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DEDEA Environmental Plans – Hazardous Waste Management Plan

Overview of Hazardous Waste Treatment Methods and Processes

Literature Study

DRAFT FOR REVIEW

J29119 November 2009

DEDEA Environmental Plans – Hazardous Waste Management Plan i Arcus GIBB Overview of Hazardous Waste Treatment Options – Draft November 2009

DEDEA Environmental Plans – Hazardous Waste Management Plan

Overview of Hazardous Waste Treatment Methods and Processes

Literature Study - DRAFT

CONTENTS

Chapter Description Page

1 INTRODUCTION TO THE DOCUMENT 1

1.1 Background 1

1.2 What are the report objectives? 1

1.3 Who would benefit from reading the report? 1

1.4 Structure of this document 1

2 DEFINITION, PRINCIPLES, CLASSIFICATION AND RATING 2

2.1 What is the definition of hazardous waste? 2

2.2 What is the Waste Management Hierarchy? 2

2.3 On what core principles is waste management based? 2

2.4 What does delisting of waste mean? 2

2.5 What are the classes of hazardous waste? 3

DEDEA Environmental Plans – Hazardous Waste Management Plan ii Arcus GIBB Overview of Hazardous Waste Treatment Options – Draft November 2009

2.6 What is a Hazard Rating? 3

3 INTRODUCTION TO TREATMENT OPTIONS AND PROCESSES FOR DISPOSAL 5

3.1 What are the basic treatment categories for hazardous waste? 5

3.2 How to choose an appropriate and effective hazardous waste treatment/disposal option? 5

4 PHYSICAL TREATMENT 6

4.1 What does it mean? 6

4.2 How does it work and what is it typically used for? 6

5 PHYSICAL TREATMENT – SILICA MICRO ENCAPSULATION 7



6 CHEMICAL TREATMENT 8



6.3 What are the pros and cons? 8

7 CHEMICAL TREATMENT – DEHALOGENATION / DECHLORINATION 9


7.2 How does it work and what is it used for? 9


DEDEA Environmental Plans – Hazardous Waste Management Plan iii Arcus GIBB Overview of Hazardous Waste Treatment Options – Draft November 2009

8 CHEMICAL TREATMENT – CATALYTIC DETOXIFICATION 10


8.2 How does it work and what is it used for? 10


9 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT / BIOREMEDIATION 11



10 BIOREMEDIATION – IN-SITU 12

11 BIOREMEDIATION – IN-SITU PHYTOREMEDIATION 13

12 BIOREMEDIATION – EX-SITU TREATMENT 14

13 BIOREMEDIATION – EX-SITU BIOREACTORS 15

14 RE-USE, RECOVERY AND RECYCLING 16


14.2 Why should we recycle? 16

14.3 How is it implemented in South Africa? 16

14.4 What about hazardous waste? 16

14.5 Which hazardous wastes are typically recycled? 16

14.6 Where can I read or find out more? 16

DEDEA Environmental Plans – Hazardous Waste Management Plan iv Arcus GIBB Overview of Hazardous Waste Treatment Options – Draft November 2009

15 THERMAL PROCESSES AND ENERGY RECOVERY 17




16 LANDFILLING 18


16.2 What are the types of landfills? 18

17 COMPLEX COMBINATION TREATMENT PROCESSES 19


17.2 What are typical examples of this application? 19

18 REFERENCES 20

DEDEA Environmental Plans – Hazardous Waste Management Plan 1 Arcus GIBB Overview of Hazardous Waste Treatment Options – Draft November 2009

1 INTRODUCTION TO THE DOCUMENT

1.1 Background

The Department of Economic Development and Environment Affairs (DEDEA) Eastern Cape appointed GIBB to undertaken a Hazardous Waste Management Plan for the province. In addition DEDEA requested the compilation of basic “guidelines for the treatment and disposal of Hazardous Waste”. A Water Research Commission Report (No 1548/1/06) by James Brice et al with the title “Guidance for the Classification, Rating and Disposal of Common Hazardous Waste Streams” was published in 2006 (Brice, 2006). Since GIBB considers the mentioned report to be relatively comprehensive and user- friendly, it was deemed unnecessary to repeat this effort. Instead, GIBB compiled this ‘literature study’ to provide a brief overview of a selection of definitions and concepts as well as best practice methods and processes which are typically applied to manage and treat hazardous waste. The main focus is thus on methods and processes of treatment opposed to how to treat a specific hazardous waste. In as much, this document is thus considered complimentary to the Brice-report.

1.2 What are the report objectives? The main objective of the report is to provide DEDEA officials and other stakeholders with a basic overview of what hazardous waste management and treatment methods and processes typically entail and how they are applied. With this objective in mind the report provides a brief and simplistic introduction and overview on: • Definition of hazardous waste • Delisting of hazardous waste • SANS 10228 classification • Hazard Rating • Methods and processes for the

disposal of hazardous waste. A few examples of application and some pros and cons of the various methods and processes are also briefly discussed. However, it is important to note that the advantages and limitations of different treatment techniques is often case specific. A detailed specialist study of the specific waste stream would thus be needed to fully assess the appropriateness of a disposal option.

1.3 Who would benefit from reading the report? Gaining a basic understanding of options and processes for hazardous waste treatment would benefit officials who deal with: • Licence applications for hazardous

waste treatment, disposal and other management infrastructure and activities

• Evaluation of selection of hazardous waste treatment options

• Monitoring of hazardous waste activities.

1.4 Structure of this document

Section 2 explains a number of important definitions and concepts in hazardous waste management, while Section 3 gives an introduction to the treatment options and processes that are unpacked in more detail in the sections that follow. References to other important documents are included for further reading.

Since this document intends to provide a simplistic overview it should not be regarded or used as a d t il d d i t h i l d t


2 DEFINITION, PRINCIPLES, CLASSIFICATION AND RATING

2.1 What is the definition of

hazardous waste? The National Environmental Management: Waste Act, Act 59 of 2008, (Waste Act) defines Hazardous Waste as “any waste that contains organic or inorganic elements or compounds that may, owing to the inherent physical, chemical or toxicological characteristics of that waste, have a detrimental impact on health and the environment”.

2.2 What is the Waste Management Hierarchy? South Africa supports the waste hierarchy in its approach to waste management, by promoting cleaner production, waste minimisation, reuse, recycling and waste treatment with disposal seen as a last resort. Refer to Figure 1 for an illustration of the Waste Management Hierarchy.

2.3 On what core principles is waste management based? The South African National Waste Management Strategy defines these as: • Accountability • Affordability • Cradle to Grave Management • Equity • Integration • Open Information • Polluter Pays • Subsidiarity • Waste Avoidance and Minimisation • Co-operative Governance • Sustainable Development • Environmental Protection and Justice (DEAT, 1999/2000)

2.4 What does delisting of waste mean? Delisting of waste is a procedure whereby it is proven that a specific waste is inherently or can be treated to be reclassified for disposal at a landfill site with a category for lesser hazardous waste. This is done through tests and risk analysis that show that the lower category of landfill would effectively contain and mitigate the environmental impacts that result from this disposed waste. The waste would typically be less corrosive, toxic or mobile than what the waste had originally been classified for. Delisting is generally pursued to reduce landfilling costs. Refer to Section 16 for landfills types.

Figure 1: Waste Management Hierarchy Sources: South African Waste Information Centre (SAWIC, 2008) and Management Strategy (NWMS, DEAT, 1999/2000)

Waste Management Hierarchy

Prevention Cleaner Production Minimisation

Re-use

Recovery Recycling

Composting

Physical

Chemical Treatment

Destruction

Disposal Landfill

Order of Prioritisation


2.5 What are the classes of hazardous waste? The SANS 10228 classification, which has been adopted as the SA standard, defines nine types of hazardous waste as illustrated in Figure 2. Some of the classes are further subdivided. For example, explosives are classified as Class 1 and are further sub-divided according to type of hazards, e.g. mass explosion, projection, fire or minor hazard. Hazardous waste gasses are classified as Class 2 and are sub-divided into flammable, non-flammable and poisonous gasses. Flammable liquids are classified as Class 3 and are sub-divided into specified low, intermediate and high flashpoint ranges. In turn, flammable solids or substances are listed under Class 4 and are sub-divided into flammable solids, substances liable to spontaneously combust and substances emitting flammable gasses when wet.

Figure 2: Nine Hazardous waste classes

2.6 What is a Hazard Rating? In 2005 the Department of Water Affairs (formerly DWAF) published the 3rd edition of the Minimum Requirements for the Handling, Classification and Disposal of Hazardous Waste. The document details how to systematically identify, classify and rate hazardous waste. While the SANS10228 classes group waste according to the nature of the waste, the Hazard Rating (HR) differentiates between the level of risk associated with the hazardous nature of the waste. The HR determines amongst others the type of landfill to be used and the permitted* on-site storage level as indicated in Table 2. The HR of a specific waste is based on: • Carcinogenicity • Toxicity • Ecotoxicity • Biodegration • Accumulation and

persistence potentials • Concentration of organic and

inorganic substances. * Broadly, there are three types of landfills, namely ‘general’ (G), ‘low hazardous’ (H:h) and ‘high hazardous’ (H:H) (Refer to Section 16).

9. Miscellaneous

dangerous substances &

goods

8. Corrosives

7. Radioactive

material

6. Toxic and infectious

substances

5. Oxidising

substances & organic

peroxides

4. Flammable

solids

3. Flammable

liquids

2. Gases

1. Explosives

Hazardous Waste

Schedule 1 of the Waste Act list waste managemenactivities in respect of which a waste managemen

The SANS 10228 classification determines the type ohazardous waste


Table 1: Examples of Type of Waste per Waste Class

Source: SANS 10228 and various others from Reference List

Table 2: Hazard Rating

Hazard Rating Risk Acceptable Landfill Type On-site Storage Limit HR 1 Extreme Risk H:H 10 kg HR 2 High Risk H:H 100 kg HR 3 Moderate Risk H:H or H:h 1 000 kg HR 4 Low Risk H:H or H:h 10 000 kg No Rating (for General Waste)

Minimal Risk General No limit, but must be temporary storage

Source: Brice, 2006

Class 7: Radioactive material • Uranium

Class 8: Corrosives • mineral acids • organic acids • acetic acid • strong bases

Class 9: Miscellaneous dangerous substances and goods • Environmentally hazardous chemicals

Class 1: Explosives • ammonium • perchlorate • ammunition • explosive articles • cyclonite

Class 2: Gases • compressed oxygen • aerosols • butane • compressed helium • ammonia

Class 3: Flammable liquids• acetone • alcohol • ethyl ether • aviation gasoline • brake fluid

Class 4: Flammable solids • white phosphorus • yellow phosphorus • alkali metals

Class 5: Oxidising substances and organic peroxides • sodium peroxide • potassium super oxide • potassium permanganate • tertiary-butyl peroxide and

Class 6: Toxic and infectious substances • arsenic • clinical Waste

• dinitrophenol • nitrocellulose • hexanitrodi-

phenylamine

• butaldehyde

• peracetic acid


3 INTRODUCTION TO TREATMENT OPTIONS AND PROCESSES FOR DISPOSAL

3.1 What are the basic treatment

categories for hazardous waste? Hazardous waste treatment can be categorised in a number of ways. Categorisation could relate to the treatment method: • Physical • Chemical • Biological Often waste is subjected to a combination of these methods for effective and safe disposal. The way in which different methods are combined and ‘stringed together’ for treatment is referred to as a ‘process’. A technical illustration of the process is referred to as a ‘process flow diagram’. Another hazardous waste treatment categorisation could be linked to the Waste Management Hierarchy: • Re-use, reconditioning and recovery • Recycling and energy recovery • Treatment • Disposal – landfill. The sections below describe these treatment approaches in further detail.

3.2 How to choose an appropriate and effective hazardous waste treatment/disposal option? Treating hazardous waste can be complex and expensive. For certain common hazardous substances best practice treatment has already been well established through research and practical experience. For such substances treatment options are generally easily determined and applied. However, for a number of more un-common or problematic wastes and/or mixtures of contaminants, specialist experts may need to identify or develop an appropriate treatment option/process. Some contaminants may be so complex and/or difficult to treat that the best option remains to safely store the waste until shipment to an appropriate treatment facility in South Africa or abroad. Safe storage and transportation in itself may be complex and specialised. Often Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) of the products that resulted in the waste may be a good starting point for the treatment investigation. However, MSDSs may need to be specifically developed for hazardous waste before it is stored, treated, shipped or disposed.

Figure 3: Pesticides stored inappropriately outdoors

Image Source: WRC, 2001 Figure 4: Obsolete pesticides cleanup operation outdoors Image Source: WRC, 2001

In November 1999, about 740 tons of highly toxic obsolete pesticides were exported to Wales at Shanks to be incinerated. The remaining 250 tons less toxic pesticide waste


4 PHYSICAL TREATMENT

4.1 What does it mean?

A waste is subjected to physical methods or processes so as to contain the hazard, to immobilise the hazardous component(s) or substance(s) and/or to prepare it for further treatment, recycling or landfill. “Physical methods don’t destroy wastes, instead, they change them into forms that are easier to treat further or to dispose. Traditional physical methods include carbon adsorption, filtration, flocculation, distillation, reverse osmosis and ion exchange.” (WRC, 2001)

4.2 How does it work and what is it typically used for? Encapsulation Encapsulation involves immobilising or reducing the toxicity of hazardous materials by either containerisation or stabilisation and incorporation within a solid water-resistant matrix such as Portland cement, asphalt or proprietary organic polymers prior to landfilling. Examples: • Double bagging of asbestos waste • Sulphur polymer stabilisation/

solidification of mercury compounds (also forms highly insoluble HgS)

• Stabilisation of metal hydroxide sludge, sulphuric acid plating waste and oily metal sludge with a sludge mixture of lime, fly-ash and bentonite

• Encapsulating beryllium or polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in concrete blocks

• Contaminated soil mixed into asphalt. Thermal encapsulation is the term used when heat is applied to melt encapsulation products like asphalt, plastics or waxes in the encapsulation process. Another form is micro-encapsulation, which entails the permanent encapsulation (trapping) of hazardous molecules within the molecular structure of an inert material like silica and sulphur polymer cement. More information thereon is provided in Section 5. Wetting Wetting is a method whereby water is used to suppress the spreading of hazardous dust or fibres. In some cases chemicals, such as detergents, are added to the water to enhance the wetting of the substance. Examples: • Wetting of asbestos fibres • Sprinkler systems on ash waste piles

and mine tailings dams.

Physical Separation - Filtration/ Centrifuging/ Distillation/ Reverse Osmosis/ Ion Exchange and flocculation This approach involves physically separating phases which contain hazardous substances from other non-hazardous constituents which form part of the waste stream. Examples: • Separation of oils from ship bilge

waters • Wastewater treatment (e.g. ion

exchange treatment of perchlorate-contaminated waters.)

Mechanical Breaking/ Shredding/ Ripping/ Pelletising Such methods are used to physically break-up the waste to either prepare it for further treatment or recycling; to reduce the physical hazard; and/or to reduce the volume of waste for airspace and cost saving purposes. Examples: • Waste tyres are shredded and

pellitised into small rubber pellets for shipment to a rubber recycler

• Neon light tubes are broken under controlled condition to render it physically safe and release or recover the mercury containing substances.


5 PHYSICAL TREATMENT – SILICA MICRO ENCAPSULATION

Sources: Mbhele, 2007; Sala et al, 2000; Singal et al, 2000; TEPCO Products, 2009

5.1 What does it mean? In Silica Micro Encapsulation (SME), hydrocarbon, chemical, heavy metal and/or radioactive contaminants are encapsulated (trapped / stabilised) within an impervious silica matrix, thereby completely and permanently isolating it from the environment. This essentially means permanently locking contaminants up in very small grains of sand. Silica is one of the most inert natural substances and with the hazardous contaminant being entrapped in the silica matrix contaminants are prohibited from migrating or leaching out. The silica grain typically does not degrade and generally strengthens over time.

5.2 How does it work and what is it typically used for? With the application of this technology and silica reagents developed by Klean Earth Environmental Company (KEECO), SME usually achieves control of contaminants in a single step. Thus without the need for pre-treatment with chemicals or post-treatment flocculation or filtration. The silica reagent is simply mixed with the contaminated water or liquid where after the ‘sand’ readily settles out. Soil can be treated ‘in-situ’ by mixing or ‘ploughing’ the reagent in, if the contaminated layer is shallow. For deeper layers of contaminated soil the soil is excavated, then mixing with the reagent ‘ex-situ’ where after the soil (with the silica product) is returned to the site.

“SME is a very robust technology which has been demonstrated to work effectively on heavy metals (such as chromium, copper and zinc), metalloids (such as arsenic), and radionuclides (such as uranium). It can be applied to wastewaters, sediments, sludges, soils, mine tailings, and other complex media. In addition to the control of metals, SME chemicals have been shown to reduce dissolved solids (such as sulphates) and to break down hydrocarbons (such as gasoline and fuel oil) and other organic chemicals through a high-energy oxidation process.” (Sala et al, 2000)

Image Source: TEPCO Products,

Image Source: TEPCO Products, 2009

Figure 6: Schematic illustration of organics are entrapped in the silica matrix

Figure 5: Electro-microscope image showing the cavities within the silica molecular structure magnified 2000 fold

Some points of note

• The silica coating is resistant todegradation even under extremeenvironmental conditions (acid,base, temperature)

• SME has most extensively beenapplied in treatment of minetailings

• Studies show that extractablehydrocarbons in soil polluted withdiesel oil were reduced by 70 to100%

• Various factors such pH, type ofsoil, size of metal ions and thepresence of hydrocarbons whenremoving heavy metals can affectthe efficiency of remediation

• The efficiency is enhanced insandy soil as opposed to clay soil

• For certain applicationssurfactants (soaps) are added toimprove the encapsulationefficiency

Figure 7: Polarised light image showing how oil is entrapped within the silica grain at magnified 10 fold


6 CHEMICAL TREATMENT

Sources: New Zealand Institute of Chemistry, 2002; WRC,2001

6.1 What does it mean? “Chemical treatment methods use different properties of a chemical to alter its hazardous elements. Chemical reactions alter the chemicals, destroying the hazardous elements or producing new compounds that are easier to treat or dispose of.” (WRC, 2001) This specific treatment thus uses a chemical reaction or process to render the waste non-hazardous or less hazardous.

6.2 How does it work and what is it typically used for? Chemical reactions or processes could for example chemically neutralise, oxidise, reduce, hydrolyse, precipitate, dechlorinate and/or catalytically detoxify the component that renders the waste hazardous. Neutralisation

In this situation, a substance or solution with a high acidity (low pH) or high alkalinity (high pH) is treated to become more neutral (thus closer to a pH of 7). A waste acid is reacted with an alkali and a waste alkali with an acid.

Example:

• Sulphuric acid waste with sodium carbonate (soda ash)

H2SO4 + CO32- → SO4

2- + CO2 + H2O

• Lime or calcium carbonate* neutralisation of mine acid-water

Oxidation

In this process a common oxidising substance such as hydrogen peroxide or calcium hypochlorite is used to oxidise a hazardous compound.

Examples (Also refer to Section 8): • Cyanide waste (e.g. from metal

finishing and gold process tailings) reacted with calcium hypochlorite.

CN- + OCl- → OCN- + Cl- OCN- + H3O+ → CO2 + NH3 Reduction

In this case an inorganic substances is converted to a less mobile and toxic form using a reducing agent.

Example: • Reduction of chrome [Cr(VI) to Cr(III)]

by the use of ferrous sulphate. (E.g. chrome waste from metal plating)

14H+ + Cr2O72- + 6Fe2+ →

6Fe3+ + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

Hydrolysis

Decomposition of hazardous organic substances, e.g. decomposing certain organophosphorus pesticides with sodium hydroxide (caustic soda). Precipitation This technique is particularly useful for converting hazardous heavy metals to a less mobile, insoluble form prior to disposal to a landfill.

Example: • Precipitation of cadmium as its

hydroxide by the use of sodium hydroxide. (E.g. removal of cadmium from metal finishing waste water)

Cd2+(aq) + 2OH- → Cd(OH)2(s) Dechlorination and catalytical detoxification

(Refer to Section 7 and Section 8)

6.3 What are the pros and cons? Pure chemical processes are useful primarily when a single chemical is involved or a few chemicals with similar properties. When applied to waste mixtures, side reactions interfere with the desired reactions. Methods are however improving and are often used in combination with non-chemical methods.

* Note: A new cost-effective form of acid-water neutralisation was developed by the CSIR. It uses the calcium carbonate by-product of the paper industry, instead of the traditional lime, for neutralisation. (Patel, 2006)


7 CHEMICAL TREATMENT – DEHALOGENATION / DECHLORINATION

Source: WRC,2001; Rahuman, 2000

7.1 What does it mean? “Chemical dechlorination is a chemical process that removes chlorine from a substance rendering the original chemical less toxic.” (WRC,2001)

7.2 How does it work and what is it used for? “Although dechlorination processes has been known for over 75 years, only in the past decade have researchers begun to look at its potential to treat polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) and dioxin contaminated materials.” (WRC,2001) “Chemical dehalogenation technologies are applicable to halogenated aromatic compounds, including PCBs, PCDDs, PCDFs, chlorobenzenes, chlorinated phenols, organochlorine pesticides, halogenated herbicide, and certain halogenated aliphatics (e.g. ethylene dibromide, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, and dichloromethane). If other volatile organic, semivolatile organic, or metal contaminants are present, chemical dehalogenation can be used in conjunction with other technologies, such as low-temperature thermal desorption, solvent extraction, or biodegradation.” (Rahuman, 2000)

This process uses glycols, alcohols, and water as their primary reagents. The two most common versions of chemical dechlorination are: Glycolate dehalogenation The alkali metal hydroxide portion of the reagent reacts with chlorine in the contaminant and forms a non-toxic salt. This process consists of five steps: prepare, react, separate, wash, and dewater. During preparation step, the contaminated waste/soil is excavated where after it is mixed with the reagent in a large heated container (reactor). Base-catalyzed decomposition During the late 1980’s and early 1990’s the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) developed this inexpensive process to remediate liquids, sludge, soil and sediment contaminated with chlorinated organic compounds. Such compounds include PCBs, pesticides, herbicides and dioxins.

In the process, contaminated soil is mixed with sodium bicarbonate. This mixture is then heated in a reactor to evaporate and thereby separate the chlorinated compounds from the soil. The condensed contaminants are then dechlorinated by reaction with several chemicals, including sodium hydroxide, in a heated reactor.

7.3 What are the pros and cons? Pros: • Treat contaminated material on-site • Use of an enclosed vessel at mild

temperature and pressure results in no air emissions or water discharges

• Produced off-gases are collected and recovered for treatment

• Some costs can be recovered by recycling reagents.

Cons: • Lack of information on the toxicity of

the reagents, polyethylene glycol and dimethyl sulfoxide.

Image Source: US EPA, 2009

Figure 8: PCB contaminated transformers

The halogen process was successfully demonstrated at the Wide Beach Superfund siteUSA in 1991. Approximately 42,000 tons ofstockpiled soil contaminated with PCBs at

Note: Chlorine is a halogen.


8 CHEMICAL TREATMENT – CATALYTIC DETOXIFICATION

Sources: WRC,2001; Schwinkendorf, 2001

8.1 What does it mean? A catalyst is a substance that modifies reactions and increases reaction rate without being consumed in the process. Usually only a small amount of catalyst is required relative to the reactants. The Delphi Research DETOX System is a catalysed wet oxidation process. It chemically and non-thermally breaks down organic wastes into carbon dioxide and water and is discussed by way of an example in this section.

8.2 How does it work and what is it used for? This catalytic aqueous detoxification process with ferric chloride (FeCl3) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) at 1000C to 2000C is a complex process as illustrated by the flow diagram in Figure 9. Basically, waste and oxygen are fed into a reactor where organic compounds are destroyed and toxic metals are concentrated and recovered, or disposed. The system is designed to handle soil, sludge (not municipal sewage sludge), solids, sediment, off-gases from primary treatment technologies, and mixed wastes.

It was primarily developed to treat PCB wastes, but can destroy all organics except for fluoropolymers. Non-chlorinated organics are typically destroyed at an efficiency of almost 100% while PCBs are destroyed at an efficiency of 98%. It is best applied to bulk organic wastes containing toxic and/or radioactive metals. Dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls, volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds, heavy metals, radioactive metals, and pesticides can all be treated by this system.

8.3 What are the pros and cons? Pros: • No dioxins, furans, or volatile metals

are produced due to the low temperature inputs and nature of the catalyst solution

• Less need for off-gas treatment • The process doesn't need fuel to

operate.

Cons: • Not very efficient in treating great

amounts of soils and waters with small amounts of contaminants

• Does not destroy toxic metals • Corrosion, materials compatibility and

leaks are issues of concern

Image Source: Borduin, 1998

Figure 9: Illustration of the Detox wet oxidation process

Other Chemical Processes Mediated Electrochemical Oxidation (MEO)

MEO makes use of silver, ceriumor cobalt compounds in nitric acidas oxidizing agents at roomtemperature and pressure. Whilethe process is being furtherdeveloped, it is applied in the UKto treat ion exchange resin, dryactive waste, chemical munitionsand for plutonium recovery. MEOoxidises many different organicmaterials (solids and liquids). Direct Chemical Oxidation (DCO)

DCO is the least corrosive of thechemical oxidation processes.The oxidant is regeneratedelectrochemically, but the processhas not been demonstrated.


9 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT / BIOREMEDIATION

Sources: UWC, 2008; Maila et al, 2004; WRC, 2001; Singh, 2009


Biological treatment, which in the context of hazardous waste treatment is more commonly referred to as bioremediation, is a process whereby waste materials are biologically degraded under controlled conditions.

9.2 How does it work and what is it typically used for? Naturally occurring or synthetic genetically engineered bacteria are applied or their growth conditions enhanced to break down specific chemicals or chemical mixtures. The hazardous component of the waste is thereby converted to an innocuous state or to levels below concentration limits established by regulatory authorities. Depending on the process, bacteria may be applied directly on contaminated soil, placed in ponds, lagoons or holding tanks or added to groundwater. As illustrated in Figure 10, a variety of technologies can be broadly categorised into ‘in-situ’ and ‘ex-situ’ or ‘excavated’ processes. Bioremediation may be employed in order to attack specific contaminants, such as chlorinated pesticides that are

Figure 10: Illustration of bioremediation types Source: UWC, 2008

degraded by bacteria. Some examples of bioremediation technologies are bioventing, land farming, bioreactors, composting, bioaugmentation and biostimulation. Bioprocesses can take place under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. Aerobic conditions are important for degradation of reduced hydrocarbons. On the other hand benzene and alkylated and oxygenated aromatics can be degraded anaerobically, provided nitrates, iron and sulphate are present to act as terminal electron acceptors. Since bioremediation involves the use of biological species to break down the hazardous substances, it is important that the growth medium includes the necessary nutrients. Essential nutrients include nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P). Biodegradation rates can be increased by adding nitrogen fertilisers which typically is 100:10:1 C:N:P.

Contaminated Site

In Situ

Bioventing

Stimulation & Augmentation

Biosparging

Phytoremediation

Excavated

Treated on site

Treated off Site

Land Farming

Composting

Biopile

Bioreactor

Pump & Treat

Land Farming

Composting

Biopile

Bioreactor

Pump & Treat

Phytoremediation

‘Ex-situ’ or ‘Excavated’ means removal of the contaminated soil, water or other substance from the area where contamination originally took place and treating the substance

it t k ff it t b t t d

‘In-situ’ means that contaminated sites/areas are treated at the area of initial contamination without removal of contaminated soil, water or other substance

‘Anaerobic’ means that the environment in which the reaction takes place lacks oxygen, and

‘Aerobic’ means that oxygen is present in the environment where a reaction takes place and therefore


10 BIOREMEDIATION – IN-SITU

Sources: UWC, 2008; Maila et al, 2004; WRC, 2001; ITRC, 2007; Singh, 2009 Bioventing Bioventing is an in-situ treatment which combines an increase of oxygen (O2) (and nutrients) with vapour extraction. Source: UWC, 2008 Bioaugmentation Bioaugmentation refers to the addition of naturally occurring microbes to contaminated materials and sites in order to achieve bioremediation. The process insures that the correct microbes are added in sufficient quantities.

Biostimulation Biostimulation refers to the modification of contaminated areas to enhance the growth of indigenous microbes already present. This process may include utilising fertilisers and other nutrients to stimulate the microbes. This method presumes that the correct microbes are present. Biosparging This approach aims to increase biological activity of the soil by increasing the O2 supply. Air is initially injected through wells, where after pure O2 is injected.

Image Source: UWC, 2008

Fixed Biobarriers / Biowalls The US Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council provides this cited overview: “Fixed biobarriers use solid or viscous amendments placed across the flow path of contaminated groundwater to form a permeable reactive barrier. Groundwater flows to, through, and past the fixed amendment. The fixed biobarrier approach can use engineered trenches or barriers containing solid-phase, slow-release substrates or viscous substrates placed crossgradient via direct-push injections.” “In situ enhanced bioremediation in the form of a fixed biobarrier is a suitable technology for large plumes having poorly defined, widely distributed, or inaccessible source areas.” (ITRC, 2007) Image Source: ITRC, 2007

Figure 11: Illustration of a typical bioventing process

Figure 12: Illustration of bioventing process

Figure 13: Illustration of biowall process


11 BIOREMEDIATION – IN-SITU PHYTOREMEDIATION

Sources: UWC, 2008; Maila et al, 2004; WRC, 2001; ITRC, 2007; Singh, 2009 Phytoremediation Phytoremediation is the use of ‘higher than micro-organism’ plants for removal of contaminants from soil or water. Contaminants are fixed in the ground, accumulated in the plant tissue or released to the atmosphere. Image Source: UWC, 2008

Constructed / Artificial Wetlands Wetlands constructed for remediation purposes are examples of phytoremediation. “Constructed wetlands have been used for decades for the management and treatment of many wastewaters, including municipal, acid mine drainage, agriculture, petrochemical and textile industries, and storm water. Increasingly, however, constructed wetlands are being used for the remediation of groundwater for surface water impacted by industrial chemicals and wastes such as landfill leachate and explosives such as TNT or RDX. The trend toward increased use of constructed wetland technology relates to the low capital and operating and maintenance costs associated with this mostly passive technology.” (ITRC, 2007)

Image Source: Princeton, 2009 “Wetlands are usually constructed using limestone drains aid in neutralizing acid from acid mine drainage.” (Princeton, 2009)

Image Source: Princeton, 2009

Figure 14: Illustration of a phythoremediation process

Figure 15: Constructed wetland in Pennsylvania

Figure 16: Illustration of a typical constructed wetland

Sections 35 to 41 of the Waste Act deals witmatters related to contaminated land. It coverhistorically contaminated land. The Minister orelevant MEC might give orders for investigatio

d/ di i f i d l d


12 BIOREMEDIATION – EX-SITU TREATMENT

Sources: UWC, 2008; Maila et al, 2004; WRC, 2001; ITRC, 2007 Landfarming Landfarming refers to a ‘low tech’ biological treatment which involves the controlled application and spread-out of a more-or-less defined organic bio-available waste on the soil surface, and the incorporation of the waste into the upper soil zone. It is typically used for biological removal of petroleum products from contaminated soil. Composting Due to its common use for household garden waste, this is the well known controlled biological decomposition of organic material in the presence of air to form a humus-like material. Methods of composting include, mechanical mixing and aerating, ventilating the materials by dropping them through a vertical series of aerated chambers, or placing the compost in piles out in the open air and mixing it or turning it periodically.

Biopile / Biocells / Bioheaps Biopiles are essentially heaps of contaminated soil placed on lined areas to prevent leaching. They are typically covered with plastic and liquid nutrients are applied. Aeration is improved by applying suction to the base of the pile. Leachate is collected by pipes at the base.

Earth worms Studies have shown that: “Earthworms burrow through the soil thereby accumulating many lipophilic organic pollutants from the surrounding environment, so they could be used to remove polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from soil. The microorganisms in the gut of

Figure 19: Illustration of biopiling

Figure 17: Illustration of ‘Hot Spot’ ex-situ bioremediation of perchlorate

Figure 18: Illustration of ex-sito anaerobic bioremediation in bags at an industrial site

Image Source: ITRC, 2007 (Source: Geosyntec Consultants)

Image Source: ITRC, 2007

Image Source: UWC, 2008


13 BIOREMEDIATION – EX-SITU BIOREACTORS

Sources: UWC, 2008; WRC, 2001; ITRC, 2007 Bioreactors A bioreactor refers to any device, container or system that supports a biologically active and controlled environment for bioremediation. This ex-situ biological treatment process depends on maintaining a high active biomass concentration in the reactor. Bioremediation reactors can be classified as follows: • Suspended-growth reactors –

active biomass is suspended as free organisms or microbial aggregates (i.e. Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors (CSTR))

• Supported-growth or fixed-film

reactors – growth occurs on or within a solid medium or a biomass granule or pellet (i.e. Fluidised Bed Reactors (FBR) and Packed Bed Reactors (PBR))

CSTRs are typically used for treatment of high strength contaminated wastewater at low flow rates and are as such often used for treating industrial wastewater streams. In turn, FBRs and PBRs find their application in treatment of lower strength streams at high flow rate such as may be required for groundwater and water treatment.

Image Source: Yassine Mrabet, 2009 A key step in the design of any biological process is the selection of the appropriate reactor configuration. Bioleaching In bioleaching, bioremediation of heavy metal contaminated soil is achieved using acidophilic bacteria that oxidize reduced sulphur compounds to sulphuric acid. The process makes use of either a slurry or a heap leaching system.

Image Source: ITRC, 2007

Figure 19: General structure of batch type stirred tank bioreactor

Figure 20: The GenCorp Aerojet Fluid Bed Reactor Facility in Sacramento, California– the world’s first groundwater treatment system for perchlorate.

“As with the FBR, the PBR is a fixed film–based bioreactor in which the sand, carbon, or plastic media is stationary. As in the FBR, the microorganisms attach to the media in the reactor. Unlike the FBR, PBRs

b d i d i i h fl

“The FBR is a reactor column that fosters the growth of microorganisms on a hydraulically fluidized bed of media, usually sand or activated carbon. The fluidized medium selected provides a large surface area on which a film of

i i th

“CSTR means that the biomass is suspended in the treated water and not attached to the media surfaces to keep them in the reactor. The biomass continually reproduces at a high rate so that a constant


14 RE-USE, RECOVERY AND RECYCLING


The Waste Act defines reduce, reuses, recycle and recovery as follows:

14.2 Why should we recycle? Continuous production of vast amounts waste is unsustainable. Recovering and re-utilising products from waste expands the product lifecycle and thus reduces waste and environmental impact.

14.3 How is it implemented in South Africa? Section 17 of the Waste Act provides a framework for recovery, reuse and recycling.

14.4 What about hazardous waste? Re-use, recovery and recycling of useful products from hazardous waste is often problematic and costly. This is due to the sophisticated health, safety and environmental precautions required and/or the complexity of treatment processes that are required. While certain hazardous wastes or components thereof are re-useable the focus should remain on waste minimisation and cleaner production as the most important objective. Cleaner production may include recycling.

14.5 Which hazardous wastes are typically recycled? Examples of recyclable hazardous waste include: • Toxic lead and sulphuric acid are

recovered from car batteries • Used lubricating motor and other oils

are refined for recycling.

14.6 Where can I read or find out more? The Institute of Waste Management South Africa (IWMSA) http://www.iwmsa.co.za

Responsible Container Management Association of South Africa (RCMASA) http://www.rcmasa.org.za/

e-Waste Association of SA: www.ewasa.org

ROSE Foundation: www.rosefoundation.org.za

National Recycling Forum: www.recycling.co.za Source: Rose Foundation, 2009

"waste minimisation" (reduce) means the avoidance of the amount and toxicity of waste that is generated and in the event where waste is generated, the reduction of h d i i f

"recovery" means the controlled extraction of a material or the retrieval of energy from waste to

"cleaner production" (reduce) means the continuous application of integrated preventative environmental strategies to processes, products and services to increase overall efficiency and to

d th i t f h

"re-use" means to utilise articles from the waste stream again for a similar or different purpose without changing the form or properties of

"recycle" means a process where waste is reclaimed for further use, which process involves the separation of waste from a waste stream for further use and the processing of h d i l d


15 THERMAL PROCESSES AND ENERGY RECOVERY

Source: WRC, 2001; Singh, 2009; Scminkendorf, 2001

15.1 What does it mean? In thermal processes heat is applied to remove, break down or treat the hazardous waste.

15.2 How does it work and what is it typically used for? “Most thermal destruction methods use high temperatures (416°C to 1648°C) to break down organic chemicals into more simple, less toxic forms in systems with oxygen (incineration) or without oxygen (pyrolysis) present. Wastes are typically combusted in 2 stages during pyrolysis. The first stage occurs in the main chamber. The next stage occurs in the secondary chamber, where gases formed in the main chamber are burned at 976 °C – 1648 °C. In theory, this second chamber burns off carbon monoxide and organic vapours generated in the first chamber, and avoids vaporization of inorganic material. Inorganic compounds, which include heavy metals, form an insoluble residue, which is not destroyed by incineration and has to be disposed of. One of the advantages that the pyrolysis process has over the incineration process, is the reduction in the production of unwanted by-products like dioxin (USEPA, 1998)” (WRC,2001)

Thermal Desorption Hazardous waste or contaminated soils are heated to about 6000C to evaporate (separate) volatile contaminants. Thereafter contaminants are removed from the evaporation by condensation, scrubbing, filtration or destruction. Incenaration Hazardous wastes are incinerated by heating to a high temperature of between 880 and 12000C, whereby the contaminants are either destroyed or detoxified. Cement kilns are often used. Vitrification Vitrification is a technology whereby contaminated soil is heated to a temperature even higher than for incineration processes to ‘melt’ the soil into a monolithic glassy product. Wet and Supercritical Oxidation Wet oxidation of contaminants is promoted in the water phase at high temperature and pressure, but below the supercritical temperature and pressure of water. In turn, supercritical oxidation is similar to wet oxidation but in this process temperatures and pressures are raised to a supercritical lever, which enhances the oxidation rate.

15.3 What are the pros and cons? “Incinerators are the preferred method of destruction of waste materials and is regarded by the USEPA as the Best Available Control Technique (BACT). However, this technique of removal has received considerable opposition from environmental groups, the public and some governments. The opposition arose from the quantities and types of chemicals in the incinerator stack emissions. In general, well operated incinerators, designed for the destruction of hazardous waste will have lower emissions than older and less efficiently operated facilities.” Technologies designed to remove chemicals from the flue gases include: scrubbing, wet or dry spray sorption systems and sorption of the organic products of incomplete combustion onto beds of activated carbon or other effective sorptive material. (WRC,2001) Image Source: PPC, 2009

Figure 21: Cement Manufacturing Facility


16 LANDFILLING

Source: DWAF, 2005; Freudenrich, 2000; Enviroserv, 2009

16.1 What does it mean? The term ‘landfill’ refers to the physical facility, which has been specifically designed, constructed and operated for the disposal of waste on land.

16.2 What are the types of landfills? The principal types of landfills are grouped into two classes: General and Hazardous.

General Waste Sites (landfills) can only receive waste that does not pose any significant threat to public health or the environment if properly managed. Examples include commercial, domestic waste and builders rubble.

Hazardous Landfills are the only landfill facilities that are allowed to accept hazardous waste and have high design standards and licensing requirements. General Waste Landfill Sites General Waste Landfill Sites are classified in four categories, namely: • Communal <1 tonnes/day (GC) • Small 1 to 25 tonnes/day (GS) • Medium 25 to 500 tonnes/day (GM) • Large >500 tonnes/day (GL).

General Waste Sites (landfills) can only receive waste that does not pose any significant threat to public health or the environment if properly managed. Unless in small quantities or encapsulated, these sites are generally not used for disposal of hazardous waste. Hazardous Waste Landfill Sites Hazardous Waste Landfill Sites fall into two categories: • H:H Landfills - high hazardous waste • H:h Landfills - low hazardous waste There are only three licensed H:H landfill sites in South Africa, namely: Holfontein at Springs, Vissershok close to Cape Town, Aloes at Bedfordview.

Image Source: Freudenrich, 2000

Figure 22: This cross-section drawing shows the structure of a solid waste landfill.

Typical structure and basic components of a hazardous landfill:

• Bottom liner system - separates wasteand subsequent leachate from groundwater(see C in figure above)

• Cells (old and new) - where the waste isstored within the landfill

• Storm water drainage system - collectsrain water that falls on the landfill

• Leachate collection system - collectswater that has percolated through thelandfill itself and contains contaminatingsubstances (leachate). See F and G infigure above.

• Methane collection system - collectsmethane gas that is formed during thebreakdown of trash

• Covering or cap - seals off the top of thelandfill.

“Co-disposal is the most common form of disposal for Hazardous Waste in South Africa. Objective of Co-disposal is to absorb, dilute and neutralise any liquids and to

“Certain wastes are prohibited for disposal to landfill. These wastes may be categorised as: Explosives, Gasses, Radioactive Substances and S l t d O i ” (E i


17 COMPLEX COMBINATION TREATMENT PROCESSES


Often effective hazardous waste treatment is highly complex and may require a complex treatment approach and process. Such a process may require a combination of physical, chemical, biochemical and other methods to stabilize, neutralise or detoxify a waste. Complex combination treatment processes are often required if a waste stream consists of a ‘cocktail’ of hazardous compounds. Over the years a number of specific best practices processes have been developed for treatment of complex and very toxic substances. In such cases, suitably qualified professionals should manage the development of suitable and effective treatment processes.

17.2 What are typical examples of this application? Closed Loop Detoxification Source: WRC, 2001 Closed loop detoxification is a thermochemical reduction process. Waste streams containing halogenated or chlorinated organics are subjected to catalytic stream gasification.

In the closed loop detoxification process steam reacts with the carbon based material to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen. The organic materials decompose thermally and react chemically before further treatment in a reactor for complete contaminants conversion. Thereafter it is cooled to about 470°C and sent to a cyclone separator to separate the gases and solids. A cyclone makes use of a spinning motion for separation. The gases, carbon dioxide and hydrogen, are then scrubbed (‘washed in sprinkled or a film of water) and recycled. The liquid phase contains the sodium chloride, which is removed, and water, which can be recycled and used as steam. The ash residue can be landfilled or processed further.

Examples: Detoxification of the following substances: • Metallic (in)organic • Radioactive substances • Solvents • Herbicides • Pesticides and other chemicals;

including highly toxic compounds such as trichloroethylene (TCE), various polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), the herbicides 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T), and dioxin.

Used Lubricating Oil Refining Source: FFS, 2009 This process utilises a full range of technologies from thermal evaporation, static separation, low and high-speed centrifugation, filtration, blending, distillation, hydrogenation and cracking in order to achieve a wide range of products to exacting specifications. One of South Africa’s leading used oil refiners, FFS Refiners (Pty) Ltd, supplies more than 300 000 tons of industrial heating fuels annually to its customers. These customers use these fuels for glass making, brick making, steam raising in boilers, billet re-heating, baking, incineration, laundry, road-mix heating, lime kilns, sand and stone drying. Image Source: FFS

Figure 23: Refinery for used oil


18 REFERENCES

Brice, James et al. July 2006. Guidance for the Classification, Rating and Disposal of Common Hazardous Waste Streams. Water Research Commission Report No 1548. Compiled by Environmental Business Strategies (Pty) Ltd. Url: http://www.envirobiz.co.za/docs/EBS%20%20WRC%20-%20Guidance%20on%20Common%20Industrial%20Hazardous%20Wastes.pdf Bourduin, Leon C; Fewell, Thomas; Gombert, Dirk, Priebe, Steve. 1 – 5 March 1998. Mixed Waste Focus Area Alternative Oxidation Technologies Development and Demonstration Program. Submitted to: Waste Management ’98 Confernce. Tucson, Arizona Chattopadhyay, Sandip; Condit Wendy E. 30 August 2002. Technical Report Advances in Encapsulation Technologies for the Management of Mercury-Contaminated Hazardous Wastes. Contract GS-10F-0275K Task Order No. 0001. Submitted to US Environmental Protection Agency National Risk Management Research Laboratory Url: http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/600r02081/600r02081.pdf

Contreras-Ramosa, Silvia M; Álvarez-Bernala, Dioselina; Dendooven Luc. April 2008. Removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from soil amended with biosolid or vermicompost in the presence of earthworms (Eisenia fetida). Laboratory of Soil Ecology, Department of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Cinvestav, Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 2508, C.P. 07360 México D.F., Mexico. Published Elsevier Ltd DEAT (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism of South Africa). 1999 and 2000. White Paper on Integrated Pollution and Waste Management and the National Waste Management Strategy (NWMS) DWAF (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry Republic of South Africa). 2005. Minimum Requirements for the Handling, Classification and Disposal of Hazardous Waste. Third Edition Enviroserv. 2009. Types of Landfills. http://www.enviroserv.co.za/pages/content.asp?SectionID=1030 FFS Refiners. 2009. FFS Refiners Overview. URL: http://www.ffs-refiners.com/jit_default_904.html Freudenrich, Craig (Ph.D). 16 October 2000. How Landfills Work. HowStuffWorks.com. <http://science.howstuffworks.com/landfill.htm> 22 November 2009.

ITRC (Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council). 2007. Remediation Technologies for Perchlorate Contamination in Water and Soil. PERC-2. Washington, D.C.: ITRC, Perchlorate Team. www.itrcweb.org. Maila, Mphekgo P; Cloete, Thomas E. 2004. Bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbons through landfarming: Are simplicity and cost-effectiveness the only advantages? Url: http://www.up.ac.za/dspace/bitstream/2263/3624/1/Maila_Bioremediation%282004%29.pdf Mbhele, Phelelani Phetheni. 2007. Remediation of Soil and Water Contaminated by Heavy Metals and Hydrocarbons Using Silica Encapsulation. A dissertation submitted to the University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, supervised by Prof Ewa M. Cukrowska (School of Chemistry, Wits) and Prof Diane Hildebrandt (Centre of Material and Process Synthesis) Mrabet, Yassine. 30 October 2009. Url: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioreactor. New Zealand Institute of Chemistry. August 2002. The Management of Hazardous Waste.

Obtainable from: Water Research Commission Private Bag X03 Gezina 0031


Patel, Khalid. 21 July 2006. Cost-effective acid-water neutralisation. Url: http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/costeffective-acidwater-neutralisation-2006-07-21 Princeton University. 2009. Metals Bioremediation Strategy. Url: http://www.princeton.edu/~chm333/2004/Bioremediation/Metals_Strategies.htm Rahuman, Mujeebur; Pistone, Luigi; Trifirò, Ferruccio; Miertus Stanislav. November 2000. Destruction Technologies for Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs). ICS-UNIDO PUBLICATIONS “Proceedings of Expert Group Meetings on POPs and Pesticides Contamination: Remediation Technologies (April 2000) and on Clean Technologies for the Reduction and Elimination of POPs (May 2000) Sala, Gary J; Hensch, James R. 2000. Silica Micro Encapsulation: A New, Cost-effective Technology for Treatment of Metals and Other Contaminants in Industrial Wastes and Wastewaters. Source: Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation, Industrial Wastes 2000 , pp. 86-93(8). Publisher: Water Environment Federation. Schwinkendorf, Bill; Maio, Vince. 13 May 2001. Alternatives to Incineration for Mixed Low-Level Waste. 2001 International Incineration Conference Philadelphia, PA SANS (South African National Standards). SANS 10228: The Identification and Classification of Dangerous Goods for Transport: Class Definitions

Sellers, Kathleen. 1998. Fundamentals of Hazardous Waste Site Remediation. Lewis Publishers, USA. Singal, RJ et al. 2000. Environmental Issues and Management of Waste in Energy and Mineral Production. Published by AA Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands. Singh, Ajah; Kuhad, Ramesh C; Ward, Owen P. 2009. Soil Biology: Advances in Applied Bioremediation. Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York. TEPCO Products. November 2009 TEPCO Products: Terracap Technology Profile..Url: http://www.tepcoproducts.com/public/techprofile.cfm USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). 24 September 2009. Region 9: Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs). http://www.epa.gov/region09/toxic/pcb/faq.html#q1 UWC (University of the Western Cape). 2007. Url: http://imbm.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2008/10/bty227-2008-l11-bioremediation2007.ppt WRC (Water Research Commission). March 2001. Survey and Preliminary Investigation into Biodegradation of Pesticide Wastes. WRC Final Report. Project No. K5/1128, under Head of Pollution Research Group Professor Chris Buckley, Principal Researcher Dr Valerie Naidoo

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PROJECT NAME : DEDEA Environmental Plans – Hazardous Waste Management Plan

PROJECT No. : J29119

TITLE OF DOCUMENT : Overview of Hazardous Waste Treatment Methods and Processes: Literature Study

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