERCENTAGE COMPARED TO THE HIGHEST PERFORMANCE CONFIGURATION 99

FIGURE 5-35: AUTOMARK AND AVIOMARK COMPARISON OF THE TWO BEST AND THE

WORST CONFIGURATIONS IN MPC5554 100FIGURE 5-36: PERFORMANCE COMPARISON IN PERCENTAGE BETWEEN AUTOMARK AND AVIOMARK 101

FIGURE 5-37: MPC5554 VS. PPC440EPX PERFORMANCE COMPARISON (AUTOMARK) 102FIGURE 5-38: MPC5554 VS. PPC440EPX PERFORMANCE COMPARISON IN PERCENTAGE 102FIGURE 5-39: MPC5554 VS. PPC440EPX PERFORMANCE COMPARISON (AVIOMARK HIGHL) 103FIGURE 5-40: MPC5554 VS. PPC440EPX PERFORMANCE COMPARISON IN PERCENTAGE

(AVIOMARK HIGHL) 103FIGURE 5-41: MPC5554 VS. PPC440EPX PERFORMANCE COMPARISON (AVIOMARK HIGHL) 104FIGURE 5-42: MPC5554 VS. PPC440EPX PERFORMANCE COMPARISON IN PERCENTAGE

(AVIOMARK MOTORC) 104FIGURE 5-43: FLASH VS. SRAM IN BASIC FLOATING POINT (AUTOMARK) 105FIGURE 5-44: FLASH VS. SRAM IN BIT MANIPULATION (AUTOMARK) 106

FIGURE 5-45: RATIO OF PERFORMANCE OF SRAM TO THE FLASH (AUTOMARK) 106FIGURE 6-1: PPC440EPX CONFIGURATION SUMMARY AND AUTOMARKRESULTS 107FIGURE 6-2: MPC5554 CONFIGURATION SUMMARY AND AUTOMARKRESULTS 107


12/146

List of Tables

List of Tables

TABLE 1: COMPARISON OF WELL-KNOWN AVIONICS DATA BUSES 5TABLE 2: CONFIGURATION SCRIPTS FOR THE AMCC PPC440EPX PROCESSOR 74TABLE 3: CONFIGURATION SCRIPTS FOR THE FREESCALE MPC5554 PROCESSOR 90


13/146

List of Abbreviations

List of Abbreviations(In chronological order)

;ZZj]naYlagf G]Yfaf_

AOC AjYha[Yd Ok]j Cfl]j^Y[]

C>?

Cfl]_jYl]\ >]n]dghe]fl ?fnajgf)e]fl

LCM= L]\m[]\ Cfkljm[lagf M]l =gehml]jPFCQ P]jq Fgf_ Cfkljm[lagf Qa\l

IM Ih]jYlaf_ Mqkl]eDN;A Dgafl N]kl ;[lagf AjgmhLNIM L]Yd Nae] Ih]jYlaf_ Mqkl]eLIG L]Y\)Ifdq G]egjqL;G LYf\ge ;[[]kk G]egjq

M>L;G

Mqf[jgfgmk >qfYea[ LYf\ge;[[]kk G]egjq

=JO =]fljYd Jjg[]kkaf_ Ofal

@;>?=

@mdd ;mlgjalq >a_alYd ?d][ljgfa[k=gfljgdk

GCF)MN> GadalYjq MlYf\Yj\>I>)MN> >]hYjle]fl g^ >]^]fk] MlYf\Yj\

?OLI=;?

?mjgh]Yf Ij_YfarYlagf ^gj =anad

;naYlagf ?imahe]fl?NMI

?mjgh]Yf H]logjc g^ NjYfkeakkagfMqkl]e Ih]jYlgjk

;LCH= ;]jgfYmla[Yd LY\ag Cf[*GNqfYea[ LYf\ge ;[[]kk G]egjqJL;G JYjYe]l]j LYf\ge ;[[]kk G]egjq

C+I Cfhml + Imlhml=;H =gfljgdd]j ;j]Y H]logjcMJC M]jaYd J]jah]jYd Cfl]j^Y[]@JO @dgYlaf_ Jgafl OfalC

.

= Cfl]j)Cfl]_jYl]\ =aj[mal;JO ;mpadaYjq Jjg[]kkaf_ OfalJFF JYk])Fg[c]\ FgghJ=C J]jah]jYd =gehgf]fl Cfl]j[gff][l

>G; >aj][l G]egjq ;[[]kk

CFJ Cfkljm[lagf F]n]d JYjYdd]dakeIII? Iml)g^)Ij\]j ?p][mlagf


14/146



CFQ Cfkljm[lagf Fggc)Y]Y\ Qaf\goLM L]k]jnYlagf MlYlagf

L;Q L]Y\);^l]j)Qjal]

Q;Q Qjal]);^l]j)Qjal]LI< L]gj\]j


15/146



??JLIG +?

.

JLIG

?d][lja[Yddq ?jYkYZd] Jjg_jYeeYZd]LIG

??Gjqklgf] G]_Y Cfkljm[lagfk h]jM][gf\

MJ?=

MlYf\Yj\ J]j^gjeYf[] ?nYdmYlagf=gjhgjYlagf

=N =dg[c Nae]== =dg[c =q[d]

=JC =dg[c h]j Cfkljm[lagfG@FIJM

G]_Y @dgYlaf_ Jgafl Cfkljm[lagfk h]jM][gf\

QN Qjal])Njgm_=< =ghq)YlY =Y[] =gfljgdd]jCML Cfl]jjmhl M]jna[] Lgmlaf]

@J @dgYlaf_ Jgafl;nageYjc ;nagfa[k


16/146



C@F< Cfkljm[lagf Faf] @add >C >aj][l >a]k]d Cfb][lagf

L;C> L]\mf\Yfl ;jjYq g^ Cf]ph]fkan]>akckA>C AYkgdaf] >aj][l Cfb][lagf

|


17/146

Introduction

1

1.Introduction

1.1. Background

N] af[j]Ykaf_ d]n]dk g^ [gehd]palq Yf\ [gf[mjj]f[q af ea[jghjg[]kkgjk

Yn] j]kmdl]\ af _jgoaf_ \]eYf\ ^gj h]j^gjeYf[] ]nYdmYlagf YhYjl ^jge l] ljY\a)lagfYd ^mf[lagfYd l]klaf_* Cf ]Yjda]j \]ka_fk( h]j^gjeYf[] nYda\Ylagf j]imaj]e]flko]j] eafaeYd \m] lg j]dYlan]dq kaehd] ea[jg)Yj[al][lmj]k( egkl g^ oa[ o]j]ngf)H]meYffeg\]dk* Bgo]n]j( al ak fgoY\Yqk [geegf Yegf_ eg\]jf kmh]j)k[YdYj ea[jg)Yj[al][lmj]k lg k]] egj] Y\nYf[]\ Yf\ [gehd]p ^]Ylmj]k km[ Yk emd)lahd] afkljm[lagf \akhYl[ Yf\ gmlg^gj\]j( hah]daf]\ ]p][mlagf ]l[* Ggkl g^ l]k]hjg[]kkgjk kmhhgjl kh][mdYlan] ]p][mlagf( ZYk]\ gf ZjYf[ hj]\a[lagf* N] hj]k)]f[] g^ %emdlad]n]d& [Y[] eakk]k ak ]n]f egj] \a^^a[mdl lg Y[[gmfl ^gj* Nmk( hj])\a[laf_ l] [gjj][l %]ph][l]\& ]p][mlagf lae] ^gj ]n]f Y kaehd] l]kl [Yk] [Yf Z]imal] \a^^a[mdl* Nak Yk Ydd eY\] h]j^gjeYf[] l]klaf_ egj] [Ydd]f_af_ Zml Yl l]

kYe] lae] egj] nYdmYZd] lg kqkl]e ]f_af]]jk( Zgl Yl Yj\oYj] Yf\ kg^loYj] d]n]d*M;;< ;naljgfa[k af Dwfcwhaf_ ak Y d]Y\af_ kmhhda]j g^ ;nagfa[k Yf\ ?d][)

ljgfa[ QYj^Yj] Mqkl]ek Yf\ Yn] Z]]f \]n]dghaf_ Yf\ afl]_jYlaf_ Ynagfa[k ^gjZgl eadalYjq Yf\ [gee]j[aYd Yaj[jY l( oal Y ^mdd kh][ljme g^ eg\mdYj Ynagfa[kYf\ e][Yfa[Yd kqkl]ek oal Y oa\] jYf_] g^ hjg\m[lk( eYafdq ^gj Ynagfa[ Yhhda[Y)lagfk( af[dm\af_ ]*_* mladalq Yf\ eakkagf [gehml]jk( [gfljgd [gehml]jk( q\jYmda[Y[lmYlgjk( ]d][lja[ eglgjk Yf\ eglgj [gfljgdd]jk* GYfq g^ l]k] hjg\m[lk af[dm\]]eZ]\\]\ ea[jg[gehml]jk*

Nak l]kak ogjc Yk Z]]f [Yjja]\ gml mf\]j kmh]jnakagf Yf\ _ma\Yf[] g^=]flj] g^ ?p[]dd]f[]6 =gehml]jk\]hYjle]fl g^ M;;< ;naljgfa[k af Dwfcwhaf_(

oa[ ak Y []fljYdar]\ j]kgmj[] ^gj [gehml]j \]ka_f oalaf M;;< ;naljgfa[k Yf\M;;


18/146

Introduction

2

Zalk af f]o _]f]jYlagf g^ hjg[]kkgjk& Ydlgm_ l] egkl lqha[Yd gf]k Yj] /.+20 Zalkoa\]*

Mge] ]eZ]\\]\ kqkl]ek af[dm\] Yf ]eZ]\\]\ gh]jYlaf_ kqkl]e %IM&(oa[ [Yf ]al]j Z] Y n]jq keYdd IM lYl oYk \]n]dgh]\ kh][aâ[Yddq ^gj mk] oal]eZ]\\]\ kqkl]ek( gj al [Yf Z] Y kljahh]\ \gof n]jkagf g^ kqkl]e lYl ak [ge)egfdq mk]\ gf _]f]jYd)hmjhgk] [gehml]jk U-W* C^ l] Yhhda[Ylagf afl]f\]\ ^gj l]]eZ]\\]\ kqkl]e j]imaj]k j]Yd)lae] [gfkljYaflk( l]f Y j]Yd)lae] gh]jYlaf_ kqk)l]e LNIM& ak mk]\* JghmdYj ]eZ]\\]\ LNIM af eYjc]l lg\Yq Yj]=UXWWXWD\ahk(DlakGJ(GJ)5(GJ=(MkNbe^f(N\aWbjf ;=Yf\N\aWbjf OH =UXWWXW*GYfq ]eZ]\\]\ kqkl]ek Yj] kg kh][aYdar]\( go]n]j( lYl l]q \g fgl j]imaj] Yfqf]]\ ^gj gh]jYlaf_ kqkl]e kaf[] l] ogd] dg_a[ [Yf Z] aehd]e]fl]\ Yk Y kaf_d]hjg_jYe [g\] klgj]\ af e]egjq*

GYfq ]eZ]\\]\ kqkl]ek Yj] kY^]lq)[jala[Yd Yf\ l]j]^gj] Yn] lg Z] \])h]f\YZd]* ;nagfa[k ak Yf ]pYehd] g^ ]plj]e]dq kY^]lq)[jala[Yd kqkl]ek Yl d]Ykl hYj)laYddq [gfljgdd]\ Zq kg^loYj]* >]h]f\YZadalq [gn]jk j]daYZadalq %hjgZYZadalq lYl Ykqkl]e oadd fgl ^Yad&( eYaflYafYZadalq%hjgZYZadalq lYl Y ^Yadaf_ kqkl]e [Yf Z] j])hYaj]\ oalaf Y []jlYaf lae] h]jag\&( YnYadYZadalq%hjgZYZadalq lYl kqkl]e ak YnYadY)Zd]&( kY^]lq %hjgh]jlq lYl Y ^Yadaf_ kqkl]e fgl [Ymk] Yfq Yje& Yf\ k][mjalq%hjgh)]jlq lYl [gfâ\]flaYd \YlY j]eYafk [gfâ\]flaYd& U/W*

Ggkl ]eZ]\\]\ kqkl]ek j]imaj] j]Yd)lae]j]khgfk] Yf\ l]q mkmYddq Yn]j]Yd)lae] [gfkljYaflk lg Y[a]n] l]k] akkm]k* N]q ^gje l] ZYkak g^ kg)[Ydd]\cbfg)H; XeT( o]j] af^gjeYlagf hjg[]kkaf_ ak egnaf_ YoYq ^jge J=k lg ]eZ]\\]\ kqk)l]ek*

1.2.1. Debugging

>]Zm__af_ak l] hjg[]kk g^ a\]fla^qaf_ l] jggl [Ymk] g^ Yf ]jjgj Yf\ [gj)j][laf_ al Zq kaemdYlaf_ l] lYj_]l \]na[] a*]* l] ]eZ]\\]\ ea[jg[gehml]j ZgYj$Yf\ jmffaf_ al gf Y gkl [gehml]j U1W* N] âf\af_k ^jge P>=$k .,,1 ?eZ]$\]\ Mqkl]ek GYjc]l MlYlakla[k j]hgjl U2W af\a[Yl] lYl YhhjgpaeYl]dq0,#g^ ]e)Z]\\]\ \]n]dghe]fl hjgb][lk jmfUX[\aW fV[XWh_X* >]Zm__af_ ak _]f]jYddq Y[[]hl]\Yk l] egkl lae] [gfkmeaf_ Yf\ [gkldq hYk] g^ l] \]n]dghe]fl hjg[]kk oalkge] ]klaeYl]k hmllaf_ l] \]Zm_ [gkl Yk a_ Yk 1," g^ l] lglYd \]n]dghe]fl[gkl U1W*

N]j] ]pakl lj]] eYaf \]Zm__af_ l][faim]k Yn] ]e]j_]\ oa[ Yll]ehl

lg Y\\j]kk l]k] daealYlagfk U2W* N]k] Yj]6LIG Ggfalgj 6; ha][] g^ [g\] ]p][ml]k gf l] lYj_]l kqkl]e o]j] l]

]Zm__]j Yk af LIG egfalgj*

If)=ah >]Zm_6


19/146

Introduction

3

l]j^Y[] oa[ ak l] egkl hghmdYj klYf\Yj\ mk]\* N] mk]jzk J= afl]j^Y[]k lg l]lYj_]l naY Y DN;A ]emdYlgj [gff][l]\ lg l] gkl J=*

If)[ah \]Zm__af_ [Yf g^^]j jmf)lae] [gfljgd ^mf[lagfYdalq af[dm\af_ hjg)_jYe \gofdgY\( _g+kl]h+Ydl( e]egjq+j]_akl]j Y[[]kk Yf\ Zj]Ychgaflk U2W* L][]fl

aehd]e]flYlagfk g^ gf)[ah \]Zm_ Yn] Ydkg klYjl]\ lg g^^]j j]Yd)lae] ljY[]^mf[)lagfYdalq* Cf gmj hjgb][l( o] Yj] mkaf_ l] Aj]]f Baddk Mmh]jNjY[]} hjgZ]oa[ ^]Ylmj]k j]Yd)lae] ljY[] ^mf[lagfYdalq*

1.2.2. BIOS vs. Boot-loaders

Q]f hgo]j ak ^ajkl Yhhda]\ lg Y J=( Y kg^loYj] hjg_jYe [Ydd]\


20/146

Introduction

4

Figure 1-1: Interaction of ROM, RAM and I/O with the CPU in embedded system [9]

N] [gkl g^ \a_alYd Ynagfa[k Yj\oYj] ak a_7 al [Yf [gkl YZgml /,)1,#g^l] lglYd Yaj[jY^l ^dq)YoYq [gkl* ]n]dghe]fl g^ Yf Ynagfa[k kqkl]e ^gddgok ^YeadaYj kqkl]ek ]f_af]]jaf_^dgo ^jge \]^afalagf Yf\ YfYdqkak g^ l] j]imaj]e]flk Yf\ [gfkljYaflk Yl af[j]Ykaf_d]n]d g^ \]lYad( ljgm_ \]lYad]\ \]ka_f( [gfkljm[lagf( nYda\Ylagf( afklYddYlagf Yf\eYafl]fYf[] U-,W* ;k ]phdYaf]\ ]Yjda]j( Ynagfa[k gh]jYl] af j]Yd lae] Yf\ h]j^gjeeakkagf Yf\ da^])[jala[Yd ^mf[lagfk* N]k] log Ykh][lk eYc] Ynagfa[k kqkl]eWXf\ZaYf\iXe\Y\VTg\ba[Ydd]f_af_ ^gj ]eZ]\\]\ kqkl]e ]f_af]]jk*

;dlgm_ Ynagfa[ kqkl]ek h]j^gje eYfq ^mf[lagfk( l]j] Yj] lj]] ]d]e]flk[geegf lg egkl kqkl]ek6 \YlY Zmk]k oa[ Yj] l] ka_fYd afl]j^Y[]k ^gj \YlY[geemfa[Ylagf( [gfljgdk Yf\ \akhdYqk oa[ Yj] f][]kkYjq ^gj l] [j]o lgafl]j^Y[] oal l] Yaj[jY^l( Yf\ hgo]joa[ ak l] da^] []dd g^ Ynagfa[k Yj\oYj]*

N] _]f]ja[ hjg[]kk af Y lqha[Yd Ynagfa[k kqkl]e Yj] ka_fYd \]l][lagf Yf\hj])hjg[]kkaf_( ka_fYd ^mkagf( [gehmlYlagf( [gfljgd+\akhdYq af^gjeYlagf _]f]jYlagfYf\ ljYfkeakkagf Yf\ ^]]\ZY[c g^ j]khgfk] lg [gfljgd+\akhdYq af^gjeYlagf(\]h]f\af_ gf l] [YjY[l]jakla[k g^ l] Yhhda[Ylagf l] Ynagfa[k kqkl]e ak lg Z]

mk]\ U-,W*MlYf\Yj\k hdYq Yf aehgjlYfl jgd] af Ynagfa[k* GadalYjq Ynagfa[k Yj] hYjlaYddq

[gfljgdd]\ Zq nYjagmk klYf\Yj\k km[ YkEAD)JK


21/146

Introduction

5

LY\ag Cf[* ;LCH=& Yf\ al \]^af]k l] ^gje Yf\ ^mf[lagf g^ Yajdaf] Ynagfa[kU-.W*

GYfq eg\]jf lY[la[Yd Yaj[jY^lk ]ehdgq \a_alYd Ynagfa[k kqkl]ek oal^]\]jYl]\( []fljYdar]\ gj \akljaZml]\ Ynagfa[k Yj[al][lmj]k lYl kYj] \YlY naYafl]j[gff][laf_ \YlY Zmk]k* Nmk( \YlY Zmk]k Yj] l] c]q lg afl]_jYl]\ Ynagfa[k

Yj[al][lmj]k*KTU_X -Z]dgo kmeeYjar]k eYbgj ^]Ylmj]k g^ egkl [geegfdq mk]\kqkl]e Zmk]k6

Table 1: Comparison of well-known avionics data buses [12];LCH= klYf\Yj\k mk]\ gf gn]j -,(,,, Yaj[jY^l ogjd\oa\] Yf\ [gn]j al]ek

km[ Yk ]d][ljgfa[ afklYddYlagf _ma\Yf[]( YajZgjf] \aklYf[] e]Ykmjaf_ ]imahe]fl(]Y\af_ Yf\ Ydlalm\] k]fkgjk( ]d][ljgfa[ [jgfge]l]j kqkl]ek( ZYjge]lja[ Ydlalm\]jYl] [gehml]jk( [gfljgd+\akhdYq afl]j^Y[]k7 ^da_l \YlY Y[imakalagf Yf\ j][gj\af_kqkl]ek Yf\ YfYdg_m] Yf\ \ak[j]l] \YlY [gfn]jl]j kqkl]ek U-/( -0W*

;aj[jY^l hgo]j ak _]f]jYddq g^ log lqh]k6 .4 P %>=& Yf\ --1 P %;=& oal0,, Br ^j]im]f[q( Zml .3, P %>=& ak Ydkg mk]\ gf eadalYjq Yaj[jY^lk U-,W Yf\ al akg^ hggj imYdalq o]f [gehYj]\ oal hgo]j g^ gl]j ]d][ljgfa[k Yj\oYj]* Of\]jfgjeYd [gf\alagfk( l]j] [Yf Z] ljYfka]flk mh lh -,," g^ l] kmhhdq ngdlY_] Yf\

hgo]j afl]jjmhlagfk g^ mh lg - k][gf\* Nak hggj imYdalq ak n]jq ka_fa^a[Yfl afkY^]lq)[jala[Yd Ynagfa[k Yj\oYj]( hggjdq Y^^][laf_ j]daYZadalq g^ l] kqkl]e*

1.4. Embedded Systems in Avionics

1.4.1. Functionalities

Nqha[Yd ]eZZ]\]\ Ynagfa[k kqkl]ek Yj] ^da_l [gfljgd kqkl]ek %^dq)Zq)oaj]l[gfljgdk( Ymlg hadgl&( ]f_af] [gfljgd kqkl]ek ]*_* @mdd ;mlgjalq >a_alYd?d][ljgfa[k =gfljgdk %@;>?=&( ^da_l Ynagfa[k kqkl]ek %fYna_Ylagf[geemfa[Ylagfk( []ddmdYj [geemfa[Ylagf kqkl]ek&( aeY_] \akhdYq kqkl]ek( QF;Hjgmlaf_ kqkl]ek( ]d][ljgfa[Yddq [gfljgdd]\ ljYfeakkagf kqkl]ek Yf\ lY[la[Yd k]fkgjkqkl]ek %]*_* jY\Yj Yf\ ]d][ljgfa[ oYj^Yj]&*

;k [Yf Z] k]]f ^jge l] l] jYf_] g^ l]k] Yhhda[Ylagfk( ]eZ]\\]\ kqkl]ekYj] oa\]dq mk]\ af Ynagfa[k af\mkljq* Bgo]n]j( ]eZ]\\]\ kqkl]ek af Ynagfa[kj]imaj] Y \a^^]j]fl YhhjgY[ lYf l] gf]k af _]f]jYd hmjhgk] Yhhda[Ylagfk \m] lgl] kh][aYd j]imaj]e]flk g^ Yf Ynagfa[k Yhhda[Ylagf* N]k] j]imaj]e]flk Yj]kmeeYjar]\ Yk ^gddgok*

1.4.2. Determinism

Ggkl ]eZ]\\]\ kqkl]ek lYl ]pakl af Yhhda[Ylagf \geYafk km[ Yk Ynagfa[kYn] lg kYlak^q Yj\ j]Yd)lae] [gfkljYaflk* Cf Y\\alagf lg kYlak^qaf_ l]k]

Bus Name Word length (bits) Bitrate Transmisson mode

MIL-STD-1533 20 1 MB/s Wire

DOD-STD-1773 32 1 or 20 MB/s Fiber-opticARINC 429 32 12.5 or 100 KB/s WireARINC 629 20 2 MB/s Wire or fiber-opticARINC 6590 32 100 MB/s Wire


22/146

Introduction

6

[gfkljYaflk( Ynagfa[ ]eZ]\\]\ kqkl]ek Ydkg Yn] lg Z]WXgXe\a\fg\V* >]l]jeafakeak \]âf]\ Yk l] hj]\a[lYZadalq g^ Y kqkl]e Z]Ynagj ]n]f mf\]j ]plj]e] gh]jYlaf_[gf\alagfk* ; \]l]jeafakla[ kqkl]e ak Y kqkl]e o]j] Z]Ynagmj g^ l] kqkl]e akhj]\a[lYZd] af ]n]jq \]lYad( af [gfljYkl lg fgf)\]l]jeafakla[ %klg[Ykla[& kqkl]ek

o]j] kqkl]e Z]Ynagmj ak Y^^][l]\ Zq jYf\ge afhmlk U-1W* Nmk( l] j]khgfk]hYll]jfk g^ Y \]l]jeafakla[ kqkl]e Yf\ l] hjg_j]kk al eYc]k lg hjg\m[] lYlj]khgfk] [Yf Z] hj][ak]dq cfgof af Y\nYf[]*

Nj]] j]Ykgfk [Yf d]Y\ lg fgf)\]l]jeafake6 %-& jYf\gef]kk( o]j] l]\YlY Y[[]kk afngdn]k kge] {hjgZYZadalq| g^ dg[Ylaf_ l] \YlY ]*_* Yk af e]egjqa]jYj[q ]kh][aYddq [Y[]k7 %.& \YlY [g]j]f[q hjgZd]ek( ]*_* ]al]j kqkl]e Ykemdlahd] hjg[]kkgjk ojalaf_ lg l] kYe] \YlY Yl l] kYe] lae] o]j] l] hj][ak]gj\]j af oa[ ]Y[ hjg[]kkgj ojal]k alk \YlY oadd Y^^][l l] j]kmdl( gj Y e][YfakelYl eYq d]Y\ lg km[ hjgZd]ek a*]* [ghq)ZY[c [Y[]k gj ojal] Zm^^]jk %/&Yj\oYj] ]jjgjk lYl [Ymk] l] klYl] g^ l] kqkl]e lg [Yf_] af Yf mf]ph][l]\

oYq( lja__]j]\ Zq kge] mf]ph][l]\ ]pl]jfYd \aklmjZYf[] km[ YkeTW\Tg\bagj[XTg*

1.4.3. Timing

BYj\oYj] ]fYf[]e]flk YnYadYZd] af ]eZ]\\]\ kqkl]ek ^]Ylmj] [Y[]k(\]]h hah]daf]k( Yf\ nYjagmk caf\k g^ kh][mdYlagf e][Yfakek lg aehjgn] l]Yn]jY_])[Yk] h]j^gjeYf[]7 go]n]j lak [Yf d]Y\ lg \akYkljgmk laeaf_hj]\a[lYZadalq* Nmk( l]j] ]paklk Y Ve\g\VT_ geTWXbYY Z]lo]]f l] Yn]jY_])[Yk]h]j^gjeYf[] g^ l] Ynagfa[ kqkl]e Yf\ l] km^â[a]fl laeaf_ _mYjYfl]]k g^ l]kqkl]e*

?n]f lgm_ l] kqkl]ek Yn]jY_])[Yk] Z]Ynagj Yk aehjgn]\( alk ogjkl)[Yk] h]j^gjeYf[]eYq kladd Yn] \]l]jagjYl]\* ?n]f a^ l] ogjkl [Yk] h]j^gjeYf[]ak km^â[a]fl( l] hjgnYZd] Zgmf\ eYq Z] lgg aehj][ak] \m] lg d]kk hj]\a[lYZd][gehgf]flk* B]f[]( Y kqkl]e oal _gg\ Yn]jY_])[Yk]( Zml oal hggj ogjkl)[Yk]h]j^gjeYf[] gj dgo hj]\a[lYZadalq oadd fgl Z] []jlaâYZd] af km[ kqkl]ek U-2W*

;f aehgjlYfl hYjl af l] \]ka_f g^ Yj\ j]Yd)lae] kqkl]ek ak l]jbefg)VTfXcXeYbeTaVX g^ l] kqkl]e* C^ o] [Yf cfgo l] ogjkl)[Yk] h]j^gjeYf[] g^ l]kqkl]e( o] [Yf eYc] kmj] lYl lYl o] kladd e]]l l] Yj\ j]Yd)lae] [gfkljYaflk]n]f af km[ [Yk]( kYlak^qaf_ \]l]jeafake af Y kY^]lq)[jala[Yd Yhhda[Ylagf dac]Ynagfa[k*

;dlgm_ laeaf_ g^ ]n]flk Yj] ]plj]e]dq aehgjlYfl af Ynagfa[ ]eZ]\\]\kqkl]ek( l]q Yj] Ydkg l] dYj_]kl [Ymk] g^ fgf)\]l]jeafake( af[dm\af_ e]egjqY[[]kk]k( [Y[] âddk+alk+eakk]k( emdlahd] [dg[c \geYafk Yf\ [dg[c ball]j af kada[gfU-3W*

1.4.4. Reliability

L]daYZadalq ak Yfgl]j eYbgj akkm] ]kh][aYddq ^gj ]eZ]\\]\ kqkl]ek afYnagfa[k Yhhda[Ylagfk* Cf kge] [Yk]k ]eZ]\\]\ kqkl]ek Yj] ]ph][l]\ lg j][gn]j Zql]ek]dn]k a^ YfXeebeg[[mjk ]*_* o]f l] kqkl]e ak fgl YZd] lg kY^]dq kml \gof(gj al ak afY[[]kkaZd] lg j]hYaj Yk af khY[] kqkl]ek gj l] kqkl]e emkl Z] c]hljmffaf_ ^gj kY^]lq j]Ykgfk Yk af Yaj[jY^l fYna_Ylagf Yf\ kaf_d])]f_af] Yaj[jY^lk*


23/146

Introduction

7

;k l] [YhYZadalq Yf\ [gehd]palq g^ ]eZ]\\]\ kqkl]ek af[j]Yk]k( kg \g]kl] [Ydd]f_] g^ ]fkmjaf_ l]q h]j^gje j]daYZdq* Mm[ [Ydd]f_] Z][ge]k ]n]fegj] [gehd]p o]f l]k] kqkl]ek Yj] [Yj_]\ oal h]j^gjeaf_ emdlahd] lYkck gjjmffaf_ Y jYf_] g^ \a^^]j]fl kg^loYj] Yhhda[Ylagfk U-4W*

BYj\oYj] j]daYZadalq j]^]jk lg l] YZadalq g^ Yj\oYj] lg h]j^gje alk^mf[lagfk ^gj kge] h]jag\ g^ lae] Yf\ ak mkmYddq ]phj]kk]\ Yk e]Yf lae] Z]lo]]f^Yadmj]k GNmjaf_ AYdad]gk [dgk]kl YhhjgY[ lg Dmhal]j( oa[ oYk\]l]jeaf]\ lg Z] l]egkl [jala[Yd hYk] g^ l] eakkagfZq H;M;( l] ]f]j_]la[hYjla[d]k g^ kmdhmj Yf\ gpq_]f o]j] Y _j]Yl lj]Yl lg AYdad]g* N]k] ]Ynq agfk Yj][YhYZd] g^ h]f]ljYlaf_ l] \]da[Yl] ]d][ljgfa[k af l] khY[][jY^l Yf\ [Ymkaf_ Yklgj]\ [gehml]j Zal lg [Yf_] alk nYdm] U.0W* Nak h]fge]fgf ak [Ydd]\ Yk Zal^dah*

Cf [Yk] g^ Y Zal ^dah( N] M?O \g]k fgl j]kmdl af Y \YeY_]\ \]na[]( go]n]jl] M?O af\m[]\ \YlY ]jjgj hjghY_Yl]k ljgm_ l] jmf)lae] gh]jYlagfYd ^da_lhjg_jYe( [Ymkaf_ ]jjgf]gmk gmlhmlk ^jge Y ^da_l)[jala[Yd [gehml]j kqkl]e U.-W*


24/146

Introduction

8

Nqha[Yd kgdmlagfk ^gj Zal ^dahk Yj]=eebe ;beeXVg\aZ ;bW\aZ &=;;(cXe\bW\VXbel fVehUU\aZ%j]^j]kaf_ g^ \YlY [gfl]flk af l] e]egjq dg[Ylagf& Yf\ge\c_Xibg\aZ %lj]] hqka[Yddq k]hYjYl]\ Yf\ af\]h]f\]fl e]egjq ZYfck gj hjg[]kkgjk

Yj] ngl]\ Zq Y ljahd] ngl]\ [gfljgdd]j* kg lYl l] lj]] hjg[]kkgjkz \YlY Yf\afkljm[lagf [gfl]flk [Yf Z] ^dmk]\ lg e]egjq Yf\ j]k]l( Yf\ Ydd lj]] mfalk [Yf[gflafm] gh]jYlagfk& U..W*

1.5. Hardware Architecture Scheme for Avionic Em-bedded Systems

1.5.1. CPU

N] hjg[]kkgjk lYl Yj] [geegfdq mk]\ gf Ynagfa[ ]eZ]\\]\ea[jg[gehml]jk Yj]( GJ=1110( GJ=4/34 %GJ=4/05&( GJ=4104( GJ=420-(GJ=4.01 ^jge @j]]k[Yd] Yf\ JJ=00,?Jp ^jge ;G==* ;dd hjg[]kkgjk j]dq gfJgo]jJ= Yj[al][lmj] oal ].,,r2( ]/,,( ]1,,( ]2,,( A. Yf\ 00, [gj]kj]kh][lan]dq*

1.5.2. Primary Memory

JjaeYjq e]egjq ak ZYk]\ gf >>L. M>L;Gl][fgdg_q oal 1-. +-,.0G< e]egjq kar] oal ]jjgj)[gjj][lagf [g\] ?==&( fgl Zmadl aflg l] e]egjqZml jYl]j _]f]jYl]\ Zq l] =JO Yf\ klgj]\ af Yf ]pljY >L;G afl]_jYl]\ [aj[mal

%C=&7 oa[ hjgna\]k ^Ymdl j]\mf\Yf[q af l] \YlY ljYfk^]jk* CfalaYddq l]j] ]paklk fg\YlY af l] hjaeYjq e]egjq7 Zml Yk l] kqkl]e Zgglk mh ^jge l] fgf)ngdYlad]^dYk e]egjq( l] Yhhda[Ylagf ak [gha]\ lg l] hjaeYjq e]egjq kg lYl l]hjg[]kkgj [Yf c]]h gf [geemfa[Ylaf_ oal l] f][]kkYjq \YlY naY hjaeYjqe]egjq*

1.5.3. Non-volatile Memory

N] fgf)ngdYlad] e]egjq ak gfdq mk]\ \mjaf_ l] afalaYd kqkl]e Zggl mhYf\ lmk ak fgl g^ hjaeYjq aehgjlYf[] ^jge h]j^gjeYf[] hgafl g^ na]o* N]

e]egjq l][fgdg_q ]ehdgq]\ af l] fgf)ngdYlad] e]egjq ak egkl g^l]f g^HIL@dYklqh]*

1.5.4. Parameter RAM (PRAM)

JYjYe]l]j L;G JL;G&gd\k []jlYaf ha][]k g^ af^gjeYlagf o]j] al akmk]^md ^gj ima[c Y[[]kk km[ Yk nYjaYZd]k+hYjYe]l]jk mk]\ Zq l] =JO Yf\ lmk YkY j]dYlan]dq keYdd]j kar]* Maf[] al ak Y fgf)ngdYlad] e]egjq( al [Yf Z] mk]\ lg klgj]af^gjeYlagf j]imaj]\ a^ hgo]j lg l] kqkl]e ak dgkl* N] j]Ykgf gj fgl klgjaf_ lakaf^gjeYlagf af >L;G ak lYl al ak af\ana\mYd %dac] k]jaYd fmeZ]j( dg__af_ \YlY&

Yf\ lYl al ak fgf)ngdYlad]*


25/146

Introduction

9

1.5.5. Communication Interfaces

Jjg[]kkgj Yk lg [geemfa[Yl] oal k]n]jYd gl]j mfalk afka\] l] ZgYj\ Yf\gmlka\] al6 e]egjq mfalk( f]logjc( C+I( _jYha[ ZgYj\k ]l[* Nak [geemfa[Ylagfak \gf] ljgm_ Zmk]k* GYfq Zmk l][fgdg_a]k Yn] ]e]j_]\ \mjaf_ l] dYkl q]Yjk(oal \a^^]j]fl aehd]e]flYlagfk ^gj l] nYjagmk Yhhda[Ylagfk f]]\k( Zml l]q Yn]Z]]f mfYZd] lg eYl[ l] af[j]Yk] af h]j^gjeYf[] af l] =JO Yf\ e]egjq mfalk*

Cf l] dYl]j [Yhl]jk g^ lak l]kak( ^mjl]j \]lYadk YZgml ]Y[ [gehgf]fl]phdYaf]\ YZgn] oadd Z] _an]f %]p[dm\af_ [geemfa[Ylagf afl]j^Y[]k&*

Figure 1-2: A typical CPU board for avionic applications (Source: SAAB Avitronics)

1.6. Thesis Objectives

Cf gj\]j lg ]nYdmYl] Yf\ n]ja^q \]ka_fk g^M;;< ;naljgfa[k( al ak g^l]f

j]imaj]\ lg jmf h]j^gjeYf[] l]klk gf l] [gehml]jk Yf\ af lak oYq n]ja^q\a^^]j]fl ljY\])g^^k Y^^][laf_ [gehml]j h]j^gjeYf[]* N]j] Yk Z]]f l]klaf_Ydj]Y\q af M;;< ;naljgfa[k( go]n]j km[ l]klk o]j] daeal]\ ^gj Z]af_ gf])\ae]fkagfYd( a*]* gfdq Y hgjlagf g^ h]j^gjeYf[] af^dm]f[af_ hYjYe]l]jk o]j] l]kl]\^gj( egkldq l] [Y[] e]egjq %]fYZdaf_ + \akYZdaf_ Yf\ ojal] hgda[q af hYjla[mdYj&*N] eYaf gZb][lan] g^ lak l]kak ogjc ak lg hjgna\] M;;< ;naljgfa[k Y emdla)\ae]fkagfYd afka_l j]_Yj\af_ h]j^gjeYf[] ]nYdmYlagf g^ ]eZ]\\]\ea[jghjg[]kkgjk kg lYl l]q [Yf Yn] Y \]]h cfgod]\_] g^ go h]j^gjeYf[] [YfZ] Y^^][l]\ Zq []jlYaf hYjYe]l]jk( lmk l]q [Yf lYc] l]e aflg Y[[gmfl oad]\]ka_faf_ l]aj ^mlmj] hjgb][lk*

N] eYaf gZb][lan] g^ lak hjgb][l ak lg ]nYdmYl] Yk eYfq hjg[]kkgj ZgYj\kYk hgkkaZd] ^jge Y hj])\]l]jeaf]\ k]l g^ hjg[]kkgjk Yf\ k]] go \a^ ]j]fl


26/146

Introduction

10

h]j^gjeYf[] hYjYe]l]jk [Yf Y^^][l l]aj h]j^gjeYf[] Yf\ lg [gehYj] l]ajh]j^gjeYf[]k Z]lo]]f ]Y[ gl]j Yk o]dd* ;fgl]j gZb][lan] ak lg k]Yj[Z]f[eYjck YnYadYZd]k Yf\ g^ ^j]] mk]( l]f hjghgk] l] egkl kmalYZd] ^gj Ynagfa[kkqkl]ek Yf\ mk] al af l] hj]k]fl ogjc*

;^l]j k]llaf_ mh Y kmalYZd] ]nYdmYlagf hjg[]\mj]( l] âfYd gZb][lan] ak lgYmlgeYl] lak hjg[]kk Yf\ eYc] al ]Yka]j ^gj M;;< ;naljgfa[k lg Z] mk]\ ^gj ^mlmj]hjg[]kkgjk o]f f]]\]\*

1.7. Thesis Scope

Nak l]kak ^g[mk]k gf l] =JO)[Y[] e]egjq)hjaeYjq e]egjqljaYf_d]g^ Yf gn]jYdd lqha[Yd Ynagfa[k ]eZ]\\]\ ea[jg[gehml]j( lmk C+I afl]j^Y[]k Yf\h]j^gjeYf[] g^ km[ afl]j^Y[]k Yj] fgl [gfka\]j]\ af lak l]kak* @mjl]jegj](fgjeYddq ]eZ]\\]\ j]Yd)lae] gh]jYlaf_ kqkl]e %LNIM& ak dgY\]\ af Y\nYf[] lgl] Ynagfa[k ZgYj\ lg afalaYdar] Yj\oYj] k]lmh hjagj lg ]p][mlagf g^ Yhhda[Ylagf

hjg_jYe* Bgo]n]j( Yfq LNIM akkm] ak Ydkg f]_d][l]\ af lak l]kak* @afYddq( gfdqh]j^gjeYf[] Ykh][lk lYl jak] ^jge Yj\oYj] Yj] [gfka\]j]\( lmk Yfq kg^loYj]akkm] km[ Yk [gehad]j ghlaearYlagf l][faim]k Yj] ]p[dm\]\*

1.8. Thesis Layout

Ij_YfarYlagf g^ l] l]kak ak ^gje]\ mf\]j ân] eYaf [Yhl]jk( oa[ Yj] Yk^gddgok6

M][gf\ =Yhl]jYf\d]k l] f][]kkYjq l]gj]la[Yd ZY[c_jgmf\ hj]k]flaf_[gf[]hlk Yf\ l]gjq Z]af\ j]Yd( hjY[la[Yd aehd]e]flYlagfk Yf\ Yhhda[Ylagfk*N]k] [gf[]hlk af[dm\] %Yk af l] n]jq gj\]j hj]k]fl]\ af lak l]kak&

kmh]jhah]daf]\ Yf\ kmh]jk[YdYj ]p][mlagf( ZjYf[ hj]\a[lagf( kh][mdYlagf( e]egjqa]jYj[q( e]egjq l][fgdg_a]k* Jgo]jJ= kh][aâ[ Yj[al][lmj] aehd]e]flYlagf akhj]k]fl]\ Zq l] ]f\ g^ lak [Yhl]j* Cfkl]Y\ g^ _anaf_ Y hmj] l]gj]la[Yd hgafl g^na]o( o] [gf[]fljYl] gf [gfkljm[laf_ l] dafc Z]lo]]f l]k] [gf[]hlk lg l] j]Ydogjd\ Yhhda[Ylagfk kg lYl l] j]Y\]jk [Yf mf\]jklYf\ l] l]kak j]kmdlk Yf\[gf[dmkagfk em[ egj] ]Ykadq Yf\ [d]Yjdq*

Naj\ =Yhl]j]phdYafk Z]f[eYjcaf_ [gf[]hlk Ydgf_ oal Y dakl g^ egkl[geegfdq ^]Ylmj]\ Z]f[eYjc hjg_jYek Yf\ h]j^gjeYf[] ]nYdmYlagf e]lja[kmk]\ lg ]klaeYl] h]j^gjeYf[] af ]eZ]\\]\ ea[jg[gehml]jk*

@gmjl =Yhl]jhj]k]flk l] e]lg\gdg_q \]n]dgh]\ Yf\ ]p][ml]\ af lak

h]j^gjeYf[] ]nYdmYlagf* ; [dgk]j afka_l aflg ]nYdmYlagf e]lja[k oal l] [gk]fZ]f[eYjck ak kgof ]j] af egj] \]lYad* Aj]]f Baddk GOFNC Cfl]_jYl]\>]n]dghe]fl ?fnajgfe]fl %C>?& ak Zja]Y^dq afljg\m[]\ ^gddgo]\ Zq addmkljYlan]]pYehd]k g^ lqha[Yd [gfâ_mjYlagf k[jahlk Yf\ k]lmh k[jahlk Yf\ go l]q Yj] mk]\*

@a^l =Yhl]j hj]k]flk l] j]kmdlk lYl o] Yn] gZlYaf]\ \mjaf_ l]]p][mlagf g^ gmj l]klk( af[dm\af_ [gehYjakgfk Z]lo]]f hjg[]kkgjk Yf\[gfâ_mjYlagfk oalaf ]Y[ hjg[]kkgj alk]d^*

Mapl Yf\ âfYd =Yhl]j ak YZgml [gf[dmkagfk( [gfljaZmlagfk Yf\ ^mlmj]ogjc*

N] ^gmj Yhh]f\a[]k Yl l] ]f\ g^ l] l]kak Yj] Y\\]\ af gj\]j lg _an] l]mk]j Y \]]h]j cfgod]\_] lYf hj]k]fl]\ af l] l]kak kg lYl l] l]kak oYk ^j]]\^jge mff][]kkYjq \]lYadk lYl [gmd\ eYc] j]Y\af_ [gehd]p* C^ j]Y\]jk ^]]d lYl l]q


27/146

Introduction

11

f]]\ egj] af^gjeYlagf YZgml l] lgha[k [gn]j]\ af lak l]kak( l]q [Yf bmeh lgl]k] Yhh]f\a[]k lg _]l Y \]]h]j afka_l*

;hh]f\ap ; _an]k Y\]lYad]\ [gehYjakgf g^ l] ea[jg)Yj[al][lmj]k g^ l]

log hjg[]kkgjk mk]\ af lak l]kak( l] 00,?Jp Yf\ l] 1110*;hh]f\ap < _an]k Y \]lYad]\ j]_akl]j dakl g^ JJ=00,?Jp Yf\ J=1110 [gn)

]jaf_ Ydd l] aehgjlYfl hYjYe]l]jk ^jge h]j^gjeYf[] hgafl g^ na]o*;hh]f\ap = hjgna\]k \]lYad]\ af^gjeYlagf YZgml l] kapl]]f Yd_gjalek

lYl Yj] hj]k]fl af ;mlg hjgna\]k j]Y\]jk Y eYfmYd ^gj l] _jYha[Yd mk]j af)l]j^Y[] %AOC& \]ka_f]\ ^gj l] l]kak ogjc*


28/146

Embedded Microprocessors and Memories

12

2.Embedded Microprocessors and

Memories

2.1. Embedded MicroprocessorsN] []fljYd hjg[]kkaf_ mfal =JO&ak l] hqka[Yd ]Yjl Yf\ ZjYaf g^ l]

]flaj] [gehml]j kqkl]e Yf\ ak j]khgfkaZd] ^gj Yf\daf_ Ydd afkljm[lagfk Yf\ \YlY alj][]an]k ^jge gl]j Yj\oYj] [gehgf]flk af l] [gehml]j ZgYj\ Yf\ kg^loYj]hjg_jYek jmffaf_ gf l] [gehml]j kqkl]e*

; ea[jghjg[]kkgj [gff][lk lg \]na[]k km[ Yk e]egjq Yf\ C+I naY \YlYYf\ Y\\j]kk Zmk]k Yf\ Zgl [Yf Z] j]^]jj]\ lg Yk l] ea[jghjg[]kkgj Zmk* ; /.)Zalea[jghjg[]kkgj( [YhYZd] g^ gh]jYlaf_ gf mh lg Y ogj\ g^ 0 Zql]k Yl Y lae]( [YfYn] Y \YlY Zmk lYl ak -.4( 20( /.( -2( gj 4 Zalk oa\]* N] ]pY[l \YlY Zmk oa\l akaehd]e]flYlagf kh][aâ[ Yf\ nYja]k Y[[gj\af_ lg l] afl]f\]\ Yhhda[Ylagf g^ l]ea[jghjg[]kkgj* ; fYjjgo]j Zmk oa\l e]Yfk lYl al oadd lYc] egj] lae] lg [ge)emfa[Yl] l] kYe] imYflalq g^ \YlY( [gehYj]\ lg Y oa\]j Zmk oa\l U.1W* Cf hjY[)la[]( l] Zmk [dg[c kh]]\ ak g^l]f kdgo]j lYf l] =JO [dg[c kh]]\( oa[ [j]Yl]kY Zglld]f][c*

=JO ak mkmYddq l] egkl ]ph]fkan] [gehgf]fl af l] Yj\oYj]( kg k]d][lagfg^ l] ja_l [dg[c kh]]\ ak ]kk]flaYd( ^gj Zgl alk [gkl Yf\ l] ]^^][lk ]phdYaf]\ Z])^gj]* Nmk( o] Yn] lg [gfka\]j Ydd hgkkaZd] ^Y[lgjk Y^^][laf_ l] h]j^gjeYf[] g^=JO Yf\ l] gn]jYdd kqkl]e*

=JO Ydkg [gflYafk F- [Y[]Yf\ h]jah]jYd Zmk [gfljgdd]jkkm[ Yk;9F(>_XkITl(JHAgjA.;* Cl eYq gj eYq fgl Yn] Y^dgYlaf_ hgafl mfal @JO&]al]jYk Y hYjl g^ alk ]p][mlagf mfalk gj YllY[]\ ]pl]jfYddq Yk Y [ghjg[]kkgj naYYmpadaYjqhjg[]kkgj afl]j^Y[] ;JO&* Nmk( l]aj ]^^][l gf gn]jYdd h]j^gjeYf[] kgmd\ YdkgZ] [gfka\]j]\* Bgo]n]j( af gmj hjgb][l C+I ak [gehd]l]dq gml g^ l] l]kak [gf)l]flk( lmk o] gfdq [gf[]fljYl] gf>HL*

Oflad fgo( kg^loYj] \]n]dgh]jk mk]\ lg [gmfl gf [dg[c kh]]\Yk Y oYq g^]fkmjaf_ j]khgfk] lae]k jYl]j lYf afn]klaf_ lae] af âf\af_ gl]j h]j^gjeYf[])]fYf[af_ YhhjgY[]k ^gj ]eZ]\\]\ kg^loYj]7 go]n]j fgoY\Yqk l] l][fgdg_qYk klYjl]\ kdgoaf_ \gof( _anaf_ _daehk]k lYl Gggj]k dYo [gmd\ Z] \akgZ]q]\U.2W Yk gl]j ]eZ]\\]\ kqkl]e [gehgf]flk km[ Yk e]egja]k( [Y[]k( h]jah]jYd\]na[]k Yf\ Zmk]k Yn] klYjl]\ eYcaf_ ^Ykl]j hjg_j]kk [gehYj]\ lg =JO*

N] =JO [gj] \]n]dghe]fl Yk j][]fldq kdgo]\ \gof Z][Ymk] g^ Y kaehd]

hqka[Yd daeal6 hgo]j* ;k hjg[]kkgjk Yj] hah]daf]\ Yf\ Z][Ye] af[j]Ykaf_dq kmh]jk)[YdYj gn]j l] hYkl log \][Y\]k( lqha[Yd a_)]f\ ea[jghjg[]kkgj hgo]j Zggkl]\^jge d]kk lYf Y oYll lg gn]j -,, oYllk*

N] =JO [ah eYfm^Y[lmjaf_ af\mkljq ak [mjj]fldq af l] ea\\d] g^ Y kaea)dYj eYkkan] ka^l af l] hjg[]kkgj eYfm^Y[lmjaf_ â]d\ U.3W* Cfkl]Y\ g^ ljqaf_ lg _]legj] kh]]\ gml g^ Y kaf_d] hjg[]kkgj( l] emdla)[gj] Yj[al][lmj] ak Z][geaf_egj] Yf\ egj] hghmdYj o]j] ^gmj lg ]a_l [gj]k {\ana\] Yf\ [gfim]j| l] dgY\*Nak oYq( Ydd [gj]k [Yf jmf em[ kdgo]j lYf l]q ogmd\ Ydgf]( Yf\ Zq ogjcaf_lg_]l]j( l] lglYd !ljgm_hml! g^ l] hjg[]kkgj ak af[j]Yk]\*

N] ^mlmj] g^ emdla)[gj] hjg[]kkgjk kgmd\ Z] YZd] lg \]dan]j flXge\VT_

h_g\cebVXff\aZ gf Y [ah ]*_* o]f gf] [gj] ak hjg[]kkaf_ Y [Yd[mdYlagf( Yfgl]jea_l Z] ^]l[af_ \YlY ^jge e]egjq gj k]f\af_ afkljm[lagfk lg l] e]egjq U.3W*
http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/h/hardware.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/jargon/s/software.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/jargon/s/software.htmhttp://www.computerhope.com/jargon/h/hardware.htm


29/146


13

=Y[] e]egjq Yf\ Zmk Yj[al][lmj] Ydgf_ oal =JO \YlYhYl ak l] eYbgj^g[mk g^ gmj l]kak*

2.2. Clock Speed

?n]jq [gehml]j [gflYafk Yf afl]jfYd [dg[c lYl j]_mdYl]k l] jYl] Yl oa[afkljm[lagfk Yj] ]p][ml]\ Yf\ kqf[jgfar]k nYjagmk [gehgf]flk g^ ]eZ]\\]\[gehml]jk* Cl lYc]k \a^^]j]fl fmeZ]j g^ [dg[c [q[d]k ^gj l] =JO lg ]p][ml] ]Y[afkljm[lagf \]h]f\af_ gf l] hjg[]kkgjzk afkljm[lagf)k]l Yj[al][lmj] CM;&*

N] ^Ykl]j l] [dg[c kh]]\( l] egj] afkljm[lagfk l] =JO [Yf ]p][ml] h]jk][gf\ lmk l] egj] h]j^gjeYf[] al Yk( go]n]j \a_alYd [aj[mal mf\]jf]Yl Yklg eYc] ljYfkalagf ^jge , lg - %gj na[] n]jkY& Yl Y ^Ykl]j jYl]( af[j]Ykaf_ l] hgo]j[gfkmehlagf g^ l] [ah Yf\ lmk ]Yl hjg\m[]\ af l] [ah %egkldq afka\] l]\janaf_ ljYfkaklgjk&*

N] [dg[c jYl] g^ Y =JO ak fgjeYddq \]l]jeaf]\ Zq l] ^j]im]f[q g^ Yf gk)[addYlgj [jqklYd* C^ a_ h]j^gjeYf[] ak \]kaj]\ af l] Yhhda[Ylagf( afkl]Y\ g^ j]\m[)af_ l] [dg[c kh]]\ af gj\]j lg kYn] hgo]j( YhYk])dg[c]\ dggh JFF&[dg[c [gf)ljgd [aj[mal [Yf Z] aehd]e]fl]\ afka\] =JO [ah* N] JFF Yddgok l] hjg[]kkgj lggh]jYl] Yl a_ afl]jfYd [dg[c ^j]im]f[q \]jan]\ ^jge Y dgo)^j]im]f[q [dg[c afhml7j]\m[af_ l] ]d][ljgeY_f]la[ afl]j^]j]f[] ?GC& _]f]jYl]\ Zq l] kqkl]e Yf\Ydkg ]daeafYl]k l] f]]\ lg Y\\ Y\\alagfYd gk[addYlgjk lg Y kqkl]e*

;k kqkl]e [dg[c ^j]im]f[a]k Yj] af[j]Ykaf_ jYha\dq( eYaflYafaf_ [gfljgd gn]j[dg[c Z][ge]k egj] Yf\ egj] [Ydd]f_af_* Cf Y\\alagf lg _]f]jYlaf_ l] nYjagmk[dg[ck ^gj l] =JO( l] [dg[c _]f]jYlgj emkl Ydkg hjgna\] [dg[ck ^gj l] h]jah]jYdafl]j^Y[]k km[ Yk J=C( =;H( MJC gj C.= Yf\ ]n]f >G; [gfljgdd]jk*

JFF ZYk]\ [dg[c _]f]jYlgjk hjgna\] Y [gkl ]^^][lan] kgdmlagf ^gj _]f]jYlaf_

nYjagmk ^j]im]f[a]k lYl Yj] j]imaj]\ af lg\Yq$k kqkl]e Yf\ e]]laf_ l] \]eYf\^gj la_l]j kh][a^a[Ylagfk g^ aehgjlYfl hYjYe]l]jk dac] kc]o Yf\ ball]j U.4W* N]q(go]n]j( Yj] af]j]fldq fgak] k]fkalan] Yf\ eYq j]imaj] ]ph]fkan]( a_)imYdalq]pl]jfYd [gehgf]flk lg aehd]e]fl Y_bbc)Y\_gXeaf l] JFF U.5W*

MmZjYeYfaYf ]l*Yd kgo]\ lYl al ak hgkkaZd] lg Y[a]n] a_]j h]j^gjeYf[]af kmh]jk[YdYj hjg[]kkgjk Zq \qfYea[Yddq nYjqaf_ l] gh]jYlaf_ ^j]im]f[q \mjaf_jmf lae] hYkl ogjkl [Yk] daealk U/,W* N]aj ]ph]jae]flYd j]kmdlk kgo lYl Yf Yn]j)Y_] h]j^gjeYf[] _Yaf mh lg 13" Y[jgkk Ydd Z]f[eYjc Yhhda[Ylagfk ak Y[a]nYZd]Zq \qfYea[ [dg[c ^j]im]f[q lmfaf_*

=dg[c kh]]\ ak gfdq gf] e]Ykmj] g^ [gehml]j hgo]j( Zml al ak fgl YdoYqk

\aj][ldq hjghgjlagfYd lg l] h]j^gjeYf[] d]n]d* =dg[c kh]]\k Yj]f$l Y _gg\ e]Ykmj]g^ [gehmlaf_ hgo]j Z][Ymk] l]j] Yj] eYfq gl]j ^Y[lgjk lg [gfka\]j o]f [ge)hYjaf_ l] h]j^gjeYf[] g^ [gehml]jk( km[ Yk Zmk kh]]\( [dg[c jYl] g^ L;G(e]egjq a]jYj[q( [Y[] Ykkg[aYlanalq( j]hdY[]e]fl hgda[q( ojal] hgda[q Yf\ Yddg[Y)lagf hgda[q( e]egjq \YlY)oa\l( hjaeYjq e]egjq l][fgdg_q Yf\ kar]( hj]k]f[] g^Y ^dgYlaf_ hgafl mfal Yf\ kg gf* N] lqh] g^ ea[jghjg[]kkgj( l] Zmk Yj[al][lmj](Yf\ l] fYlmj] g^ l] afkljm[lagf k]l Ydd eYc] Y \a^^]j]f[]* Cf kge] Yhhda[Ylagfk(l] Yegmfl g^ jYf\ge Y[[]kk e]egjq %L;G& ak aehgjlYfl( lgg U/-W*

@mjl]jegj]( \]h]f\af_ gf l] Yhhda[Ylagf( [dg[c kh]]\ eYq fgl Y^^][lgn]jYdd kqkl]e h]j^gjeYf[] \m] lg daealYlagfk af Yj\oYj]* ?n]f a^ o] Yn] Y

a_]j [dg[c kh]]\( o] [gmd\ kladd Yn] hggj]j h]j^gjeYf[] a^ Zmk]k Yj] kdgo]j gje]egjq Y[[]kk lae] ak ]plj]e]dq a_ ]l[*
http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/computer.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/computer.html


30/146


14

;fgl]j ^Y[lgj ak l] [dg[c \ja^lk af l] kqkl]e* ;k [dg[c kh]]\ af[j]Yk]k[gehYj]\ lg h]jah]jYd \]na[]k Yf\ gl]j ]pl]jfYd [gehgf]flk( kqf[jgfarYlagfZ][ge]k Y [Ydd]f_] af l] kqkl]e*

N] afl]jfYd Yj[al][lmj] g^ Y =JO Yk Yk em[ lg \g oal Y =JO$k h]j)

^gjeYf[] Yk l] [dg[c kh]]\( kg log =JOk oal l] kYe] [dg[c kh]]\ oadd fgl f][)]kkYjadq h]j^gje ]imYddq U/.W* If l] gl]j Yf\( ]p[]kkan] [dg[c kh]]\ [Yf Z] \])ljae]flYd lg l] gh]jYlagf g^ Y [gehml]j* ;k l] [dg[c kh]]\ af Y [gehml]j jak]koalgml mh_jY\]k af Yfq g^ l] gl]j [gehgf]flk( Y hgafl oadd Z] j]Y[]\ Z]qgf\oa[ Y ^mjl]j af[j]Yk] af ^j]im]f[q oadd j]f\]j l] hjg[]kkgj mfklYZd] U/-W*

;k Y j]kmdl g^ Ydd l] ^Y[lgjk ]phdYaf]\( [dg[c jYl]k kgmd\ fgl Z] mk]\ Ydgf]o]f [gehYjaf_ \a^^]j]fl [gehml]jk gj \a^^]j]fl hjg[]kkgj ^Yeada]k*


31/146


15

k[YdYj hjg[]kkgj oad] N -( f&ak l] ]p][mlagf lae] g^ kmh]j)hah]daf]\ hjg[]kkgjoal \]_j]] f Yf\ c klY_]k %Zml gfdq kaf_d] akkm]& Yf\ N e( -& ak l] ]p][mlagflae] g^ kmh]jk[YdYj [gf^a_mjYlagf oal \]_j]] e*

IZnagmkdq Yk F( Ja* Mmh]j)hah]dafaf_ km^^]jk ^jge eYfq Ykh][lk(

lgm_* @ajkl g^ Ydd( al ak daeal]\ Zq kh]]\ g^ dg_a[ Yf\ ^j]im]f[q g^ mfhj]\a[lYZd]ZjYf[]k* Cf Y\\alagf lg lak( klY_] lae] [Yffgl hjg\m[lan]dq _jgo kgjl]j lYfafl]j)klY_] dYl[ lae]7 lmk l]j] ak Y daeal ^gj fmeZ]j g^ klY_]k U/1W* ;fgl]jhgafl ak lYl l] dgf_]j hah]daf] j]kmdlk af a_]j h]fYdlq ^gj klYddk Yf\ ^dmk]k*

Gmdlahd] Ckkm] hjgna\]k emdlahd] hah]daf]k gh]jYlaf_ [gf[mjj]fldq af l]\YlYhYl kg lYl emdlahd] afkljm[lagfk [Yf Z] dYmf[]\ af ]Y[ hah]daf] klY_]* Gmd)lahd] akkm] eY[af]k Yj] \ana\]\ aflg log [Yl]_gja]k6 MlYla[ emdlahd] akkm] gjPFCQ P]jq Fgf_ Cfkljm[lagf Qa\l&mk]k [gehad]j lg Ykkakl oal afkljm[lagfakkm] Yf\ Yf\daf_ YrYj\k %dggh mfjgddaf_( afkljm[lagf j]gj\]jaf_ ]l[*& o]j]Yk\qfYea[ emdlahd] akkm]gj kmh]j)k[YdYjYj[al][lmj] mladar]k \a^^]j]fl afkljm[lagf

akkm] hgda[a]k Yf\ emdla)hah]daf] k[]\mdaf_ l][faim]k U/2W*N] kh]]\mh Y[a]n]\ mkaf_ Yf e)\]_j]] %gj e)akkm]& kmh]jk[YdYj Yj[a)l][lmj] oal HfmeZ]j g^ afkljm[lagfk Yf\ cfmeZ]j g^ hah]daf] klY_]k ak U//W6

(, 1) =(1,1)

(, 1)=

+ 1

+ 1=

( + 1)

+ ( 1)

B]j]( Yk( J* Cf gj\]j lg Y[a]n] a_]j h]j^gjeYf[]( l] log Yj)[al][lmj]k [Yf Z] [geZaf]$ ^gjeaf_ Y kmh]jk[YdYj kmh]j)hah]daf]* Cf [geegf

mkY_]( af\]]\( o]f o] lYdc YZgml Y kmh]jk[YdYj hjg[]kkgj( o] _]f]jYddq Ydkg af)[dm\] kmh]j)hah]dafaf_( a*]* egkl kmh]jk[YdYj hjg[]kkgjk Ydkg af[dm\] kmh]j)hah]dafaf_( ^gjeaf_ Y {kmh]j)hah]daf]\ kmh]jk[YdYj| hjg[]kkgj gj kaehdq kmh]jk[YdYjhjg[]kkgj*

CFJ [Yf ^mjl]j Z] af[j]Yk]\ Zq mkaf_ Y [geZafYlagf g^ nYjagmk l][faim]kkm[ Yk dggc)Y]Y\ ]p][mlagf( j]_akl]j j]fYeaf_( ZjYf[ hj]\a[lagf( gml)g^)gj\]j ]p][mlagf III?& gj kh][mdYlagf* N]k] [gf[]hlk Yj] Zja]^dq ]phdYaf]\af l] ^gddgoaf_ k][lagfk*

2.3.2. Look-ahead Execution

Mmh]jk[YdYj hjg[]kkgjk [Yf dggc)Y]Y\af afkljm[lagf klj]Ye lg a\]fla^q \])h]f\]f[a]k %oa[ afkljm[lagfk [Yf Z] akkm]\ af hYjYdd]d& Yf\ oa[ afkljm[lagfkYj] j]Y\q lg ]p][ml]( mkaf_ Yf afkljm[lagf)dggc)Y]Y$oaf\go CFQ&*N] k]l g^afkljm[lagfk [gfka\]j]\ af Y []jlYaf ege]fl ^gjek l] oaf\go g^ ]p][mlagfQI?&oa[ hjgna\]k Y ^mdd k]l g^ afkljm[lagfk lYl eYq Z] kaemdlYf]gmkdq [gf)ka\]j]\ ^gj hYjYdd]d ]p][mlagf* If[] afkljm[lagfk Yn] Z]]f afalaYl]\ aflg lak oaf)\go g^ ]p][mlagf( l]q Yj] ^j]] lg ]p][ml] af hYjYdd]d( kmZb][l gfdq lg \YlY \]h]f)\]f[] [gfkljYaflk U/3W*

Cf gj\]j lg Y[a]n] a_]j h]j^gjeYf[]( l] log Yj[al][lmj]k [Yf Z] [ge)Zaf]\( ^gjeaf_ Ykmh]jk[YdYj kmh]j)hah]daf]* N] kh]]\mh g^ km[ Yj[al][lmj] akemdlahda[Ylagf g^ l] af\ana\mYd kh]]\mhk g^ l] log Yj[al][lmj]k*


32/146


16

2.3.3. Out-of-Order-Execution (OOOE)

Mmh]j)hah]daf]\ kmh]jk[YdYj hjg[]kkgjk ]ehdgq gml)g^)gj\]j ]p][mlagfIII?& \m] lg l] ^Y[l lYl af)gj\]j akkm] hah]daf]k klgh a^ \][g\af_ \]l][lk Y[gf^da[l* Cl j]^]jk lg l] ]p][mlagf g^ afkljm[lagfk ZYk]\ gf {\YlY ^dgo| jYl]j lYfl] Y[lmYd hjg_jYe gj\]j* >gaf_ kg( afkl]Y\ g^ klYddaf_( =JO [Yf ^mjl]j dggc)Y]Y\ Yf\ ogjc gf k][lagfk g^ [g\] lYl \g fgl Yn] \]h]f\]f[a]k U/4W* Nak ak\gf] oal l] ]dh g^ CFQ* Q]f =JO ^afak]k \][g\af_ Yf afkljm[lagf( al hdY[]kal af CFQ* ;k dgf_ Yk l] oaf\go ak fgl ^mdd( l] =JO [Yf [gflafm] lg ^]l[ Yf\\][g\] f]o afkljm[lagfk*

N] egkl hghmdYj III? Yd_gjale ak NgeYkmdgzk ;d_gjale( oa[ oYkaehd]e]fl]\ gja_afYddq ^gj l] ^dgYlaf_)hgafl mfal %@JO& g^ C


33/146


17

af lae]* ; hggd g^ Yj[al][lmjYd j]_akl]jk ak ]d\ Yf\ l]q Yj] eYhh]\ lg hqka[Ydj]_akl]jk*

Figure 2-1: General Structure of OOOE mechanism with ROB [39]

?n]f lgm_ III? ]dhk ]phdgalaf_ g^ CFJ Yf\ [gn]jaf_ dYl]f[a]k km[ Yk[Y[] eakk Yf\ Yj\oYj] lg mk] egj] lYf l] fmeZ]j Yj[al][lmjYd j]_akl]jk( alYk \jYoZY[ck g^ alk gof km[ Yk j]imajaf_ [gehd]p ea[jg)Yj[al][lmj] Yf\ k[])\md]j Yf\ ]pljY Yj\oYj] \m] lg f]]\ g^ LMk Yf\ LI< Yl l] ]f\ g^ l] ]p][mlagf*

Nak ]pljY Yj\oYj] [gkl af hYjla[mdYj( ak fgl]ogjlq ]kh][aYddq af Ynagfa[k Yhhda[Y)lagfk( Z][Ymk] al j]kmdlk af a_]j hgo]j [gfkmehlagf( oa[ [Yf Z] ^YlYd o]fkY^]lq)[jala[Yd Ynagfa[ kqkl]e Yj\oYj] %^dYhk gj o]]dk& f]]\k lg ^]\ oal hgo]j\mjaf_ l]ehgjYjq hgo]j kgjlY_] gj h]jeYf]fl ^Yadmj]* Cl Ydkg j]kmdlk af [gehd]pYj\oYj] Yj[al][lmj]* Maf[] afkljm[lagfk j]laj] af)gj\]j( III? oal LIqfYea[


37/146


21

N] âjkl lqh] g^ [gfâ_mjYlagf ak [Ydd]\ Y dg[Yd hj]\a[lgj( oa[ ZYk]k alkhj]\a[lagf gf l] aklgjq hYll]jf kh][aâ[ %gj dg[Yd& lg l] [mjj]fl ZjYf[* N]ZjYf[ Y\\j]kk ak mk]\ lg af\]p l] âjkl aklgjq lYZd] %


38/146


22

Ydkg \]_jY\]k \]l]jeafake af l] kqkl]e* N]k] kh][aYd [Y[]k ^gj \qfYea[ ZjYf[hj]\a[lagf Yj] Ydkg a_dq kmk[]hlaZd] lg [Yj_]\ hYjla[d] jY\aYlagf af Ynagfa[k Yh)hda[Ylagfk km[ Yk Yaj[jY^lk* Nmk( klYla[ ZjYf[ hj]\a[lagf ak hj]^]jj]\ gn]j \qfYe)a[ ZjYf[ hj]\a[lagf af Ynagfa[k Yhhda[Ylagfk*

Cfl]_jYlaf_ ZjYf[ hj]\a[lagf aflg kh][mdYlagf( ea[jghjg[]kkgjk [Yf ]p][ml]l] hjg_jYe {kh][mdYlan]dq| \gof Y hYjla[mdYj ZjYf[ \aj][lagf Z]^gj] l] gml)[ge] g^ l] ZjYf[ ak cfgof* ?n]f lgm_ ZjYf[ hj]\a[lagf l][faim]k Yn]Y[[mjY[a]k gn]j 5,"( eYfq afkljm[lagfk Yj] ]p][ml]\ mff][]kkYjadq ^jge l] ojgf_hYl kladd* If] ka\] ]^^][l g^ lak ak lYl mff][]kkYjq \YlY eYq Z] hdY[]\ af l] F-[Y[]( ]na[laf_ \YlY lYl eYq Z] f]]\]\ Y_Yaf %Yf\ lmk [Ymkaf_ Y eakk&*

gmZd] hj][akagf mk]k egj] khY[]( Yddgok _j]Yl]jeY_falm\] Yf\ _j]Yl]j hj][akagf* Il]j lYf lYl( al Z]Yn]k bmkl dac] kaf_d] hj][a)kagf* Cfl]dzk eYl [ghjg[]kkgj Ydkg mk]k Y laj\( a_]j hj][akagf [Ydd]\ ]pl]f\]\hj][akagf oa[ [gfkaklk g^ ka_f Zal( ]phgf]fl %-1 Zalk& Yf\ eYflakkY %2/ Zalk&(d]Ynaf_ - Zal oYkl]\*

@dgYlaf_ hgafl gh]jYlagfk af l] =JO [Yf Z] \gf] ]al]j Zq Y k]hYjYl] j])k]jn]\ ^mf[lagfYd mfal [Ydd]\ @dgYlaf_ Jgafl Ofal @JO&( gj Zq mkaf_ ]pl]jfYd


39/146


23

Yj\oYj] [ghjg[]kkgjk afl]j^Y[af_ l] YmpadaYjq afl]j^Y[] mfal ;JO& ^gmf\ afl] =JO afl]j^Y[]*

Cf kqkl]ek o]j] l]j] ak fg \]\a[Yl]\ Yj\oYj] ^gj @J gh]jYlagfk( l][gehad]jk [Yf aehd]e]fl ^dgYlaf_)hgafl ]emdYlagfk7 lak ak l] [Yk] oal l]

GOFNC Yf\ A== [gehad]j* Bgo]n]j( [gehad]jk eYq f]]\ kh][a a[ Yj\oYj]afl]_]j mfalk( Yf\ jmf)lae] daZjYja]k kmhhgjl( oa[ [Yf eYc] l] kqkl]e fgf)hgjlYZd]*

2.5. Memory Hierarchy

?eZ]\\]\ =JO ZgYj\k [gflYaf ZYka[Yddq gf] gj egj] g^ l] ^gddgoaf_mfalk6 =JO( hjaeYjq e]egjq( h]jah]jYd afl]j^Y[] Zmk]k lg [geemfa[Yl] oal]pl]jfYd Yj\oYj] %C+I& Yf\ f]logjc afl]j[gff][lagfk %km[ Yk ?l]jf]l&*

; keYdd e]egjq [gehgf]fl ak dg[Yl]\ oalaf l] =JO [ah7 oa[ ak[Ydd]\ l] [Y[] e]egjq* =Y[] e]egjq [Yf Yn] egj] lYf gf]_XiX_[Ydd]\ F-(

F.( F/( ]l[*( o]j] F/ ak Y kmZk]l g^ F. Yf\ F. ak kmZk]l g^ F-( Yf\ F- ak Y kmZk]lg^ hjaeYjq e]egjq %gmlka\] l] [ah&* >\ZheX .)/ kgok Y lqha[Yd e]egjq a])jYj[q kljm[lmj] lYl [Yf Z] ^gmf\ af Yf ]eZ]\\]\ [gehml]j kqkl]e*

>YlY %gj afkljm[lagfk& j]im]kl]\ ^jge l] afkljm[lagf mfal af l] =JO akk]Yj[]\ âjkl af l] a_]kl d]n]d g^ a]jYj[q( a*]* âjkl)d]n]d [Y[] %F-&( a^ lak akfgl ^gmf\ l]j]( l] k]Yj[ [gflafm]k af l] dgo]j d]n]dk g^ l] a]jYj[q( a*]* [Y[]d]n]d F.( Yf\ kg gf* C^ l] j]im]kl]\ \YlY ak fgl ^gmf\ af l] [Y[] e]egjq( l][Y[] [gfljgdd]j%k& j]im]kl%k& al ^jge l] dgo]j d]n]d g^ a]jYj[q( \gof lg l] dgo)]kl d]n]d af l] a]jYj[q a*]* l] hjaeYjq e]egjq*

Figure 2-3: Memory hierarchy

F- [Y[] ak l] ^Ykl]kl mfal af l] e]egjq a]jYj[q Z][Ymk] al ak aehd])e]fl]\ Ydegkl YdoYqk af ML;G l][fgdg_q( Yddgoaf_ Y ^Ykl]j j]Y\af_ g^ \YlY Yd)lgm_ al g[[mha]k egj] khY[] Yf\ ak egj] ]ph]fkan]* JjaeYjq e]egjq( gf l]gl]j Yf$ ak eY\] g^ kdgo]j >L;Gk( oa[ ak []Yh]j Yf\ Yk egj] [YhY[alqYf\ lmk Yj] l] [ga[] ^gj e]egjq klgjY_] [ahk* Bgo]n]j( Bmf\Yd Yf\ IcdgZ$rabY U2-W kgo]\ lYl Y [geZafYlagf g^ ML;G)>L;G af Yf gf)[ah [Y[] e]e)gjq _an]k ghlaeYd gj_YfarYlagf ^gj ^Ykl Y[[]kk Yf\ a_ \]fkalq* @gj egj] \]lYadj]_Yj\af_ l]k] e]egjq l][fgdg_a]k( j]^]j lg k][lagf .*4* YZgml e]egjq l][fgd)g_a]k* =Y[]k ogjc [dgk]dq lg l] =JO( Yf\ l] al lae] af lak d]n]d af^dm]f[]k l]h]j^gjeYf[] g^ l] =JO egkl* N] \akY\nYflY_] g^ lak keYdd Yf\ ^Ykl [Y[] d]n]dak lYl al Yk Y ka_faâ[Yfl {eakk jYl]|( oa[ ak l] h]j[]flY_] g^ eakk]k gml g^ l]lglYd g^ e]egjq j]^]j]f[]k ^jge l] =JO*


40/146


24

>][j]Ykaf_ l] eakk jYl] ak hgkkaZd] Zq af[j]Ykaf_ l] kar] g^ l] [Y[](oa[ ak ]pY[ldq oYl F. [Y[] d]n]d \g]k* F. [gflYafk egj] e]egjq hdY[]k \])[j]Ykaf_ l] eakk jYl]( Zml l] al lae] ak Za__]j lgg* Nak ak Z][Ymk] al af[dm\]kegj] [gehYjYlgjk lg Z] YZd] lg âf\ l] j]im]kl]\ af^gjeYlagf afka\] l] [Y[](

l]j]Zq af[j]Ykaf_ Yj\oYj] [gkl* F/ ^gddgok l] kYe] hadgkghq g^ F.( Yf\ akg[[YkagfYddq f]]\]\*N] lae] al lYc]k ^gj l] =JO lg dgY\ Yf\+gj klgj] \YlY Yf\ afkljm[lagfk ak

[jm[aYd o]f \]âfaf_ l] [dg[ck h]j afkljm[lagf =JC& h]j^gjeYf[]( Yk lgk]e]egjq j]^]j]f[]k e]Yf Yf aehgjlYfl h]j[]flY_] g^ afkljm[lagfk af Y [geegfhjg_jYe* =JO h]j^gjeYf[] %eYafdq [dg[c kh]]\& Yk Y\ ]ph]ja]f[] Yf af[j]Yk]g^ YZgml 2," q]Yjdq( Zml lak Yk fgl e]Yfl lYl l] hjg[]kkgj ]^â[a]f[q Yk af)[j]Yk]\ Yl l] kYe] jYl]* Nak ak Z][Ymk] Ydd j]^]j]f[]k lg e]egjq _gaf_ gmlka\] l][ah Yj] \]h]f\]fl gf l] {Y[[]kk lae]| hYjla[mdYj lg l] hjaeYjq e]egjq [ah*JjaeYjq e]egja]k l][fgdg_q Yk Y\ Yf af[j]Yk] af h]j^gjeYf[] g^ YZgml 3" Yq]Yj af l] dYkl .1 q]Yjk7 oa[ Yk [j]Yl]\ Y h]j^gjeYf[] {_Yh| Z]lo]]f l] [dg[ckh]]\k g^ l] =JO Yf\ l] hjaeYjq e]egjq* HgoY\Yqk hjaeYjq e]egjq Y[[]kklae] ak YZgml -,, lae]k kdgo]j lYf ML;G e]egja]k afka\] l] hjg[]kkgj* ;k lak_Yh af[j]Yk]k( l] jgd] g^ l] e]egjq a]jYj[q Z][ge]k egj] Yf\ egj] [jm[aYdU2.W*

Nog e]lja[k Ykkg[aYl]\ oal e]egjq a]jYj[q Yj] dYl]f[q Yf\ ZYf\)oa\l* N]q Yj] mfa^gje Yf\ kh][aâ[ lg Y hYjla[mdYj [gehgf]fl g^ l] e]egjqa]jYj[q* FYl]f[q ak g^l]f ]phj]kk]\ af hjg[]kkgj [q[d]k gj af fYfgk][gf\k( o])j]Yk ZYf\oa\l ak mkmYddq _an]f af e]_YZql]k h]j k][gf\ gj _a_YZql]k h]j k][gf\*Cf hjY[la[]( l] dYl]f[q g^ Y e]egjq [gehgf]fl ak l] lae] al lYc]k lg ^]l[ gf]mfal g^ ljYfk^]j %lqha[Yddq Y [Y[] daf]&* ;k l] kh]]\ g^ Y [gehgf]fl \]h]f\k gf

alk j]dYlan] dg[Ylagf af l] a]jYj[q( l] dYl]f[q ak fgl mfa^gje* Cl af[j]Yk]k oad]egnaf_ ^jge a_]j lg dgo]j d]n]dk af a]jYj[q* If l] gl]j Yf$ ZYf\oa\l akY e]Ykmj] g^ l] Ykqehlgla[ kh]]\ g^ Y e]egjq [gehgf]fl( oa[ j] d][lk go^Ykl dYj_] Zmdck g^ \YlY [Yf Z] egn]\ af Yf\ gml* Dmkl Yk oal dYl]f[q( l] ZYf$oa\l ak fgl mfa^gje* Nqha[Yddq( ZYf\oa\l \][j]Yk]k l] ^mjl]j Yk o] egn] YoYq^jge l] =JO U2/W*

2.6. Cache Memory=Y[] e]egjq ak Y Yj\oYj] [gehgf]fl dg[Yl]\ [dgk]\ lg l] hjg[]kkgj(

mkmYddq af l] kYe] [ah( ogk] gZb][lan] ak lg kmhhdq l] =JO oal afkljm[lagfk

Yf\ \YlY af kgjl]kl hgkkaZd] lae]( ^Ykl]j lYf l] hjaeYjq e]egjq* C^ l] hjaeYjqe]egjq gd\k dYj_] Zdg[ck g^ \YlY lg Z] k]fl lg l] hjg[]kkgj( l] \YlY ak hmlkaehdq aflg l] [Y[] kg lYl l] ]flaj] \YlY \gf$l Yn] lg ljYn]d Yk ^Yj Yk ^jgehjaeYjq e]egjq lg =JO Zml jYl]j ^jge [Y[] lg =JO( kg lYl l]q [Yf Z]dgY\]\ em[ ima[c]j af lak k]fk]* N] ljYn]ddaf_ lae] g^ \YlY Ydkg \]h]f\k gf Zmkkh]]\ Yf\ \YlY)oa\l Yk o]dd Yk l] e]egjq kh]]\ Yf\ \YlY)oa\l*

N] =JO [Y[] ak Y keYdd e]egjq mfal \ana\]\ aflg daf]k %gj Zdg[ck&7 oal]Y[ daf] [gflYafaf_ gf] gj egj] ogj\k ^jge hjaeYjq e]egjq( o]j] ogj\k Yj]/.)Zal dgf_* Cf Jgo]jJ= Yj[al][lmj]( lak ak Ydkg l] d]f_l g^ afkljm[lagfk7 o])j]Yk [Y[] daf]k Yj] ]a_l ogj\k af d]f_l*

=Y[] af[dm\]k lY_k lg a\]fla^q oa[ Zdg[c g^ eYaf e]egjq ak af ]Y[[Y[] kdgl Ydgf_ oal YnYda\ Zal lg [][c a^ l] j]imaj]\ [Y[] Zdg[c %gj daf]& ak


41/146


25

nYda\ gj fgl* >mjaf_ l] k]Yj[ g^ l] j]imaj]\ daf] af l] [Y[]( l] lY_ g^ l] j])imaj]\ daf] ak [gehYj]\ oal Ydd l] [Y[] daf]k Yf\ a^ Y eYl[ ak ^gmf\( al j]kmdlkaf Y[Y[] al7 gl]joak] [Y[] eakk* Bgo lak [gehYjakgf ak [Yjja]\ gml \]h]f\kgf l] eYhhaf_ Yd_gjaleg^ l] [Y[]*

N] [geemfa[Ylagf Z]lo]]f l] =JO Yf\ [Y[] e]egjq ak \gf] ljgm_Zmk)ZYk]\ [geemfa[Ylagf* N] egkl [geegf aehd]e]flYlagf mk]k l] BYjnYj\fglagf g^ Ynaf_ k]hYjYl] Zmk]k lg ^]l[ \YlY Yf\ afkljm[lagfk %Zml mkmYddq [gfka)\]j]\ Yk kaf_d] dg_a[Yd Zmk&* N] Pgf)H]meYff fglagf g^ Ynaf_ Y kaf_d] [Y[] lggd\ Zgl afkljm[lagfk Yf\ \YlY Yj] Ydkg hgkkaZd]* N] dYll]j [Yk] ak [Ydd]\ mfaâ]\[Y[]( o]j]Yk l] ^gje]j ak [Ydd]\ khdal [Y[]*

=Y[] e]egjq( ]kh][aYddq l] F- [Y[]( ak mkmYddq hqka[Yddq dg[Yl]\ gf l]hjg[]kkgj* N] Y\nYflY_] g^ lak ak l] kh]]\ k[Yd] oal l] =JO [dg[c* Nmk( dY)l]f[q g^ [Y[]k ak ]phj]kk]\ af hjg[]kkgj [dg[c [q[d]k( afkl]Y\ g^ fYfgk][gf\k* Ifkge] hjg[]kkgjk( gf)[ah [Y[]k \g fgl YdoYqk jmf Yl l] [dg[c kh]]\ g^ =JO*N]q gh]jYl] Yl Y [dg[c jYl] lYl ak Yf afl]_]j imgla]fl %-+.( -+/ ]l[*& g^ l] hjg)[]kkgj [dg[c*

Ggkl hjg_jYek \g fgl Y[[]kk Ydd [g\] Yf\ \YlY mfa gjedq( Zml j]h]Yl ^gj[]jlYaf \YlY [ga[]k* Ng ]phdgal km[ hjgh]jlq( ogjcaf_ hjaf[ahd] g^ [Y[]k j]dq gfhjaf[ahd] g^ dg[Ydalq( oa[ e]Yfk o]f Y dg[Ylagf ak Y[[]kk]\( l] kYe] dg[Ylagfgj Y f]YjZq dg[Ylagf ak dac]dq lg Z] Y[[]kk]\ Y_Yaf kggf*

=Y[]k aehd]e]fl log ZYka[ [gf[]hlk g^ dg[Ydalq6 l]ehgjYd dg[Ydalq Yf\ khY)laYd dg[Ydalq* Mg loYj] lqha[Yddq Y[[]kk]k keYdd hYjlk g^ e]egjq Yl Yfq _an]f lae](Yf\ \g]k al j]h]Yl]\dq* N] ^Y[l g^ Y[[]kkaf_ l] kYe] dg[Ylagf gn]j lae] ak [Ydd]\l]ehgjYd dg[Ydalq( Yf\ l] ^Y[l lYl Y hjg_jYe l]f\k lg Y[[]kk Y\bY[]fl dg[Ylagfkaf e]egjq ak [Ydd]\ khYlaYd dg[Ydalq*

N]ehgjYd dg[Ydalq ak l] _gYd o]f l] [Y[] ak gj_Yfar]\ af k]lk( Yk af k]l)Ykkg[aYlan] [Y[]k( kg \YlY Z]af_ Yddg[Yl]\ af [Y[] ^jge hjaeYjq e]egjq oadd fglZ] \ak[Yj\]\ oal l] YjjanYd g^ f]o \YlY* NYl j]hdY[]e]fl ogmd\ Yhh]f aêYfq j]Yd e]egjq dg[Ylagfk Yj] Ykka_f]\ lg l] kYe] [Y[] dg[Ylagf* ;f gj_YfarY)lagf af {k]lk| _an]k l] [Yf[] lg k]d][l Yfgl]j hdY[] af l] kYe] k]l lg f]o \YlYlYl gl]joak] ogmd\ Yn] j]hdY[]\ l] hj]nagmk \YlY( af lak oYq hYjla[mdYj [Y[]\YlY [Yf klYq l]j] dgf_]j lae]*

MhYlaYd dg[Ydalq ak Yhhda]\ Zq ^]l[af_ Y\bY[]fl \YlY ^jge e]egjq Y^l]j^]l[af_ l] j]im]kl]\ \YlY ogj\( kg kmZk]im]fl j]im]klk ^jge =JO [gmd\ al afl] [Y[]* Q]f l] \YlY ak afkljm[lagfk( l]f lak ak [Ydd]\ kh][mdYlan] afkljm[)

lagf ^]l[af_* Nqha[Yddq mh lg lj]] [Y[] daf]k Yj] âdd]\ mh kh][mdYlan]dq Y^l]j Yeakk af [Y[] %Yk af JJ=00,?Jp&*N] kar] g^ Y [Y[] daf] mk]k l] [gf[]hl g^ khYlaYd dg[Ydalq Ydkg* =gflYafaf_

egj] lYf gf] ogj\ af Y [Y[] daf] ak j]^]jj]\ lg Yk emdlaogj\ [Y[] daf]k* Q]fY eakk g[[mjk( l] lYj_]l ogj\ Yf\ Y\bY[]fl ogj\k oadd Z] ^]l[]\ ^jge hjaeYjqe]egjq Yf\ ^mlmj] eakk]k Yj] hj]n]fl]\ af lak oYq Zml l] eakk h]fYdlq oadd af)[j]Yk] Yk [Y[] daf] kar] af[j]Yk]k* N] lae] lg âf\ Y ogj\ af [Y[] oadd af[j]Yk] Yk[gehYjYlgjk oadd Z] f]]\]\ lg k]d][l l] ja_l ogj\ afka\] l] [Y[] daf]* BYnaf_dYj_]j [Y[] daf]k \][j]Yk]k l] eakk jYl] Zml af[j]Yk]k l] al lae]* >] afaf_ l]kar] g^ ]Y[ [Y[] daf] ak Y ljY\])g^^ eakk)jYl] Yf\ [Y[] daf] kar]*

C^ Y j]imaj]\ afkljm[lagf gj \YlY ak ^gmf\ af [Y[] l]f l] [gfl]flk Yj] hmlYnYadYZd] lg l] afkljm[lagf mfal %CO& Yf\ hjg[]kkgj [gflafm]k af ak fgjeYd ]p][m)


42/146


26

lagf oYq( lak ak [Ydd]\ Yal* N] lae] mk]\ af Y al ]n]fl ak [Ydd]\ al lae]Yf\ l]h]j[]flY_] g^ [Y[] alk gml g^ l] lglYd g^ e]egjq j]^]j]f[]k ^jge l] =JO ak[Ydd]\ al jYlag*

Q]f \YlY ak fgl ^gmf\ af [Y[]( o] lYdc YZgml Yeakk( o]j] l] [Y[]

[gfljgdd]jk hj]k]fl Y j]im]kl lg hjaeYjq e]egjq* N] lae] al lYc]k lg ^]l[ \YlY gjafkljm[lagfk ^jge hjaeYjq e]egjq ak [Ydd]\ eakk h]fYdlq* N] h]j[]flY_] gêakk]k gml g^ l] lglYd g^ e]egjq j]^]j]f[]k ^jge l] =JO ak [Ydd]\ eakk jYlag(oa[ ak kaehdq %-)[\g eTg\b*

N]j] [Yf Z] / lqh]k g^ eakk]k af [Y[] e]egjq( oa[ ak \]âf]\ Zq l]/=zk dYoU20W6

-* =gehmdkgjq eakk]kg[[mj \m] lg l] ^Y[l lYl âjkl Y[[]kk lg Y Zdg[c akfgl af l] [Y[]( kg l] Zdg[c emkl Z] Zjgm_l aflg l] [Y[]*

.* =YhY[alq eakk]k g[[mj a^ l] [Y[] [Yffgl [gflYaf Ydd l] Zdg[ck f]]\]\\mjaf_ ]p][mlagf g^ Y hjg_jYe( \m] lg Zdg[ck Z]af_ \ak[Yj\]\ Yf\ dYl]j

j]lja]n]\*/* =gf^da[l eakk]k g[[mj a^ Zdg[c)hdY[]e]fl kljYl]_q ak k]l Ykkg[aYlan] gj

\aj][l eYhh]\( kaf[] Y Zdg[c [Yf Z] \ak[Yj\]\ Yf\ dYl]j j]lja]n]\ a^ lggeYfq Zdg[ck eYh lg alk k]l*

=Y[] [gflYafk afkljm[lagfk Yf\+gj \YlY lYl =JO f]]\k ^gj ]p][mlagf7go]n]j l]q Yj] klgj]\ af [Y[] gfdq l]ehgjYjadq* =JO YdoYqk Ykck ^gj Y kh][aâ[[Y[] Zdg[c oal najlmYd Y\\j]kk( al ak l] e]egjq eYfY_]e]fl mfal GGO&zk\mlq lggeTaf_TgXal lg l] hqka[Yd Y\\j]kk g^ l] Zdg[c [gflYaf]\ af Y kh][aâ[ [Y[]Y\\j]kk*

N] aehgjlYfl hYjYe]l]jk g^ [Y[] \]ka_f Yj] [Y[] kar]( eYhhaf_ ^mf[lagf

%Ykkg[aYlanalq&( j]hdY[]e]fl Yd_gjale( ojal] hgda[q( Zdg[c kar] Yf\ fmeZ]j g^[Y[]k %gj e]egjq d]n]dk af l] a]jYj[q&* N]k] hYjYe]l]jk oadd Z] \ak[mkk]\ af\]lYad af l] ^gddgoaf_ k][lagfk*

=Y[]k [Yf mk] Zmk kfgghaf_( o]j] [Y[] egfalgjk l] e]egjq Zmk ^gjgl]jk Y\\j]kkaf_ e]egjq Yl dg[Ylagfk lYl Yj] Z]af_ ]d\ af l] [Y[]* Q]f al\]l][lk kge] gl]j hjg[]kk %hjgZYZdq C+I& ojalaf_ aflg l] eYaf e]egjq dg[YlagflYl ak Z]af_ ]d\ af l] [Y[]( al afnYda\Yl]k l] [gjj]khgf\af_ [Y[] daf] kg lYleYaf e]egjq Yf\ l] [Y[] [Yf Z] kqf[jgfar]\*

=Y[] eYfY_]e]fl ak j]khgfkaZd] ^gj l] [Y[] gj_YfarYlagf %kar]( Ykkg[aY)lanalq ]l[*&( ojal] hgda[q Yf\ l] mk] g^ ojal] Zm^^]jk Yf\ al [Yf Z] \]âf]\ ljgm_

kg^loYj]*If Y [Y[] eakk( l] =JO Yk lg j]im]kl l] \YlY ^jge l] hjaeYjq e]eg)

jq* N] lae] al lYc]k lg j]Y[ hjaeYjq e]egjq( a*]* l] Yn]jY_] e]egjq Y[[]kklae] ;G;N&\]h]f\k gf al lae]( eakk jYlag Yf\ eakk h]fYdlq6

. . . = +

Nmk( h]j^gjeYf[] g^ l] kqkl]e [Yf Z] af[j]Yk]\ ]^^][lan]dq Zq j]\m[af_l] nYdm]k g^ l]k] hYjYe]l]jk* N] l][faim]k ^gj \gaf_ kg Yj] dakl]\ Z]dgo6

-* L]\m[af_ eakk h]fYdlq6Jjagjalq lg j]Y\k gn]j ojal] gf Y eakk( ?Yjdq L]klYjl #=jala[Yd Qgj\ @ajkl( Hgf)Zdg[caf_ =Y[]k( MmZ)Zdg[c hdY[]e]fl( Gmdla)d]n]d

[Y[]k( G]j_af_ Qjal]


43/146


27

.* L]\m[af_ eakk jYl]6FYj_]j daf] kar] Yf\ Zdg[c kar]( Ba_]j Ykkg[aYlanalq( FYj_)]j [Y[] kar]( Pa[lae [Y[]k( NjY[] [Y[]k( BYj\oYj] Yf\ kg^loYj] hj]^]l[af_(=gehad]j ghlaearYlagfk %=g\] j])YjjYf_]e]fl( >YlY j])YjjYf_]e]fl( Fggh Cf)l]j[Yf_]( Fggh @mkagf(


44/146


28

Yddgok kgjl]j [dg[c [q[d]k* Cl Ydkg Yk dgo]kl [gkl( Zml l]j] ak YdoYqk Y ^ap]\ dg[Y)lagf ^gj _an]f Zdg[c* C^ Y hjg_jYe Y[[]kk]k log Zdg[ck lYl eYh lg l] kYe] daf]j]h]Yl]\dq( [Y[] eakk jYlag ak n]jq a_ %[Ydd]\ ljYkaf_&* N] hjgZd]e oal km[eYhhaf_ ak k]n]j] ljYkaf_ g^ l] [Y[]( oa[ e]Yfk \YlY ]d]e]flk lYl Yj] kggf

f]]\]\ Yj] gn]jojall]f Yf\ al [Yf \]_jY\] h]j^gjeYf[] k]n]j]dq( ]kh][aYddq o]femdlahd] YjjYqk Yj] afngdn]\( kaf[] al ^gj[]k eYfq j]hdY[]e]flk oa[ d]Y\k lgeakk]k gf ]n]jq YjjYq af\]p Y[[]kk*

N] ^mddq Ykkg[aYlan]oYq( gf l] ghhgkal]( Yddgok \YlY lg Z] klgj]\ Yl YfqhdY[] af l] [Y[] e]egjq( oYl ak aehjY[la[Yd ^gj [Y[]k oal egj] lYf Y ^]o\gr]f dg[Ylagfk( Yk al ogmd\ j]imaj] Y\\alagfYd Yj\oYj] Yf\ oadd fgl hjgna\] [gf)ka\]jYZd] ^mjl]j j]\m[lagf af l] eakk jYl]* ;fgl]j af[gfn]fa]fl [YjY[l]jakla[ g^^mddq Ykkg[aYlan] ak lYl k]d][laf_ l] Zdg[c lg j]hdY[] oadd j]imaj] kge] Yd_gjalekYf\ Yj\oYj]( af l] [Yk] g^ \aj][l eYhh]\ lak ogmd\ fgl Z] f][]kkYjq* Maf[] Y[Y[] Zdg[c [Yf Z] af Yfq dg[Ylagf af l] [Y[]( al Ydkg Yk l] hggj]kl \]l]jeaf)

ake # hj]\a[lYZadalq Z]Ynagj( oa[ ak n]jq aehgjlYfl af Ynagfa[k Yhhda[Ylagfk*


45/146


29

>\ZheX .)0kgok Y .)oYq k]l Ykkg[aYlan] [Y[] oal ]pljY Yj\oYj] lYl akf]]\]\ lg dg[Yl] l] j]im]kl]\ Y\\j]kk af l] [Y[]6 0 [gehYjYlgjk Yf\ gf] emd)lahd]pgj Yj] mk]\* Nak [j]Yl]k \]dYqk Yf\ af[j]Yk]k l] al lae]*

Cf k]l)Ykkg[aYlan] [Y[]k( af[j]Ykaf_ \]_j]] g^ Ykkg[aYlanalq j]\m[]k [gf^da[l

eakk]k7 Zml lak [ge]k af ]ph]fk] g^ dYj_]j al lae]* BYj\oYj] [gehd]palq Ydkgaf[j]Yk]k*Of^gjlmfYl]dq al oYk fgl hgkkaZd] lg k]] l] af^dm]f[] g^ Ykkg[aYlanalq gf

h]j^gjeYf[] kaf[] l] [gjj]khgf\af_ j]_akl]j af l] hjg[]kkgj ak j]Y\)gfdq*

2.6.4. Early Restart & Critical Word First

C^ l] daf] kar] ak dYj_]( l]f hjg[]kkgj Yk lg oYal ^gj l] ogd] ljYfkY[lagflg eYc] Yfgl]j Y[[]kk lg e]egjq* Nak j]kmdlk af a_ eakk h]fYdlq*

?Yjdq j]klYjlj]^]jk lg l] oYq lYl Yk kggf Yk l] j]im]kl]\ ogj\ g^ l] daf]

Yjjan]k( al ak k]fl lg =JO kg lYl =JO [Yf [gflafm] ]p][mlagf7 o]j]Yk =jala[YdQgj\ @ajklj]^]jk lg l] e]Yfk g^ j]im]klaf_ l] eakk]\ ogj\ âjkl ^jge e]egjqYf\ k]f\af_ al lg l] =JO Yk kggf Yk al Yjjan]k7 l]j]^gj] Yddgoaf_ =JO lg [gflaf)m] ]p][mlagf oad] âddaf_ l] j]kl g^ l] ogj\k af l] daf]* =geZafaf_ l] logYhhjgY[]k ak imal] mk]^md af [Y[]k oal dYj_] daf] kar]*

2.6.5. Non-blocking Caches

?Yjdq j]klYjl kladd oYalk ^gj l] j]im]kl]\ ogj\ lg Yjjan] Z]^gj] =JO [Yf[gflafm] ]p][mlagf* @gj eY[af]k lYl Yddgo III? mkaf_ NgeYkmdg lqh] g^ [gf)ljgd %]*_* Jgo]jJ=&( =JO kgmd\ fgl klYdd gf [Y[] eakk]k* Hgf)Zdg[caf_ [Y[]kYddgo \YlY lg [gflafm] lg kmhhdq [Y[] alk \mjaf_ Y eakk %[Ydd]\ al mf\]j eakk&*

Mmhhgk] l] âjkl afkljm[lagf af l] afkljm[lagf [Y[] klj]Ye ak Y eakk Yf\l] k][gf\ gf] ak Y al U23W* HgjeYddq( Ydlgm_ k][gf\ afkljm[lagf kgmd\ Z] YZd]lg Y[[]kk l] ogj\ af [Y[]( al Yk lg oYal \m] lg eakk h]fYdlq g^ l] âjkl afkljm[)lagf lg j])^]l[ l] ogj\ ^jge eYaf e]egjq* Cf \qfYea[ k[]\mdaf_( Y klYdd]\afkljm[lagf \g]k fgl f][]kkYjadq Zdg[c l] kmZk]im]fl afkljm[lagf( kg k][gf\ af)kljm[lagf [Yf hYkk âjkl afkljm[lagf*

Ng kmhhgjl km[ k[]e]( eakk Zm^^]jkYj] Y\\]\ af Y\\alagf lg ojal] Zm^)^]jk Z]lo]]f l] [Y[] Yf\ l] eYaf e]egjq lg klgj] l] eakkaf_ [Y[] daf]k ^jgeeYaf e]egjq mflad l]k] Yj] ljYfk^]jj]\ lg l] [Y[] Zq l] [Y[] [gfljgdd]j U23W*

Nak k[]e] ak ]pl]fkan]dq mk]\ af a_ h]j^gjeYf[] [gehml]j kqkl]ek*

Figure 2-5: Hit under miss [67]


46/146


30

2.6.6. Multi-level Caches

Cf[j]Ykaf_ kar] g^ l] [Y[] [Yf j]kmdl af kdgo]j Y[[]kk* Cfkl]Y\( Y k][gf\dYj_]j [Y[] Z]lo]]f âjkl [Y[] Yf\ eYaf e]egjq [Yf Z] afljg\m[]\ lg e]egjqa]jYj[q* Qal gfdq kaf_d] d]n]d( Zmk Y[[]kk lg e]egjq ak kdgo7 lmk egkl ]e)

Z]\\]\ [gehml]jk Yn] Yl d]Ykl . d]n]dk g^ [Y[]* ?pl]jfYd F. [Y[] ak lqha[YddqZmadl oal ^Ykl ML;G Yf\ al mk]k k]hYjYl] \YlY Zmk( af[gjhgjYl]\ gf l] kYe] hjg)[]kkgj [ah* J]j^gjeYf[] aehjgn]e]flk \]h]f\ gf al jYl]k g^ ]Y[ [Y[]( Yf\km[ k[]e]k [gehda[Yl]k j]hdY[]e]fl Yd_gjalek Yf\ ojal] hgda[q* Qal F. [Y[]gf)ZgYj\( F/ [Y[] [Yf aehjgn] h]j^gjeYf[] bmkl Yk F. [Yf aehjgn] gn]j F-Ydgf]*

Cf[gjj][l ZjYf[ hj]\a[lagfk Yf\ afY[[mjYl] hj]^]l[ j]im]klk j]kmdl afe]egjq j]^]j]f[]k lYl Yj] fgl f]]\]\ Zq [gjj][l ]p][mlagf Yf\ mk]d]kk kh][mdYlan]e]egjq j]^]j]f[]k* N]k] mk]d]kk j]^]j]f[]k eYq \]l]jagjYl] hjg[]kkgj h]j^gj)eYf[] kaf[] l]q [Ymk] [Y[] hgddmlagf Yf\ [gfl]flagf af ZYf\oa\l Yk o]dd Yk

Yj\oYj] j]kgmj[]k U25W* C^ F. [Y[] ]paklk af l] e]egjq a]jYj[q( lak f]_Ylan]h]j^gjeYf[] aehY[l g^ kh][mdYlan] j]^]j]f[]k Z][ge]k nakaZd]* Nak ak Z][Ymk] Ykh][mdYlan] F.)eakk Yddg[Yl]k Y [Y[] Zdg[c af Zgl F- Yf\ F. [Y[]k %dac] Y fgf)kh][mdYlan] F. eakk& Yf\ mk]d]kk kh][mdYlan] Zdg[ck g[[mhq ]flja]k af Zgl [Y[]d]n]dk( oa[ d]Y\k lg hgddmlagfaf Zgl [Y[] d]n]dk* Cf lak [Yk]( Y e]lg\ [Ydd]\[Y[] âdl]jaf_[Yf Z] mk]\( o]j] l] F- =Y[] Yk Y âdl]j lg âdl]j gml l] kh][m)dYlan]dq ^]l[]\ Zdg[c oa[ ak fgl j]^]j]f[]\ Zq Y fgf)kh][mdYlan] afkljm[lagfoad] al ak af l] F- [Y[]* Bgo]n]j( lak e]lg\ j]imaj]k Yj\oYj] ]fYf[]e]flkoa[ [ge] af l] [gkl g^ Yj\oYj] [gehd]palq km[ Yk Yf ]pljY kh][mdYlan] Zal af]Y[ F- [Y[] Zdg[c lYl ak k]l o]f l] F. eakk oYk eYjc]\ kh][mdYlan] af eakk

Zm^^]j Yf\ j]k]l a^ Yf afkljm[lagf lYl Y[[]kk]\ l] [Y[] Zdg[c ak j]laj]\* N] Za_)_]j F- [Y[] kar] ak( l] egj] ]^^][lan] lak e]lg\ Z][ge]k U25W*

2.6.7. Simple and Small Caches

Maf[] al jYl] ak lqha[Yddq n]jq a_ [gehYj]\ lg eakk jYl]( Yfq j]\m[lagf afal lae] ak eY_faâ]\ lg ka_faâ[Yfl _Yaf af [Y[] h]j^gjeYf[]* Nak ak aehgjlYflZ][Ymk] al lae] Y^^][lk l] [dg[c jYl] g^ =JO %a^ gf)[ah [Y[]k Yj] mk]\&*

2.6.8. Unified vs. Separate Caches

M]hYjYl] \YlY Yf\ afkljm[lagfk [Y[]k [gf[]hlk [ge]k ^jge l] BYjnYj\Yj[al][lmj] hjghgkYdk( lYl hjghgk]\ k]hYjYl] e]egja]k dg[Ylagfk Yf\ Zmk]k Y[)[]kk]k( Yk ghhgk]\ lg kaehd] e]egjq mfalk [geZafaf_ \YlY Yf\ afkljm[lagfk af l]gd\]j ngf)H]meYff Yj[al][lmj]*


47/146


48/146


32

\YlY ZY[c lg l] e]egjq kqkl]e U3.W* Q] [Yf [dYkka^q l] Z]Ynagj g^ ojal]k \])h]f\af_ gf o]l]j l] ojal] ak Yal gj Yeakk*

Q]f =JO f]]\k lg h]j^gje Y ojal] Yf\ l] ojal] alkaf [Y[] e]egjq(l]f l] [Yf_]k [Yf ]al]j Z] \gf] Yl [Y[] d]n]d gfdq gj Zgl Yl [Y[] d]n]d Yf\

hjaeYjq e]egjq %gj Y dgo]j d]n]d a]jYj[q e]egjq& d]n]d* Cf l] dYll]j [Yk]( mh)\Ylaf_ hjaeYjq e]egjq [Yf Z] hgklhgf]\ mflad l] daf] Yk lg Z] j]hdY[]\* NakoYq g^ hjg[]]\af_ ak [Ydd]\ ojal])ZY[cgj [ghq)ZY[c* Q]f [Y[] daf]k d]Yn] l][Y[] mfal( \]h]f\af_ gf l] j]hdY[]e]fl Yd_gjale( \YlY [gflYaf]\ oalaf alk]dôadd mh\Yl] hjaeYjq e]egjq af l] j]kh][lan] Y\\j]kk( gfdq a^ \YlY Yk Z]]f[Yf_]\ oad] klYqaf_ af l] [Y[]( oa[ ak ka_fYd]\ Zq Y \ajlq Zal[gflYaf]\ af]Y[ [Y[] daf]* Nmk( [Y[] c]]hk l] \YlY al]e dg[Yddq Yf\ gfdq ojal]k nYdm] lge]egjq a^ Yf\ gfdq a^ l] nYdm] j]Y[]k l] ]f\ g^ l] j]hdY[]e]fl dakl Yf\ emklZ] j]hdY[]\*

=ghq)ZY[c [Y[]k j]imaj] khY[] ^gj l] \ajlq Zalk af [Y[]* Q] Ydkg Yn] lgZ] [Yj]^md lg ljY[c [g]j]f[q g^ ]na[l]\ nYdm] ^jge l] [Y[] mflad al j]Y[]ke]egjq7 oa[ af[j]Yk]k dYl]f[q ^gj ]na[laf_ \ajlq Zdg[ck* ;\nYflY_] g^ km[ ojal]k[]e] ak lYl \g]kfzl dgY\ Zmk ljY^â[ em[ kaf[] l]j] ak fg f]]\ lg j]h]Yl ojal]klg kdgo e]egjq ^gj j]h]Yl]\ ojal] Y[[]kk]k7 go]n]j al j]imaj]k Yddg[Ylagf g^ Y[Y[] Zdg[c*

;fgl]j Ydl]jfYlan] g^ ]p[Yf_af_ \YlY Z]lo]]f hjaeYjq e]egjq Yf\ [Y[]e]egjq gf Y ojal] al ak ojal])ljgm_* Cf lak [Yk]( [Y[] e]egjq ^gjoYj\k l]ojal] j]im]kl ^jge =JO lg e]egjq Zml l] [Y[] emkl Ydkg [][c lg k]] o]l]jYf al]e ak af l] [Y[]* C^ kg( l] [Y[] emkl mh\Yl] alk [ghq( lmk l] [Y[] akc]hl Y [ghq Yf\ ^gjoYj\k l] ojal] gh]jYlagf lg l] mf\]jdqaf_ e]egjq( Ynga\af_e]egjq [g]j]f[q hjgZd]ek* Nak Z]Ynagj [gmd\ Y^^][l ZY\dq l] [dg[ck)h]j)

afkljm[lagf =JC&g^ l] =JO %j]^]j lg k][lagf 0*4*-*/* ^gj =JC& a^ al Yk lg oYal^gj l] ojal])ljgm_ lg Z] âfak]\ Z]^gj] hjg[]]\af_ oal ]p][mlagf* %L]^]j lgk][lagf .*2*--* YZgml ojal])Zm^^]jk ^gj ^mjl]j \]lYadk&*


49/146


33

j]Y\k g[[mj lg j][]fldq ojall]f \YlY( l]q emkl oYal ^gj Zjaf_af_ l] ]flaj] daf] lgl] [Y[] U3.W* Cf _]f]jYd( ojal])ljgm_ [Y[]k mk] fg)ojal])Yddg[Yl]( o]j]Yk[ghq)ZY[c [Y[]k mk] ojal])Yddg[Yl]*

M][gf\( ojal]k lYl eakk af l] [Y[] eYq gj eYq fgl ^]l[ l] Zdg[c Z]af_ojall]f* ; [Y[] lYl mk]k Y ^]l[)gf)ojal] hgda[q emkl oYal ^gj Y eakk]\ [Y[]daf] lg Z] ^]l[]\ ^jge Y dgo]j d]n]d g^ e]egjq a]jYj[q( oad] Y [Y[] mkaf_ fg)^]l[)gf)ojal] [Yf hjg[]]\ aee]\aYl]dq*

Naj\( a^ \aj][l)eYhh]\ ojal])ljgm_ [Y[] ak mk]\( \YlY [Yf Z] ojall]f[gf[mjj]fldq oal lY_ [][c( oa[ ak [Ydd]\ ojal])Z]^gj])al * C^ lY_k \g fgleYl[( lak e]Yfk \YlY ak [gjjmhl]\( Yk \YlY ^jge l] ojgf_Zdg[c Yk bmkl Z]]fojall]f aflg al U3.W*

2.6.11. Write Buffers

C^ Y klgj] afkljm[lagf eakk]k af l] \YlY [Y[] Yf\ fg)ojal] Yddg[Yl] ak k]l(l]f l] e]egjq daf] oadd fgl Z] klgj]\ af l] [Y[]( afkl]Y\ al oadd Z] eg\aâ]\ afhjaeYjq e]egjq* C^ ojal])ljgm_ e][Yfake ak Y[lan]( l]f l] klgj] oadd ojal]\YlY aflg hjaeYjq e]egjq \aj][ldq o]l]j l] Y[[]kk alk af l] [Y[] gj fgl( Yf\o]l]j l] Yddg[Yl] Zal ak k]l gj fgl* C^ Y [Y[] daf] âdd ak j]im]kl]\ Yl l] kYe]lae] Zq l] [Y[] [gfljgdd]j( l]f l] [Y[] [gfljgdd]jk j]im]kl lg l] \YlY ZmkYk lg oYal ^gj l] ]flaj] ojal] ljYfkY[lagf lg hjaeYjq e]egjq lg Z] [gehd]l]\* CfY klgj] eakk oal ojal])ljgm_ hgda[q( ojalaf_ lg hjaeYjq e]egjq aehda]k Y h]j)^gjeYf[] h]fYdlq ^gj ]n]jq Y[[]kk( Yf\ Yf af[j]Yk] af l] Zmk ljY^â[( lmk eYcaf_l] [Y[] [gfljgdd]j lg oYal ^gj dgf_ lae]* N] =JO( Yl l] kYe] lae]( eYq oYal^gj l] [Y[] daf] oYalaf_ lg Z] âdd]\ Zq l] [Y[] [gfljgdd]j( lmk [Ymkaf_ =JO lg

klYdd alk [mjj]fl ]p][mlagf*Ng Ynga\ km[ [gf\alagfk( @C@I kljm[lmj]k [Ydd]\ ojal])Zm^^]jkYj] mk]\

Z]lo]]f [Y[] e]egjq Yf\ hjaeYjq e]egjq kg lYl l] klgj] gh]jYlagf ak fglojall]f \aj][ldq Zml Zm^^]j]\ af ojal])Zm^^]jk Yf\ lYl km[[]]\af_ [Y[] âdd gh]jY)lagfk [Yf ]p][ml] af Y hah]daf]\ ^Ykagf oalgml Ynaf_ lg oYal ^gj klgj]* ;^l]j l]daf] Yk Z]]f ojall]f lg [Y[] e]egjq( l] ogj\ af l] ojal] Zm^^]j [Yf Z] [g)ha]\)ZY[c lg hjaeYjq e]egjq* Nmk( ojal] Zm^ ]jk ]dh lg j]\m[] ojal] klYddk g^=JO kg lYl =JO [Yf [gflafm] aee]\aYl]dq Y^l]j ojal] \YlY ak hdY[]\ af l] Zm^)^]jk* Qjal])Zm^^]jk Yn] af)_]f]jYd emdla ]flja]k kg lYl o]f gf] ogj\ ak ojall]flg e]egjq( Yfgl]j ogj\ [Yf Z] Zm^^]j]\ aflg l] ojal])Zm^^]j*

Cf Y ojal])ljgm_ [Y[] oalgml ojal] Zm^^]j( hjg[]kkgj emkl [gehd]l] l]eYaf e]egjq Zmk ljYfkY[lagf ]n]jq lae] al h]j^gjek Y ojal]* Nak [Ymk]k al lg km^)^]j ^jge Zmk \]dYqk* Cf Zm^^]j]\ [Yk]( hjg[]kkgj ojal]k l] \YlY lg [Y[] Yl l] kYe]lae] al ojal]k l] \YlY Yf\ Y\\j]kk lg ojal] Zm^^]j %Zml fgl lg kqkl]e Zmk& \mjaf_ojal] gh]jYlagf* N] hjg[]kkgj l]f [gflafm]k [Y[] Y[[]kk( oad] [Y[] [gfljgdd]jkaemdlYf]gmkdq \gofdgY\k [gfl]flk g^ ojal] Zm^^]j lg eYaf e]egjq* Nak ka_faâ)[Yfldq aehjgn]k ]^^][lan] ojal] e]egjq [q[d] lae]* N] mk] g^ ojal] Zm^^]jk [Yff]Yjdq j]egn] h]j^gjeYf[] \a^^]j]f[]k Z]lo]]f ojal])ljgm_ Yf\ [ghq)ZY[c* ;koadd Z] k]]f ^jge j]kmdlk [Yhl]j( ]fYZdaf_ ojal] Zm^^]jk aehjgn]k h]j^gjeYf[]YZgml -1" af ojal])ljgm_ [gfâ_mjYlagf( Zml kladd j]eYafk 01" ogjk] lYf

[ghq)ZY[c* Qal Y []jlYaf [gfâ_mjYlagf( hjgZYZdq oal Yfgl]j hjg[]kkgj ^jgeJgo]jJ= ^Yeadq( al [gmd\ Z] hgkkaZd] lg aehjgn] ojal])ljgm_ ]n]f egj] [dgk]\


50/146


34

lg [ghq)ZY[c* Qjal] Zm^^]jk [Ymk] l]aj gof hjgZd]ek( lgm_* Cf Jgo]jJ= Yj[a)l][lmj]( ojal])Zm^^]jk Yj] j]fYe]\ Yk klgj] Zm^^]jk*

Qjal] Zm^^]jk [Yf Ydkg Z] mk]\ hjgâlYZdq oal [ghq)ZY[c [Y[]k( o]j] l]j]Y\ eakk kaehdq j]hdY[]k \ajlq Zdg[c* HgjeYddq( l] \ajlq Zdg[c ak ojall]f \aj][ldq

lg e]egjq Yf\ l]f j]Y\ ak \gf]* Cf [Yk] g^ ojal])Zm^^]jk( l] \ajlq Zdg[c ak [g)ha]\ aflg ojal] Zm^^]j Yf\ l]f j]Y\ ak \gf] ^gddgo]\ Zq l] ojal]* =JO klYddk d]kkkaf[] al j]klYjlk Yk kggf Yk j]Y\ ak \gf]*

Cf gj\]j lg Y[a]n] a_]j h]j^gjeYf[]( l] =JO ea[jg)Yj[al][lmj] [Yf Yd)kg mk] klgj])_Yl]jaf_( oa[ j]^]jk lg _Yl]jaf_ log gj egj] ojal] Y[[]kk]k lge]egjq aflg bmkl gf] e]egjq Y[[]kk* N] \akY\nYflY_]k g^ _Yl]jaf_ ojal] Zm^^]jkak lYl l]q [Yf [Ymk] =JO klYddk o]f l]q Yj] [geh]laf_ oal Y [Y[] eakk ^gjl] Zmk mk]( o]f l] Zm^^]j ak ^mdd( gj o]f al [gflYafk l] mh\Yl]\ \YlY f]]\]\Zq Y dgY\* N] Zm^^]j \]]hf]kk ak \]ka_f]\ Y[[gj\af_ lg Ynga\ klYddk Yf\ kladd j])\m[] l] eakk h]fYdlq*

;fgl]j [gf[]hl lg Y[a]n] a_]j h]j^gjeYf[] oal ojal] Zm^^]jk ak e]j_)af_ ojal] Zm^^]jk( o]j] f]o ojall]f \YlY aflg Yf ]paklaf_ Zdg[c af l] ojal] Zm^)^]j Yj] e]j_]\7 j]\m[af_ klYddk \m] lg ojal] Zm^^]j Z]af_ ^mdd* Nak k[]e] ae)hjgn]k e]egjq ]^â[a]f[q kaf[] emdla)ogj\ ojal]k Yj] mkmYddq ^Ykl]j lYf ojalaf_gf] ogj\ Yl Y lae] U30W*

;k ]phdYaf]\ Z]^gj]( ojal] Zm^^]jk [Yf ]^â[a]fldq af[j]Yk] =JO h]j^gj)eYf[]7 go]n]j l]q [Ymk] l]aj gof k]l g^ hjgZd]ek* N]q [Yf d]Y\ lg hgl]flaYd[g]j]f[q hjgZd]ek kg lYl hjg[]kkgj Yk lg [][c l] ojal] Zm^^]j Yk o]dd Yk [Y[)]k lg eYaflYaf [g]j]f[q Z]lo]]f [Y[] Yf\ e]egjq* CeY_af] Y klY[c hmk ^gd)dgo]\ kgjldq Zq Y hgh7 o]j] hmk ak Y ojal] eakk oa[ Yk fgl Z]]f q]l ojall]f

aflg l] [Y[] U31W* HYlmjYddq( hgh oadd Ydkg km^^]j Y j]Y\ eakk* ?n]f a^ ojal] Zm^^]jak gfdq kaf_d] d]n]d \]]h( l]j] ak Y hgkkaZadalq lYl \YlY ^jge hmk oadd fgl Yn]eY\] aflg hjaeYjq e]egjq Z]^gj] ]p][mlagf g^ hgh* C^ fg [Yj] ak lYc]f( hgh oaddj]Y\ l] klYd] \YlY af hjaeYjq e]egjq Z]^gj] al ak mh\Yl]\ oal hmk]\ \YlY( j])kmdlaf_ af [Y[] [g]j]f[q hjgZd]ek* ; kgdmlagf ogmd\ Z] lg \akYddgo [Y[] lgh]j^gje Y daf] mh\Yl] mflad ojal] Zm^^]j [gfl]flk Yn] Z]]f dgY\]\ lg e]egjq gjlg YdoYqk mh\Yl] eakk]\ daf] gf ojal] eakk7 Zml hjgZd]e _]lk ]n]f lja[ca]j af emd)la)d]n]d ojal] Zm^^]jk af e]egjq a]jYj[q* Qjal] Zm^^]jk emkl ]al]j Z] ]flaj]dq\]hd]l]\ Z]^gj] [Y[] [Yf [gflafm] oal daf] mh\Yl] gj al emkl kYlak^q \YlY j]im]klk^jge =JO U31W*

;fgl]j hjgZd]e ak lYl ojal])ljgm_ [Y[]k oal ojal] Zm^^]jk g^^]jL]Y\);^l]j)Qjal] L;Q&[gf^da[lk oal eYaf e]egjq j]Y\k gf [Y[] eakk]k* ;L;Q YrYj\ Yhh]fk af =JO hah]daf] o]f l] =JO lja]k lg Y[[]kk Y e]egjqdg[Ylagf lYl ak Z]af_ mh\Yl]\( Zml fgl q]l Yk âfak]\ l] mh\Ylaf_ hjg[]kk* NakYhh]fk af l] afkljm[lagf hah]daf] o]f Y dgY\ ^gddgok Y klgj] gh]jYlagf Yf\ l]qljq lg Y[[]kk l] kYe] e]egjq dg[Ylagf af hjaeYjq e]egjq* C^ klgj] gh]jYlagf\g]k fgl âfak mh\Ylaf_ lYl dg[Ylagf Z]^gj] j]Y\ afkljm[lagf klYjlk ^]l[af_ l]\YlY( l]f l] =JO oadd _]l klYd] \YlY( oa[ [Yf [Ymk] hjgZd]ek af l] hah]daf]Yf\ klYdd l] =JO* C^ o] kaehdq oYal ^gj ojal] Zm^^]j lg ]ehlq( ea_l af[j]Yk] j]Y\eakk h]fYdlq* Cfkl]Y\( =JO [Yf [][c ojal] Zm^^]j [gfl]flk Z]^gj] j]Y\7 a^ fg [gf)^da[lk Yj] hj]k]fl( l] e]egjq Y[[]kk ak Yddgo]\ lg [gflafm]* Nak e]lg\ ak j])

^]jj]\ lg Yk Jjagjalq lg Qjal]k gn]j L]Y\k*


51/146


35

2.6.12. Replacement Policy

=Y[] j]hdY[]e]fl hgda[q ak Y eYbgj \]ka_f hYjYe]l]j g^ Yfq e]egjq a])jYj[q7 Z][Ymk] l] ]^â[a]f[q g^ l] j]hdY[]e]fl hgda[q Y^^][lk Zgl l] al jYl]Yf\ l] Y[[]kk dYl]f[q g^ Y [Y[] kqkl]e* N] a_]j l] Ykkg[aYlanalq g^ l] [Y[](l] egj] nalYd l] j]hdY[]e]fl hgda[q Z][ge]k U2.W*

N] [gfl]flk g^ Y [Y[] e]egjq Yj] [gfljgdd]\ Zq l] j]hdY[]e]fl Yd_g)jale* N] kaehd]kl Yj\oYj] aehd]e]flYlagf ak l]jgmf\ jgZafhgda[q( o]j][Y[] daf]k Yj] j]hdY[]\ af Y [aj[mdYj gj\]j oalgml Yfq hjagjalq( oa[ ogjck âf]^gj keYdd Ykkg[aYlan] [Y[]k* =geegf j]hdY[]e]fl Yd_gjalek mk]\ af [Y[] Yj[a)l][lmj]k Yj] kmeeYjar]\ Yk ^gddgok6

a* FLO F]Ykl L][]fldq Ok]\&hgda[q j]hdY[]k [Y[] dg[Ylagfk lYl Yn] fglZ]]f mk]\ ^gj dgf_ h]jag\k g^ lae]* Cl qa]d\k a_]j h]j^gjeYf[] Z][Ymk](Y[[gj\af_ lg l] khYlaYd dg[Ydalq [gf[]hl( l] egkl j][]fldq mk]\ al]ek Yj]

egj] dac]dq lg Z] j]im]kl]\ f]pl* N]d]Ykl j][]fldq mk]\ j]hdY[]e]flhgda[q %FLO& ]fkmj]k lYl* N] \akY\nYflY_] g^ FLO ak lYl al j]imaj]k[gehd]p Yj\oYj] aehd]e]flYlagfk( lak [gehd]palq af[j]Yk]k jYha\dq oall] kar] g^ l] Ykkg[aYlan]*

aa* LYf\ge j]hdY[]e]fl hgda[q( o]j] Yddg[Ylagf g^ Zdg[ck Yj] khj]Y\ mf)a^gjedq( Yf\ [Yf\a\Yl] Zdg[ck Yj] jYf\gedq k]d][l]\ oal fg j]_Yj\ lge]egjq j]^]j]f[]k gj hj]nagmk k]d][lagfk7

aaa* @C@I @ajkl)af)@ajkl)gml& hgda[q o]j] l] daf] oa[ Yk Z]]f af l][Y[] ^gj dgf_]kl lae] ak j]egn]\

an* GLO Ggkl L][]fldq Ok]\&hgda[q o]j]( af [gfljYkl lg FLO( egkl j])[]fldq j]^]j]f[]\ al]ek Yj] \ak[Yj\]\ âjkl

n* F@O F]Ykl @j]im]fldq Ok]\& hgda[q( o]j] l]j] ak Y [gmfl]j [gmflaf_go g^l]f Y [Y[] Zdg[c ak mk]\ oal l] gf]k Z]af_ d]Ykl g^l]f Yj] \ak)[Yj\]\ âjkl*

na* JFLO Jk]m\g FLO&hgda[q oa[ mk]k Y hjgZYZadakla[ k[]e] lYl YdegklYdoYqk \ak[Yj\k gf] g^ l] d]Ykl j][]fldq mk]\ al]ek ak km^â[a]fl

FLO( JFLO Yf\ @C@I Yd_gjalek Yj] l] egkl [geegf oYq lg af[j]Yk]

[Y[] al jYlag af [Y[]k* N] [ga[] g^ l] j]hdY[]e]fl hgda[q \]h]f\k( Z]ka\]kl] Ykkg[aYlan] kar]( gf l] hYjla[mdYj f]]\k g^ l] Yhhda[Ylagf Yf\ al [Yf ka_faâ)[Yfldq Y^^][l h]j^gjeYf[] af e]egjq a]jYj[q* Mmhhgk] lYl l] F. [Y[] \])[a\]k lg ]na[l Yf FLO Zdg[c( gf] gj egj] Zdg[ck Yl F-( hgkkaZdq fgl FLO( [Yf Z]]na[l]\( l]j]^gj] Y^^][laf_ l] al jYl] g^ d]n]d Yf\ l] gn]jYdd h]j^gjeYf[] U32W*

L]af]c] ]l*Yd* U32W afn]kla_Yl]\ l] hj]\a[lYZadalq g^ ^gmj hjgeaf]fl [Y[]j]hdY[]e]fl hgda[a]k6 FLO( JFLO( GLO Yf\ @C@I Yf\ kgo]\ lYl fg hgda[q[Yf h]j^gje Z]ll]j lYf FLO( oal l] gl]j hgda[a]k %JFLO( GLO( Yf\ @C@I&(h]j^gjeaf_ [gfka\]jYZdq ogjk]*

>]l]jeafake ak gf] g^ l] [jm[aYd [jal]jaY g^ Yf Ynagfa[k Yhhda[Ylagf Yf\

[ggkaf_ FLO eYq fgl Z] ]fgm_ lg kYlak^q km[ [jal]jaY* C^ ]plj]e] hj]\a[lYZadalqak [gf[]jf]\( km[ Yk Y kY^]lq [jala[Yd Yhhda[Ylagf af l] kqkl]e( \]ka_f]jk [Yf ]n]f


52/146


36

\akYZd] l] [Y[] [gehd]l]dq( ZqhYkk al Yf\ Y[[]kk hjaeYjq e]egjq \aj][ldq ]n]f af]ph]fk] g^ h]j^gjeYf[] dgkk*

Of^gjlmfYl]dq( al oYk fgl hgkkaZd] lg [Yf_] l] j]hdY[]e]fl Yd_gjale\mjaf_ gmj h]j^gjeYf[] l]klk( kaf[] l] [gjj]khgf\af_ j]_akl]j ak j]Y\)gfdq*

2.6.13. Cache Locking

;k ]phdYaf]\ Z]^gj]( l] j]Ykgf ^gj Ynaf_ [Y[] e]egjq ak lg [dgk] l] h]j)^gjeYf[] _Yh Z]lo]]f l] hjg[]kkgj Yf\ l] hjaeYjq e]egjq( oa[ ak b]ghYj)\ar]\ Zq l] fgf)\]l]jeafakla[ Z]Ynagj g^ [Y[]k* =gfl]flk afka\] l] [Y[] Yj]j]hdY[]\ [gfklYfldq \]h]f\af_ _dgZYddq af kge] Yd_gjalek* =Y[] dg[caf_ ak Ye][Yfake lg hj]n]fl l] [gfl]flk g^ l] [Y[] ^jge Z]af_ gn]jojall]f*

>a^^]j]fl [Y[] daf]k Yj] j]im]kl]\ Y_Yaf Zq l] hjg[]kkgj oal \a^^]j]fl^j]im]f[a]k( kge] g^ l]e Yj] f]n]j j]im]kl]\ Y_Yaf( lak \]h]f\k gf l] hYjla[m)dYj f]]\k g^ l] hjg_jYe* N] j]hdY[]e]fl hgda[q lYc]k [Yj] g^ e]egjq eYfY_])e]fl af Y [Y[] d]n]d eYff]j* =Y[] dg[caf_g^^]jk Y [gfljgd lggd Yl Y [Y[] daf]d]n]d* Cfkmjaf_ lYl kge] \YlY oadd fgl Z] j]egn]\ ^jge [Y[] ak aehgjlYfl o]f\]Y\daf]k Yf\ hj]\a[lYZadalq Yj] aehgjlYfl( Yk af l] [Yk] g^ Ynagfa[k Yhhda[Ylagfk*

@gj ]pYehd]( l] 00,?Jp [gj] \ana\]k Zgl afkljm[lagf Yf\ \YlY [Y[]k aflglj]] k]hYjYl] j]_agfk fYe]dq l]abeT_( geTaf\XagYf\_bV^XWk]_e]flk* N] fgj)eYd daf]k Yj] Z]Yn]k Yk fgjeYd( o]j]Yk l] ljYfka]fl j]_agf ak mk]\ lg eYc] kmj]lYl gfdq Y daeal]\ fmeZ]j g^ oYqk Yj] mk]\ ^gj [Y[] daf]k ^jge e]egjq hY_]klYl Yj] a\]flaâ]\ Yk Z]af_ ljYfka]fl af fYlmj] U33W* N] dg[c]\ daf]k af l] [Y[]ak hjgaZal]\ lg Z] Y[[]kk]\ Zq l] j]_mdYj hjg_jYe [g\]( l]q Yj] \]\a[Yl]\ lg Ykh][aâ[ hgjlagf g^ [g\] oa[ eYq Z] g^ nalYd aehgjlYf[] lg l] Yhhda[Ylagf Yf\

lmk emkl Z] hj]n]fl]\ ^jge afl]j^]jaf_ oal l] gl]j j]_mdYj [g\] k]_e]flk*?n]jq hgjlagf Yk log j]_akl]j nYdm]k \]âfaf_6 ^dggj Yf\ []adaf_ nYdm]k* IfdqfgjeYd Yf\ ljYfka]flk j]_agfk [Yf gn]jdYh*

Q]f Yf ]flaj] [Y[] ak dg[c]\( \YlY ^gj j]Y\ alk oalaf l] [Y[] Yj] kmh)hda]\ lg l] j]im]klaf_ mfal af l] kYe] eYff]j Yk alk ^jge Yf mfdg[c]\ [Y[]*MaeadYjdq( ojal]k lYl al af l] \YlY [Y[] Yj] ojall]f lg l] [Y[] af l] kYe] oYqYk ojal] alk lg Yf mfdg[c]\ [Y[] U33W* Bgo]n]j( Yfq Y[[]kk lYl eakk]k af l][Y[] ak lj]Yl]\ Yk Y [Y[])afaZal]\ Y[[]kk %a*]* l] Y[[]kk Yll]ehl oadd Z] hjghY)_Yl]\ lg l] dgo]j d]n]d af e]egjq a]jYj[q&* Q]f l] [Y[] Yk Z]]f mfdg[c]\(Ydd ]flja]k %af[dm\af_ afnYda\ ]flja]k& Yj] YnYadYZd]*

QYq)Fg[caf_ ( gf l] gl]j Yf\( j]^]jk lg dg[caf_ gfdq Y hgjlagf g^ l][Y[]( Yf\ ak Y[[gehdak]\ Zq dg[caf_ oYqk oalaf l] [Y[] U34W* Ofdac] ]flaj][Y[] dg[caf_( afnYda\ ]flja]k af Y dg[c]\ oYq Yj] Y[[]kkaZd] Yf\ Yj] YnYadYZd] ^gj\YlY j]hdY[]e]fl*

2.7. Virtual Memory (VM)

;dlgm_ fgl [gfka\]j]\ Yk \]]h Yk [Y[]k

p 0720 embedded microcomputer for avionics

Documents