owens.j - whathistorianswantfromgis

What Historians Want from GIS

By J. B. "Jack" Owens

An increasing

number of

historians,

particularly

those dealing

with world

history or the

history of large

geographic

regions, are

becoming

interested in

using

geographic

information

systems for

research and teaching. Historians are noticing GIS because they

normally deal with processes in complex, dynamic, nonlinear

systems and, therefore, demand a means to organize a large

number of variables and identify those variables most likely

implicated in the stability and transformation of such systems.

However, GIS remains largely unknown among the vast

majority of professional historians, and a significant percentage

of those who believe they know about the technology think it is

something they can buy with their next car so that they will not

become lost. Even those interested in some sort of

geographically integrated history, a term I prefer to escape

some of the limitations of the more familiar GIS history, would

justifiably categorize the title of this article as pretentious.

GIS and History

I am often the only historian at geographic information science

(GIScience) meetings, and my presence provokes the obvious

question. A story will explain why a historian would become

interested in GIS. At the beginning of my graduate studies, I

Illustration by Jay Merryweather, Esri

read Fernand Braudel's La Mditerranee et le monde

mditerranen a l'poque de Philippe II because I was studying

the western Mediterranean in the 16th century and plunged into

this 1949 book with considerable enthusiasm despite its

imposing length. As I read Braudel's attempt to integrate the

slow changes in the Mediterranean's geographic form, climate,

flora, and fauna with the faster alterations in human

socioeconomic relations and the specific wars, political

alterations, and other events of the 16th century, I struggled to

understand how these different layers of the account, which

were discussed in sections characterized by the variable speeds

of temporal process, fit together. At the time, I tried tracing

maps of human cultural features, such as cities and centers of

economic activity, over topographic maps in an effort to

integrate better the elements of Braudel's history. This work

produced nothing more than a visual mess, which also failed to

capture the considerable dynamism of Braudel's account.

Moreover, I repeatedly felt frustrated that I could not easily

examine particularly interesting segments of my visualizations

at a larger scale.

Many years

later, on a hot,

sleepless night

in Murcia,

Spain, in 1983,

Pgina 1 de 8What Historians Want from GIS

13/08/2011http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/summer07articles/what-historians-want.html

I used my

daughters'

tracing paper

and colored

pencils to try

this technique

again. This

time, I was

investigating

the

development of

a cohesive

oligarchy in

southeastern

Castile and

wanted to see,

literally, how

my different

types of data

went together.

I was

particularly

interested in

the evolution

of social

networks

among

individuals, families, and communities within a regional social

and cultural environment. Alas, even for this more spatially

restricted story, no useful result emerged from the tracings that

captured the dynamism and complexity of the processes

involved.

Again, after the passage of many years, when I told this story

during an online discussion of possible titles for Andre Gunder

Fernand Braudel sought ways to shake historians

into an awareness that they needed to focus on

geography. The second edition of La Mediterranee

(1966) featured a striking image designed by

famed cartographer Jacques Bertin. Maps of the

Mediterranean Sea often show how much of

Europe is only a tiny slice of North Africa. To

emphasize the importance of Africa to the

Mediterranean, Bertin oriented the map toward the

south, showing Africa looming over the

Mediterranean with a relatively small Europe on

the other side of the sea, much as this satellite

image conveys this geographic relationship.

(Image courtesy of NASA.)

Frank's 1998 book ReORIENT: Global Economy in the Asian

Age, I learned from other participants, Martin Lewis and Kren

Wigen, that a method existed to undertake the type of

visualization I had earlier attempted. They recommended that I

try GIS as an integration and visualization tool, and I

participated in my first GIS workshops with great aesthetic and

intellectual satisfaction.

It so happens that Frank's book, which focuses on the first

global age, 14001800 CE, formed part of a body of work

produced by Braudel, Immanuel Wallerstein, and others on

historic "world systems," which were geospatially large,

interconnected, dynamic entities of considerable complexity.

Although Frank rejected existing linear, civilizationalist, and

Eurocentric social science theories of historical development, as

well as his own pioneering work in economics on dependency

theory, he admitted that he did not know how to undertake the

type of data organization and analysis that would be necessary

to understand such complex systems. He, therefore, limited his

book to a path-breaking discussion of the world economy, for

which he received the inaugural Best Book prize of the World

History Association in 1999. Since early 1995, Frank had been

pushing me to figure out how such a comprehensive "holistic

global analysis" (his phrase) could be done. It increasingly

appeared to me that GIS, with its capacity for the aggregation

of data on the basis of geographic location and spatial analysis,

provided a tool for the work that Frank had wanted to do before

he died in April 2005.

GIS and Disciplinary Crisis

It is difficult to convey to readers of a written text a complex,

multidimensional history, even a linear one. Because such a



high percentage of the human brain becomes engaged by visual

tasks, visualization must be a component of any account of this

type of historical system, and with its tie to cartographic forms

of representation, GIS visualizations can play a particularly

valuable role in increasing the understanding of geographically

vast subjects like the histories of major world regions or of the

world itself. For this reason, GIS offers great promise as a

means to develop high-quality classroom materials for history

teaching.

Therefore, beyond its integration, visualization, and analytical

potential, I began to look on GIS as the central piece of a

response to the serious and worsening crisis in which the

discipline of history had been enmeshed throughout my

teaching career. Through a failure to adapt, history surrendered

its place in a curriculum designed by Renaissance educators to

prepare students for humanitas, effective leadership. For 35

years, the discipline has suffered from a tight higher education

job market, the relatively low position of history departments in

the development plans of most colleges and universities, a lack

of appreciation by university administrators for the discipline's

traditional publication emphasis on the individually authored

monograph, and the growing weakness and instability of history

in K12 curricula. Over the past decade or more, the

disciplinary crisis has become dangerous because leaders of

four-year and graduate institutions have confronted a rapidly

changing U.S. higher education environment. Levels of federal

and state support have fallen, and public and private

institutions recognize limits on tuition increases to cover budget

shortfalls. Higher education cannot easily reduce expenditures

because students must be prepared to deal with constantly

shifting, globalized environments whose developments are

driven by rapid changes in communications and information

management.

The discipline will either contribute to the painful readjustment

of U.S. higher education that is currently under way, or history

departments will decline further in terms of resources and

internal administrative influence within their respective

institutions. In the midst of some institutional crises, existing

history departments may disappear as the remaining history

courses will be housed within other units, such as education,

which will undermine the discipline's contributions to critical,

research-oriented thought. It does not take much imagination

to envision education programs, without coherent history

departments, organized to produce teachers of the sort of

uncritical, "patriotic" K12 history curriculum advocated in the

1990s by some opponents of the national standards for U.S.

and world history. What solution does the use of GIS offer?

Collaboration and GIS

Leaders of the discipline of history have long resisted

collaborative forms of research, and they have been slow to

adopt contemporary communications and information

management technologies. Working alone, historians frequently

extract data from sources that are difficult and time-consuming

to discover and use, and thus, their research usually has a

relatively narrow geographic and temporal focus. As one result,

synthetic studies of cultural, institutional, and economic

evolution over long historical periods often badly distort reality

because this type of work has frequently been left to scholars

from other disciplines who are largely unfamiliar with the

nature, limitations, and uncertainty of the poorly structured,

fragmented, messy data used by historians in their individual

research. The failure to transform research practices and

graduate training has crippled the ability of historians to

respond effectively to major problems in world history and



increasingly marginalized the discipline at major research

universities.

GIS offers historians who specialize in the histories of different

places and chronological periods an effective vehicle for

collaborative research among themselves and for involving

researchers from other disciplines. At any point in its work, a

research team can visualize its available data and decide what

additional information is required. Such research will often

produce and be based on digital, shared databases, archived in

public, online repositories, which will constitute a body of

knowledge capable of expansion and the correction of errors.

The cumulative results will allow us to better address the

complexity of history by melding diverse voices and stories and

a wide variety of sources. This capacity for collaborative work

will enable historians to join research teams able to submit

more ambitious proposals to a greater variety of funding

sources and will lead to jointly authored papers addressing a

broader range of problems and readers. By escaping their self-

imposed disciplinary isolation, historians will enhance an

already dynamic discipline at the same time they will make

themselves an important part of the solutions to institutional

budget difficulties.

The Future of History at ISU

In response to these many factors, and to produce leaders for

this exciting future for historical research and teaching, the

History Department of Idaho State University (ISU) developed a

new internship- and GIS-based master's degree program in

geographically integrated history, known officially as the M.A. in

Historical Resources Management (MHRM). This appears to be

the first history program of its kind in the world (see the Fall

2005 ArcNews article on the program, "Idaho State University

Creates Innovative Program in History and GIS"), and it is one

of the fundamental building blocks of ISU's proposed

interdisciplinary Ph.D. in social dynamics and human

biocomplexity. These developments are supported by ISU's GIS

Center. Because the university has never had a geography

department, the center's director reports directly to the vice

president for research, and its oversight committee has

representatives from all interested academic units, including the

History Department.

During the

process of

creating the

master's

degree

program, we

transformed

our

undergraduate

history

curriculum to

give it a

distinctly

geospatial

focus. For

example, we

may be the

only history department to state as a core objective that

students will understand cartographic design and maps as

historic sources. With the kind assistance of Waldo Tobler, I

introduced a course on this subject to history undergraduates in

the fall of 2006.

Although the first students only began their master's studies in

Spatial, complex economic models, like this one of

a choppy-growth pattern, can be projected

cartographically. The bottom sheet shows

alternating growth and decline areas projected to

a regional map. Adapted from T. Puu,

Mathematical Location and Land Use Theory (2nd

ed.; 2003: 276), with permission from the

publisher Springer Verlag.



August 2007, the program has already permitted the

department to submit major multiyear funding proposals to

support our own research and the educations of the master's

students and participating undergraduates. We have under

consideration a proposal for an ambitious multidisciplinary,

comparative study of the impact of public policy on rangeland

health in 20th-century Idaho, Mongolia, and Spain, and we are

in the preliminary proposal stage of a project to develop GIS-

based support for the high school U.S. history standards and to

train public school teachers for this type of teaching.

We are also part of a campus group that is preparing a funding

proposal for a temporal GIS. The National Science Foundation

(NSF) has provided $394,000 to support for three years my

participation and that of my graduate research assistants in a

large GIS-based, multinational, multidisciplinary, collaborative

research project entitled Dynamic Complexity of Cooperation-

Based Self-Organizing Commercial Networks in the First Global

Age (DynCoopNet). I designed DynCoopNet to address a

program of the European Science Foundation's (ESF) European

Collaborative Research (EUROCORES) Scheme, The Evolution of

Cooperation and Trading (TECT), which was devised by

evolutionary biologists and economists. The DynCoopNet

collaborative research community investigates the evolution of

cooperation among merchants and between merchants and

other groups, with particular attention to the commercial

networks of importance to the global domains of Iberian

monarchies, 14001800 CE. In addition to the NSF support, I

also receive generous travel support from EUROCORES, and I

was named to the Scientific Committee, which will guide the

entire TECT program.

After years of administrative neglect and failure to provide the

History Department with necessary resources in the face of

greatly increased enrollments, our GIS activity has drawn

significant attention from ISU's administration. As one direct

consequence, my department received approval to hire Sarah

Hinman for a new position. She is a recent Ph.D. (of Louisiana

State University's Geography Department) who uses GIS to

study historic public health problems of U.S. cities. She will

provide us with significant support as we strengthen our

research and teaching programs. To help us maintain our

momentum, we have reason to hope that we will soon be

permitted to hire a historian of modern Europe with a strong

programming and GIS background and to receive support for

the graduate GIS teaching laboratory and classroom we have

designed.

Challenges for GIS

As exciting as these new triumphs and opportunities are, we

nonetheless recognize that there is much more to do to adapt

GIS to a discipline, such as history, for which time is significant.

I prefer to describe what we advocate as geographically

integrated history because we cannot be locked into the

questions and analytical techniques dictated by the available

GIS software. Yes, of course, there are applications and

combinations of applications that will take us partway down the

required paths of dynamic history. To make further progress,

though, it is clear that historians must concentrate on

developing, in collaboration with other disciplines, process

models that capture the importance of geospatial relationships

and variations.

Because of the importance of time to their discipline, historians

especially require a spatial-temporal GIS built on the basis of

mathematical models that will permit an evaluation of the fit

between data and theory, compensate for gaps in the data or

Pgina % de 8What Historians Want from GIS


m iss in g da t a t & pe s ' a n d fa cilita t e th e a n a l& s is o f th e e m e rge n ce

of n e w form s in com p le ( s & s t e m s a n d of o ) * e ct / fie ld d & n a m ics '

su ch a s th e d iffu s ion of in n o + a t ion s . , h e s e m od e ls m u s t ) e

a pp rop ria te fo r de a lin g wit h com ple ( ' d & n a m ic ' n on lin e a r

s & s te m s ' wh ich a re p ro ) a ) l& a g re a t d e a l m ore com m on t h a n

s im p le ' lin e a r on e s ' a n d with t h e g e os pa t ia l a s pe cts of t h e se

s & s te m s .

, h e e ( is t in g form s of GIS + is u a li- a t ion u su a ll& in + o l+ e s om e

sort o f ca rtogra ph ic re pre s e n ta t ion ' a n d th e s e le n d th e m s e l+ e s

we ll t o p re se n t in g re se a rch re su lt s ' e n g a g in g t h e pu ) lic in

d iscu s s ion s ' a n d t e a ch in g . . sp a t ia l- te m p ora l GIS s h ou ld a ls o

p ro + id e e ffe ct i+ e m e a n s o f + is u a li- in g th e d & n a m ics of com ple (

s & s t e m s ) e ca u se t h e + isu a li- a t ion s p rod u ce d ) & th e

m a th e m a t ica l e ( p re s s ion s u s e d t o m ode l n on lin e a r d & n a m ics '

wh ile o fte n a e s th e t ica ll& p le a s in g ' a re t oo d ifficu lt t o g ra s p for

po lic & m a / e rs or ot h e r a u d ie n ce s wh os e m a th e m a t ica l s / ills do

n ot e ( t e n d to pa rt ia l d iffe re n t ia l e 0 u a t ion s .

In e con om ics ' ) o th t h e se con ce rn s ' n on lin e a r d & n a m ics a n d

ge og ra p h ic s pa ce ' h a + e ) e e n m a rg in a li- e d in re ce n t d e ca d e s in

p re fe re n ce for s im ple r ' lin e a r e con om ic m od e ls ' wh ich o ffe r th e

illu s ion of con fide n t p re d ict a ) ilit & with ou t re fe re n ce to

ge os pa t ia l + a r ia t ion s . . s a con s e 0 u e n ce ' a rou n d 1 1 1 0 ' le a d e rs

in t h e fie ld we re p re d ict in g t h e u n i+ e rs a l ) e n e fit s o f a g lo ) a li- e d

e con om & from wh ich a ll t h e p la n e t 2 s in h a ) it a n t s wou ld e n * o &

in cre a s e d we ll- ) e ing . 3 a n & o f th e m h a + e ) e g u n to re cogn i- e

th e e rro r in th e ir p re d ict ion . If t h e & h a d u se d n on lin e a r ' s pa t ia l

m od e ls ' th e & wou ld h a + e wa rn e d polic & m a / e rs th a t pu s h in g

loca ll& s t a ) le e con om ie s in t o a world on e wou ld li/ e l& p rod u ce

loca l ch a os ' re s u lt in g in e n + iron m e n t a l de gra da t ion ' fa m in e '

d ise a s e e p ide m ics ' wa rs ' a n d ot h e r form s of te r ri) le h u m a n

su ffe rin g with p la n e ta r & im p a cts . 4 u t a t le a s t a n u m ) e r of

u se fu l sp a t ia l m ode ls a lre a d & e ( is t in e con om ics ' a n d m a * o r

fig u re s con t in u e t o d e + e lop th e s e ' s u ch a s S we d ish e con om is t

, 5 n u Pu u of 6 m e 7 6 n i+ e rs it & 2 s 8 e n t re fo r 9 e g ion a l S cie n ce .

GIS Research Opportunities

4 e ca u s e ot h e r socia l s cie n ce s ' e s pe cia ll& po lit ica l s cie n ce a n d

socio log & ' h a + e re m a in e d m ore fa it h fu l t o t h e 1 1 th - ce n t u r &

lin e a r t h e orie s a rou n d wh ich t h e & we re de + e lope d ' t h e nu m ) e r

of a + a ila ) le ' u s e fu l m ode ls ' wh ich ca n ) e e ( p re s se d in

m a th e m a t ica l t e rm s ' is m u ch m ore lim ite d . Howe + e r ' t h e re a re

re se a rch e rs wor / in g t o de + e lop s u ch m od e ls ' su ch a s 3 ich a e l

Son is o f th e Ge og ra p h & : e pa rtm e n t of 4 a r - Ila n 6 n i+ e rs it & in

Is ra e l. He is writ in g a ) oo / on t h e d iffu s ion of in n o + a t ion s for

wh ich h e m ode ls socio log ica l t h e orie s t o a ccou n t for t h e

d iffu s ion of ide olog ica l in n o + a t ion s p rod u cin g ; a ggre s s i+ e

in t ole ra n ce . ; . g re a t m a n & e ( cit in g re se a rch p os s i) ilit ie s a re

op e n t o h is tor ia n s in te re s te d in t h e n on lin e a r d & n a m ics of

h u m a n e colog & ' s ocia l o rga n i- a t ion ' a n d po lit ica l in s t itu t ion s

a n d t h e in te rpre t i+ e s ch e m e s of t h e cu ltu ra l e n + iron m e n t to

cre a te su ch m ode ls a n d to GIS cie n t is t s in t e re s t e d in in t e g ra t in g

su ch p roce ss m ode ls in to GIS . 3 o re o + e r ' e ( ce p t to a s s e rt th e

su p re m a c & of a < u rope a n p a t t e rn of d e + e lop m e n t a s th e m od e l

for u n d e rs ta n d in g a n d ; m ode rn i- a t ion ' ; th e se 1 1 th - ce n t u r &

socia l s cie n ce th e orie s a n d th e ir 2 0 t h -ce n tu r & d e sce n da n t s

la rge l& ign ore d g e og ra ph ic d iffe re n ce s a n d s p a t ia l 0 u e s t ion s '

wh ich m e a n s t h a t t h e re is m u ch th a t ge ogra p h e rs ca n d o t o

e ( p a n d t h e h ori- on s of t h e socia l s cie n ce s .

4 e ca u s e of h u m a n s 2 we a / cogn it i+ e ca p a cit & t o g ra s p s pa t ia l

re la t ion s h ip s ' it is h e lp fu l to h is t oria n s to m a / e ; s n a p sh o ts ; o f

th e ir da t a a t + a r iou s in te r + a ls in t h e h is to ric ch ron olog & ' a s we

do n ow ' ) u t m ore m u s t ) e don e if GIS is t o fu lfill it s p rom is e for

h is to rica l re s e a rch a n d t e a ch in g . His t oria n s re 0 u ire d is t in ct l&

t e m p ora l fo rm s of GIS a n d m u s t colla ) o ra te wit h e ( p e rt s in



GIS cie n ce a n d m a t h e m a t ica l m od e lin g . , h e : & n 8 oop = e t p ro * e ct

of , < 8 , is a d dre s s in g th e se is su e s .

Getting What Historians Want

In h is ) oo / ReORIENT' > r a n / a rgu e s th a t th e h is t or & o f n o p la ce

ca n ) e a de 0 u a te l& u n d e rs t ood wit h ou t in t e gra t ing in to t h e

a n a l& s is e n + iron m e n t a l' e con om ic ' po lit ica l- s ocia l' a n d cu ltu ra l

in form a t ion a ) ou t it or t a / in g in t o a ccou n t h ow t h a t p la ce h a s

) e e n con n e ct e d to ot h e r p la ce s . . ll loca t ion s we re pa r t s of

ge os pa t ia ll& la rge s & s te m s ' wh ich ' a fte r th e 1 ? th ce n t u r & 8 < '

con s t it u te d a s in g le world s & s t e m wh ose d & n a m ics con t in u ou s l&

sh a p e d wh a t h a p pe n e d in th e s e p la ce s ' wh ile a t th e s a m e t im e

loca l d e + e lop m e n ts in flu e n ce d s & s te m ic p roce s s e s .

In 2 0 0 0 ' th e a u t h ors o f th e @ rga n i- a t ion of . m e rica n His to ria n s 2

LaPietra Report A www.oa h .org / a ct i+ it ie s / la p ie t ra / fin a l.h t m lB

e m ph a s i- e d th a t ' fo r re a s on s s im ila r t o > ra n / 2 s ' & ou ca n n ot

m a / e s e n s e of 6 .S . h is t or & wit h ou t t a / in g in t o a ccou n t th e

wa & s in wh ich th e cou n t r & h a s ) e e n lin / e d to ot h e r p la ce s in

th e world a n d th e ch a n ge s in t h e pa t te rn o f th ose in te ra ct ion s

o + e r t im e .

In fa ct ' ) e ca u s e for th ou sa n d s o f & e a rs m os t o f th e world 2 s

pe op le h a + e ) e e n con n e cte d t h rou gh ou t la rge g e og ra ph ic

re g ion s ' th e h is t or & o f a n & p la ce ' in clu d in g la rg e cou n t rie s ' ca n

on l& ) e u n de rs tood ) & g ra sp in g h ow th a t h is to r & h a s ) e e n

sh a p e d ) & t h e wa & th e p la ce h a s ) e e n con n e ct e d to ot h e r

p la ce s . S in ce th e 1 ? t h ce n tu r & a n d th e d e + e lop m e n t o f som e

sort o f t ru l& g lo ) a l' d & n a m ic' n on lin e a r s & s te m ' th e h is tor ie s of

th e p la ce s wit h in t h e s & s te m h a + e ) e e n s h a pe d ) & th e n a tu re of

th e s & s te m a n d th e wa & th e & h a + e ) e e n lin / e d t o it . , h e

com m on pra ct ice of writ in g a n d te a ch in g h is t or & on t h e ) a s is o f

th e po lit ica l ) ou n d a rie s o f m ode rn cou n t rie s is a n t ith e t ica l t o

su ch a con n e cte d h is tor & ' a n d it will ) e n e ce ss a r & t o

con ce p tu a li- e g e ogra ph ic re g ion s on t h e ) a s is o f a dd it ion a l

+ a r ia ) le s . 4 e ca u s e th e s pa t ia ll& la rg e s & s te m s h a + e u n de rg on e

s & s te m ic t ra n s form a t ion s ' wh ich fu n da m e n t a ll& a lte r h u m a n

cu ltu ra l p e rce p t ion s a n d + a lu e s ' m ode ls for u n d e rs t a n d in g

p roce s s with in on e h is t or ic s & s te m ' e + e n ou rs ' m a & n ot ) e

e a s il& a d a p t a ) le to ot h e rs .

, h e re fore ' to cre a te a GIS fo r da t a o rga n i- a t ion a n d

+ is u a li- a t ion th a t is fu ll& u se fu l for h is to rica l re s e a rch a n d

te a ch in g ' m a n & n e w m ode ls will ) e re 0 u ire d ' a n d th is de m a n d

sh ou ld s t im u la te re s e a rch ca p a ) le of p rofou n dl& ch a n g ing a

n u m ) e r o f a ca de m ic d iscip lin e s . In e ( p lo rin g th e e + o lu t ion o f

coop e ra t ion - ) a s e d com m e rcia l n e twor / s in t h e firs t g lo ) a l a g e '

wh ich re 0 u ire s u n d e rs ta n d in g th e pa t te rn o r fo rm of th e s e

n e t wor / e d in te ra ct ion s a n d th e p roce ss e s of a d & n a m ic '

n on lin e a r world s & s te m ' t h e : & n 8 oop = e t p ro * e ct will cre a te t h e

sp a t ia l- t e m pora l GIS to im pla n t GIS a s a s ig n ifica n t com pon e nt

of h is t or ica l re se a rch a n d te a ch in g .

About the Author

C . 4 . ; C a c / ; @ we n s is p rofe s s or o f h is t or & a t Ida h o St a te

6 n i+ e rs it & . He is th e cocre a to r o f IS 6 2 s GIS - ) a s e d m a s t e r 2 s

p rogra m in ge og ra p h ica ll& in te gra te d h is to r & ' t h e 3 . . . in

His to rica l 9 e s ou rce s 3 a n a ge m e n t . , h e 6 . S . = a t ion a l S cie n ce

> ou n da t ion h a s fu n de d h is wor / on th e : & n 8 oop = e t p ro * e ct fo r

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th a n / th e m for t h e ir p a t ie n ce in re s pon din g to h is e n d le s s

0 u e s t ion s a ) ou t t h e ir wor / .



More Information

> o r a d d it ion a l in form a t ion ' con t a ct C . 4 . ; C a c / ; @ we n s ' His to r &

: e p a rt m e n t ' Ida h o S ta t e 6 n i+ e rs it & A e -m a il:

owe n * a c / E is u .e d u B .



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