overview of europian history
TRANSCRIPT
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Startingof15thcentury:
EuropeangeographicalknowledgelimitedtoEuropeonly.
Mendidnotquestionthefactthatearthwassphere.
ExistenceofAmericancontinentwasunsuspected.
Onlythe
Mediterranean
parts
of
Africa
were
known.
OnlythepartsofAsiawhichtouchedEuropewereknown.Otherpartsweretalkedaboutby
talesandaccounts.Example:TheBookofSerMarcoPoloconcerningtheKingdomsandMarvels
oftheEast.
Europeanswerefascinatedbytheunknown.
ThemapbyMartinBehaimin1492wasmostlyfaulty.
Reasonsfortheageofexploration:
Mostimportantreason:thedesiretofindallwaterroutetoeast.Thiswouldcutdownonthe
middlemenandthecountriescouldmakemoreprofit.Untillate15thcenturytherewere3routesto
East:
a) Malabarcoast,IndiaIndianoceanRedseaCairoandAlexandria
b) Malabarcoast,IndiaPersianGulfBlackseaorMediterraneanSea
c) ChinaGobidesertSamarkandandBokharaCaspianSeaBlackSeaorMediterranean
throughSyriaoraroundCasplanorthroughRussia
Goodsbroughtinweremostlyprofitableonesasthehardshipsintravellingweregreat.Examples:
spices,preciousmetals,medicaments,dyes,silks,glassware,etc.MiddlemenwereMoslemswhocarried
ittotheMediterranean.Italians(almosthadmonopoly),FrenchandSpanishmerchantsboughtitfrom
themdue
to
their
positions
close
to
Mediterranean.
Advancestohelpnavigation:
a) Marinerscompass:
PreviouslysailorguidedbyNorthStar,butwhenweatherwouldbecloudythatwouldbetough.
Nowsailorsbecamebraverinopenseas.
Directionsofcoastlinesandpositionofcountriesinrelationtoeachotherwereindicated.
b)
Astrolabe:Helpedtocalculatelatitude
c) Others:Tablesofsunsdedication,devicestomeasuretime,etc.
Allthese
enhanced
both
safety
and
scope
of
navigation
throughout
15th
and
16th
centuries.
PORTUGAL:
Leadtakerforexplorationage:PrinceHenry(1394to1460):
Portugalhadinternalpeacecomparedtothedomesticproblemsofothercountries.
Itwasthemostunifiednationatthebeginningof15thcentury.
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ThecountryturnedtoseaasithadlongAtlanticseaboardswithexcellentharbors.
InitiatedbyPrinceHenry(13941460).HewasthuscalledtheNavigator.
Hegatheredpilots,mathematiciansandcartographerstobuildstouterandlargerships,
equippedwithcompassandastrolabe.
HesentthemouttoexplorewesterncoastofAfrica.
Henrysreasonsforexplorations:
a) Religious:tocrusadeagainsttheMoors.
b) Economic:HewasawareofthepossibleadvantagesofimprovingtradeforPortugal.His
menbuilttradingpostswherevertheywent.
c) Religious:TofindlandofPresterJohn(mythicalChristianruler)intheeast
Heurgedeachcaptaintooutstriphispredecessor.
BeforehisdeaththewestcoastofAfricawasexploredasfarasGulfofGuinea(2000miles)
AfterhisdeaththerewasalagperiodwhenPortuguesesailorswerentencouraged.
Explorationresumedin1481underJohnII.
1488:
Bartholomew
Diaz
rounded
southernmost
tip
of
Africa.
Named
it
Cape
of
Good
Hope.
ChristopherColumbus(sailedin1492):
Obscureoriginandearlylife:hisownwritingsaddtotheconfusion
ClaimedbySpain,PortugalandFranceandallofthemhaveevidences
ButhewasborninGenoa,Italyin1451
Nooneknowswhyhewantedtosailwest,butitissurethathebelievedlandwasthereandthat
IndiaandChinacouldbereachedthroughthatroute.
HefirstappliedtokingofPortugal.Hewasturneddown.ThenheappliedinSpanishcourt.
HethenwonsupportofFerdinandandIsabellaofSpainandleftwiththreeshipsfromportof
Palosin
1492.
Ships
were:
Santa
Maria
(biggest),
Pinta
and
Nina.
Hehad90sailors.
TheylandedinasmallislandofBahamasafterabout2.5monthsandthenfoundCubaandHaiti.
HethoughthefoundAsia.Hedidntrealizehefoundanothercontinent(AmerigoVespucci
figureditoutlaterandnamedthenewworldAmerica).
Afterhereturned,SpanishrulesaskedthePopetograntthemrighttoclaimthoselands.
PopeAlexanderVIthenissuedabullwhichdrewalineofdemarcationfromNorthtoSouth
Pole.FinalizedversioncalledtreatyofTordesillas,issuedin1506:
a) AfricaandAsiawouldgotoPortugalexceptPhilippines
b)
AmericancontinentwouldgotoSpainexceptBrazil
SpainandPortugaltookitseriously.Othercountriesattimestookitseriouslyandattimes
ignoreditaspertheirconvenience.
VascodaGama(firstsailedin1497):
StartedhisjourneyfromPortugalwith4ships.
ReachedCalicutinMalabarCoastofIndiaafter10monthsin1498.
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FacedthewrathofMoslemsthere.
Forcedtoleavetoasmallercityfromwherehecollecteditemslikespicesandpreciousstones.
StartedhisjourneybacktoEuropefromtherein1499.
HisvoyagewasregardedasatriumphwhenhereachedLisbon:
a) Financial:theitemscovered60timeshisexplorationexpense
b)
Geographical:He
brought
back
solid
information.
Buthisvoyagehadnegativesidestoo:scurvydisease
a) Losthalfhisships
b) Lost2/3rdofhismen
c) Losthisbrother
DreamofPrinceHenryhadcometrue.TheyhavefoundtheallsearoutetoIndia.
HissecondvoyagefollowedthefirstvoyageofCabral.
Thistimehehad15shipsandtheobjectivewastosecurePortugaldominanceinMalabarCoast.
HisfleetdestroyedMoslemfleetafterthelatterattackedfirst
Built
a
number
of
trading
posts
PedroAlvaresCabral(firstsailedin1500):
SentafterthefirstvoyageofVascodaGamabykingofPortugal
With13shipsand1200soldiers
Objective:toestablishcommercialstationsinIndia(succeededindoingsoinCochinandCalicut)
Thesestations,whichwereattimesheavilyfortified,werebuiltstrategically.
Theywereforbothcommercialandmilitary(onlyfordefense)purposes(theycontrolledsmall
districtsattimes).
Noharshintentiontotakecolonies.
AffonsodAlbuquerque(firstsailedinaround1508):
RealfounderofPortugaldominioninEast
BecameGovernorofIndiain1509
Veryaggressive:crusadingspiritagainstIslam
DreamttocaptureMecca,carrytheremainsofMohammedfromMedinaandtradeitfor
Jerusalem,destroyfertilityofEgyptbydivertingpathofNile.
ButrealisticallycouldonlydrivetheMoslemtradersfromIndianOcean:
a)
CapturedGoain1510.ThismadethemcontrolthewholeofMalabarCoast.
b)
CapturedMalacca
in
1511.
This
made
him
break
Moslem
monopoly.
c) BrokethetraditionaltraderoutethroughPersianGulfandRedSea(Moslemcontrolled)
FacilitatedPortuguesemonopolyinIndoEuropeantrade.
ReasonsforfallofPortuguesemonopolyintheEast:
Smallnationwithamillionpeopleandsocouldnotkeepsendingbackupstotheeast.
BattleagainstMoslemreducedtheirnumbers
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Diseaseslikescurvy,choleraandmalariareducedtheirnumbers
Thisforcedthemtosendtheirconvictsandhalfgrownlads:inexperienced.
OnlysubstantialcolonyinGoa.Couldntsettleatanyotherplaceduetoclimaticreasons.
WeakPortugalwasforcedtounitewithSpainin1580sothatotherEuropeancountrieswould
notinvadethem.
From1580to1640PortugalwasapartofSpain(underPhilipII).
MoreattentionprovidedtoBrazil(sugarcaneplantationandexportfromBrazil,discoveryof
valuablereddishdyewood)afterindependencein1640.
SPAIN
SpanishandtheNewWorld
HispaniolawasthefirstSpanishsettlementintheNewWorld
ItwasanislandinHaiti,discoveredbyColumbus
Foundedin1504,cityofSanDomingointhatislandbecamethefirstcapitalofSpanishAmerica.
1509:JamaicawasconqueredandestablishmentofPuertoRicotherebyPoncedeLeon
1511:DiegoVelasquezfoundedHavanainnorthcoast
1541VelasquezextendedhisswayoverwholeofHavanaisland
AlthoughFerdinandandIsabellaaskedtheconquerorstotreatnativeskindly,theyweretreated
cruelly:forcedintoslaveryastheywerepowerlessagainstEuropeanweapons.
IntroductionofsugarcanecultivationfromHispaniola.
Explorerswantedtogofurtherinlandtofindtreasuresorwinfame.
Intheend,SpainwasthefirstexploringandcolonizingnationofAmerica.
By1574:morethan200Spanishsettlements,thewholeSpanishAmericawasdividedinto2
kingdomseach
ruled
by
aviceroy.
PoncedeLeon(startedin1512):
MotivatedbytalesoffameandwealthbyIndians
Andalsowantedtofindthefountainofyouth
Hestartedin1512fromPuertoRicoandonlycoulddiscoverFlorida.
Secondexpeditionin1521hereachedFlorida,foughtwithIndiansanddied.
VascoNunezdeBalboa:
Hesought
after
an
ocean
about
which
the
Indians
told
him:
Pacific
Ocean
HelaidclaimonalltheislandsandtheoceanonbehalfofSpain
ThisshowedthattheNewWorldwasntapartofAsia
DiegoVelasquez
GovernorofCuba
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ReachedYucatanpeninsulain1517wherehefoundthattheinhabitantswereofamuchhigher
stateofcivilizationthananywhereencounteredintheNewWorld.
Theyhadgold,woreclothesandcultivatedmazefields
ThelandwasactuallyMexico
Cortez
(started
in
1518)
HavingheardofVelasquezsdiscoveryofMexico,CortezsetoutfromCubawith10ships,600
soldiersandweapons.
FoundVeraCruz:anAztecsettlementfromwherehereceivedgoldfromAztecleader,
Montezuma,lesthemovedontoMexicoCity.
Seeingthegold,hisgreedincreasedandhedestroyedhisshipssothatnoonecouldturnback
MovedtowardsMexicoCity,capitalofAztecs.
RecruitednativeshostiletoAztecsonhisway.
ReachedMexicoCityandwasinvitedinbyMontezumasothattheywouldntattack.
Butonce
inside,
the
Spaniards
took
Montezuma
hostage
and
asked
him
to
give
the
city
to
Spain
CowardiceofMontezumaangeredthepeopleofthecity
TheyfoughtandwardedoffCortez
WithmoresoldiersCortezattackedagainandsucceededintakingthecityin1521.
ProceededfurtherasfarasPanama.
FerdinandMagellan(startedin1519)
ExperiencedthroughhisserviceforPortugal
ConvincingKingCharlesIofSpain,hesailedfromSevillein1519.
Objective:
Find
path
to
Spice
Islands
through
Brazil
HeturnedthesouthernmostpartofSouthAmericaintothePacificOcean(henamedtheocean
Pacific)
DiscoveredStraitsofMagellan
Butheandhismenwentthroughhardships:
a) nofood;ateleather,ratsandsawdust
b) drankyellowwater
ThentheyreachedwhatisnowPhilippines
Hewaskilledtherebythenativesin1521.
SurvivorswentontoSevillein1522.
ImportanceofMagellansexpedition:
Hisexpeditionwasimportanttheoretically:
Firsttimeevertheearthwascircled.Showedthatitisindeedspherical.
Gaveideaaboutthecircumferenceofearth
ShowedthatWestIndieswasnotapartofAsia
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Notmuchpracticalimportance:
PacificOceanwastoofarawayandcouldnotbeusedforcommercialpurposes.
SpiceIslandwasfoundouttobeinthehalfthatwasgiventoPortugalbythePope.
OnlygainthatSpainhadoutoftheexpeditionwasPhilippines
FranciscoPizarro(startedin1524):
WantedtofindoutthefabledlandofvastwealthintheNewWorldaboutwhichtheIndians
toldBalboa.
ThenamegiventotheunknownlandwasPeru(ElDorado).
Hewasdoggedinnatureandkeptonsearchingfor3years.
FinallyfoundTumbez(whereEcuadorandPerujoins)
HewenttoSpain,gainedpermissionfromtheSpanishkingtoembarkonaconquestofthe
discoveredIncaEmpireandsucceededingainingcontrol.
TheIncanruler,AtahualpamettheSpaniardsinafriendlymanner,butwascaptured
immediately.
AfterhereceivedtreasuresfromtheIncans,hekilledthecapturedAtahualpa.
ThenenteredtheIncanempireandraidedthecities.
Foundgreaterrichesthantheyhaddreamtof.
FirstofthesePeruviangoldreachedSpainin1534andexcitedmanymoreadventurerstocome
andfindmore.
TheyforcedthenativesintoslaveryandthemissionariesstartedtoconvertthemtoChristianity.
Pizarromurderedbyconspiratorsin1541.
ENGLISH:
TheEnglishtriedtofindtraderoutesinthenorthwesternandnortheasternpartssincethesouthand
thewestwasdividedamongSpainandPortugal.
JohnCabot(startedin1497):
Venetian,butstayedinBristol
WentnorthwestbythepermissionofHenryVIIinhopestofindAsia
UltimatelyreachedNewfoundland
Notfruitfulexceptthefactthathediscoveredrichfishinggrounds
Laterhis
son
embarked
on
the
same
route
in
order
to
reach
Asia,
but
found
nothing
but
ice.
SirHughWilloughbyandRichardChancellor(startedin1553):
Wentnortheast
Astormseparatedthem
WilloughbywaslaterdiscovereddeadbyRussianfishermen.
RichardfailedtoconnectwithWilloughbyandreachedArchangelthroughWhiteSea
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ThenhewentoverlandandreachedMoscow
ObtainedpermissionofrulerIvantheTerribletotradewithEngland.
Whenhereturned,anewcompanywasformedtoengageintradewithRussia.
MonopolyofthecompanytodiscouragefurtherventuresgivenbyQueenMaryin1554.
Englandexportedwoolenclothandimportedfurs,timber,wax,oil,etc.
MartinFrobisher(startedin1576):
WentnorthwestagaintofindthatroutewhichwouldleadintoAsia
ReachedBaffinLand
HethoughtthiswastheroutethatwouldtakethemtoAsiathroughnorthAmerica
Hecamebacktoreportittotheauthority
Thesoilthathebroughtbackcontainedgold
Companyformedandthemainobjectivewastofindgold(shiftinobjective)
Butintheend,nothingwasfoundandthecompanywentbankrupt.
JohnDavis(startedfirstjourneyin1585):
Madethreejourneysintotal
Mainobjective:gettoAsiabysailingaroundthenorthernpartofAmerica
Founditnotnavigableduetoice
NomoreattemptsweremadetoreachAsiathroughthenorthwest
FocuschangedtobreakingSpanishmonopoly:
AdventurerswiththispurposeinmindencouragedtacitlybyEnglishgovernment
JohnHawkins
(1532
1595):
a)
HewasluredbyslavetradeinHispaniola
b)
EngagedindoingbusinesswithSpanish
c) Histhirdvoyagewasdisastrous:hewasattackedbyaSpanishfleetwhenhewasaboutto
enterSanJuandeUlua.
d) Twoofhis5shipsreturnedtoEngland
TheattackhurttheEnglishego.
FrancisDrake(wasacompanionofJohnHawkins):
a) Wantedtoavengethemurderofhiscomrades
b) Resortedtopiracy
c)
AttackedSpanish
ships
and
took
their
treasures
d) HewentasfarasCaliforniaafterroundingthetipofSouthAmerica
e) HereturnedtoEnglandin1579andwasknightedbyQueenElizabeth
f) Asaresultofhisconquest,thosewhotalkedaboutthedisadvantageofthesmallerEnglish
galleysweresilenced.
g) HebroughtbackinformationthatinthePortuguesecoloniesthenativeswereagainstthe
rulers.
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Englishtradeprosperedthereafter.
1588:SpanishinvincibleArmadadestroyed:
1591:EnglishfirstsailedtowardsIndia,disregardingthePopesboundaries
1600:EstablishmentofEnglishEastIndiaCompany
FRENCH
Mostoftheexpeditionsintheearly1500swerefishingexpeditions
Financedbyprivateinterests,nogovernmentcooperation(maybebecausetheyweretoobusy
withhandlingwars)
FrancisI(15151547)wasthefirstrulerwhowasinterestedinthesediscoveries:particularlyto
China
HesentoutGiovanniVerrazanoin1524andthenJacquesCartierin1534westward.
JacquesCartier:
Inhis
first
journey
he
reached
the
New
World
ButwasforcedtoturnbackatSt.Lawrenceduetobadweather
Hereturnedthenextyearalongthesameroute
FoundtheIndianvillageofHochelagaandnamedthenearbymountainMontReal.
HiseffortstoreachChinawereunsuccessful
ButhefoundfertilelandsinSt.Lawrence
POSITIVESOFTHEEXPLORATION:
Expansion of commerce outside ofMediterranean trade: The entireworld opened up. The
Atlanticroutes
used,
the
Indian
Ocean
routes
used
after
turning
around
the
Cape
of
Good
Hope.
MonopolyofItaliansended.
Increase in volume and variety of commerce: Someof the products are potato,maize and
tobaccofromNorthAmerica;molassesandrumfromWestIndies;chocolate,quinine,dyesfrom
SouthAmerica;ivory,slaves,ostrichfeatherfromAfrica.Whatwereluxuriesoncenowbecame
normal.Pricesweredecreasing.Influencedcapitalism.Riseofbanksandcompanies
Increase in supply of preciousmetals: Themetals facilitated the circulationofmoney. They
allowedmentoholdwealthinsolidformforfutureinvestment.Goldandsilverwerebeingused
asthingsofvaluesotherthanjustmetals.Butthisrapid increase incirculationalsoresulted in
speculationsonvoyageswhichaffectedmarkets.Thiswasthebasisforcommercialrevolution.
Geographical
knowledge
expansion.
NEGATIVESOFEXPLORATION:
Africanslavery
Religious:Now for the first time,Europeansventuredout forconversion.Missionarieswould
comealongsidetheadventurers.
Colonialism:Europeanizationstarted.Theywereinfluencingthethoughtsofpeople.
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Whenthemiddleagesendedandthemodernagestarted:
Thereseemstobevaryingexpertopinionswhenaskedwhattheapproximateboundaryis.Although
everyoneagreesthatthereisnodistinctborder(meaningthatthechangedidnothappeninoneday),
andthattheprocesswasgradual,theyinsistonformingborders.Therearethreeschoolsofthought:
i) MiddleagesendedwiththecaptureofConstantinoplebyOttomanTurksin1453.
ii) ModernhistorystartswiththediscoveryofAmericabyColumbusin1492.
iii) ModernhistorystartsfromthesplitinChurch(anincidentwhichmarkedtheperiodwhen
thepeoplestartedtoquestionaboutreligion,whichwasconsideredtobeataboountil
then).ThissplitintheChurchoccurredin1517.
Featuresofmedievalperiod:
Periodsareidentifiedlesswithdaysanddates(astheprocessofchangesaregradual)andmoreby
seriesof
movements
or
features
that
gives
aperiod
adistinctive
characteristics.
Formedievalperiod,thedistinctivefeatureswere:
i) Dominatedbytwoempires:ThefirstonewastheEasternByzantineempire(Greek
dominated)andtheotheronewastheRomanEmpire.Duringtheendofthemedieval
period,bothofthesewerecollapsing.TheEasternEmpirewascollapsingasConstantinople
wascapturedbytheOttomans.TheHolyRomanEmpirelingeredtillthebeginningofthe
19thcentury,butstoodnowhereclosetoitsformerglory.Theyfailedtoplayinternational
role.Nationalstateswerebeginningtoform.
ii)
Socioeconomicorder:
The
order
that
dominated
throughout
the
middle
ages
was
feudalism.Inthissystem,therewerelandlordsandpeasantsandtherewereknightsto
maintainsocialorder.Butgraduallytheeconomybegantoshiftfrombeinglandorproduct
basedtomoneybased.Newequipmentswerebeinginstalled.Theknightswerebecoming
obsoleteandwerebeingreplacedbymercenariesfighterswhowouldaskformoneyto
fightonbehalfofaparty.Thesemercenarieshadnewtypesofweaponswhichtheknights
werenotcomfortableusing.Therigidsystemwasgivingway.
iii) Craftguild:Thesesortsofassociationshadcontrolinretailtrade.Butnow,theexportswere
alsoemerging,whichwidenedthescopeoftrade.Merchantsandcapitalistsassociations
werecoming
in.
iv) RomanCatholicChurch:Duringthemiddleages,theChurchstoodforrighteousnessand
unity.Theyimposedwasrestraints,maintainedpeace,etc.Butnow,thepeoplestartedto
questionthePopetheyputpressuresandposedthreatsonCatholicChurch.TheChurch
alsoopposedtothedevelopmentofnationalstates.
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v) Newforces,motivesandfactors:Astheparadigmwasontheshift,therewerenewforces
andmotivesthatwereshapingupthemindsetofthepeople.Theircombinedeffectshad
impactsonproducingthemodernworld.
Featuresofmodernperiod:
i) Riseofmiddleclass:Previously,theclasswasdividedintoclergy(peoplewhowerefrom
theChurch),nobilityandthirdestate(commonersandpeasants).Butwithtime,theclergies
werelosinginfluencesaspeoplestartedquestioningreligion.Alongwiththis,thepowerof
thenobilitywasalsoonthefall.Newsocialclasswasrisingbetweennobilityandthethird
estate.Thiswasthemiddleclass(artisans,craftsman,etc).Theywerecalledbourgeoisie
inFrench.ThemainreasonfortheiremergencewastomakemoneyduringtheCrusades.
Theiridealwastomakemoney.Theylatergaverisetoscholars,doctors,writers,etc.Asthis
classofpeoplestartedtomakemoney,theystartedtolookforpoliticalpower.
ii) Emergenceofnationalstates:Withtheemergenceofcitystates,rivalriesweredeveloping.
Amongthese
states,
there
were
divisions
based
on
languages
and
strong
rulers.
Balance
of
powerwasthereifarulerwastoostrong,otherswouldganguponhim.
iii) Changingeconomicworld:Thefactorwhichbroughtthisaboutwastheexpansionof
commerceinlargescale.Routeswerebeingdiscoveredtothenewworld(America)andthe
east.Capitalismwasanecessarything.Thesupplyofraregoodsincreasedwiththeflourish
oftradeandthisreducedtheprices.Thecommonpeoplewerebeingabletopurchase
necessities.
iv) Growthofsecularspirit:Previously,peopleweredominatedbyasceticspirit(tiedto
religion).
But
now,
life
on
earth
was
taking
a
new
meaning.
People
started
to
enjoy
their
lives,amindsetwhichpromotedliterature.Sciencewasalsoflourishing.Therewasa
simultaneousriseinanticlericalfeeling.Protestswereheardagainstthechurches.These
werereflectedintheirliterature.Piouspeoplewererising,whoseemedtodefinereligious
intheirownway.Thus,theyweregoingagainstthechurchaswell.
Sosixheadingthatcanbeusedtosummarizethewholechangeare:
Riseofnationalstates
Intensificationofsecularspirit
ExpansionofEuropeintoAsia/America
Riseof
modern
capitalism
FoundingofProtestantChurches
Riseofmodernscience
Andinthemidstofthemall,themostimportantpoint,whichrelatestoallsixofthemisthe
emergenceofthemiddleclass.
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RENAISSANCE
Overview:
Afterthe1300s,thecharacteristicsofthemedievalagesstartedtodecay,asdiscussedinthelasttopic.
Gothiccathedrals
were
gone.
The
supremacy
of
religious
and
ethical
interpretation
was
undermined
throughsecularthinking.Newinstitutionswerearising.Somecharacteristicsweredeveloping.The
traditionalnamethatisgiventothiscivilization(from1300toabout1650)isRenaissance.
Renaissanceliterallymeansrebirthanditcommonlyimpliesthatsuddenlytherewasarevivalof
peoplesinterestsintheancientlearning.However,thechangewasnotsosuddenandthisinclination
wasalsopresentinthemiddleagesamongmanyscholars.Example:Dante.But,whatmarks
Renaissanceisnotonlytherevivalofclassicallearning,butalsomaynewemergencesinthefieldsofart,
science,literature,religion,politics,education,etc.ThefoundationsforthesewereRomanandGreek
influences,butitwentbeyondthesetwo.
Idealsof
Renaissance:
Renaissanceputforthdominantidealsandattitudeswhichsetstandardforthenewworld.
i) Optimism:Willingtobelieveinpossibilities
ii) Worldliness:Maininterestwasonthisworldandnotontheafterlife.Focuswason
enjoyment.
iii)
Individualism:Takingdecisions,comingupwithownideas.
Aboveall,theidealofRenaissancewasdominatedbyhumanism,theglorificationofthehumanself
supportingnatureandhumansratherthanthedivineandafterlife.
CausesofRenaissance:
1. InfluenceoftheByzantine(Greek)andSaracenic(Islamic)empires.
2. Developmentofflourishingcommerce,whichledtoincreaseinpatronage.
3. Growthofcities(urbancultures)andashiftfromtheruralculture(whichwasreligiousand
conservativeinnature).
4. Revivalofinterestinclassicallearning.
5. Growthofcriticalorquestioningattitudesasseeninphilosophers.
6. Gradualescapefromotherworldlythinking.
7. StudyofRomanLawwhichconnectstothinkinginasecularmanner.
8.
ExpansionofintellectualinterestbyUniversities
9. Growthofnaturalisminliteratureandart(goingawayfromreligion)whichledtodeveloping
scientificthinking.
10.Patronagebywealthymerchantstosupportphilosophersandartists.Someofthepatronswere
wellconnectedtotheChurch(somewereevenPopes).Othersincludedwealthyandinfluential
rulers.Example:MedicifamilyinFlorence.
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11.Crusadesandtheinventionofprintingpresshadindirectroles:TheCrusadesweakened
feudalismtosomeextentanditdiminishedtheprestigeofPapacy.Also,itgavetheItaliancities
themonopolyovertheMediterraneantrade.
TheinventionofprintingpresscameinthelaterstagesofRenaissance(1454).Thereweremany
scholarswhowereagainsttheuseofprintingpresstheywereafraidthattheywouldbe
misunderstoodby
the
people,
who
were
not
intellectually
equivalent
to
them.
They
were
afraid
thatpeoplemightprotestastheychallengedestablishedbeliefs.Punishmentswereverysevere
andincludedbeingtermedasawitchandbeingburntalive.Moreover,theownersofprinting
pressweremoreinterestedinreligiousthingsandpopularlegendssincethesewereindemand.
Theywerentthatinterestedinscholarlypieces.Theprintingpressesonlyhelpedinthe
spreadingofRenaissancetoNorthEuropeinthelaterstages.
WhyItaly?
ThereasonwhyRenaissancetookplaceinItalyandnotinanyotherEuropeancitiesis:
i)
Strongerclassical
tradition:
Italians
were
descendents
of
Romans
and
thus
were
proud
of
theachievementsthatweremadebytheRomans.Asaresult,theirconnectiontothepast
waseasilysetandtheyweremoreeagertoupholdthetraditions.
ii) Romansystemofeducation:ItstillsurvivedintheschoolsofItaly.Itservedasalinkageto
thepast.
iii) Unmoralattitude:TheItaliansdidnothaveastrongmoralorethicalconsideration.They
werequiteliberalintheirbeliefs.TheyhadanancientPaganspirit.Anexample:Whenthe
ItaliansfoundoutthatthePopehadillegitimatechildren,theywerenotshockedatthis
unexpectedevent.ThiswasthespiritofRenaissance.
iv) Secularculture:ThescopeofdevelopingsecularculturewasmorefavorableinItaly.
Universitieswere
set
up
for
studying
law
and
medicine
(although
the
rest
of
the
Europe
still
focusedmoreontheology).InRomehowever,thereligiousstudywasstrongerthaninother
citystates.Thus,inthisrespect,theItalianswerequitefarsighted.
v) FullimpactofByzantineorSaraceniccivilization:Thefullimpactofthesetwocivilizations
camestronglyinItalymostlyduetoitsgeographicallocation.ItalywasclosertoGreece.
vi) Trade:Italiancityportswerethemainlinkofrevivaloftradewiththeeast.Theseseaports
includedtheseaportsofNaples,VeniceandGenova.Theyenjoyedmonopolyofthe
Mediterraneantrade.Italianmerchantsactedasmiddlemenduringsuchtradesaswell.All
theseimprovedtheeconomicprosperityofItaly,whichisanimportantaspectof
Renaissance(itultimatelypromotedpatronage).
PoliticalBackgroundofItalianRenaissance:
i) Presenceofchaos:Althoughitisgenerallyexpectedthatforprogresstooccur,theremust
bepeacewithinthecountry,thegovernmentmustbeorderlyandefficientandthepeople
mustbecalmandpeaceful.Butthiswasnotthecase.Renaissancedevelopedamidst
turmoil.ItalywasntastatewhenRenaissanceoccurred.Therewerefactionalrevolts,
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conflictbetweenrulers,etc.Thepillarsofthemedievalworldwerebreakingdown(chivalry,
feudalism,etc.)Newmiddleclasswasemergingandmercenarieswerecomingin.
ii) Growthofdespoticgovernments:Italyhadseveralpettycitystateswhichwereincreasingly
throwingawaythedominanceoftheHolyRomanempire.Therewasdemocraticsetupback
there.Butnow,thenewemergingrulershadlittlerespectfordemocracy.Somanycities
cameunder
the
rule
of
despotic
rulers.
Enlightened
dictators
or
despotic
rulers
are
sometimesgoodaswellasdemocracygaverisetotoomanyopinionsfromtoomany
people.OneexampleofthisiswhentheRepublicofFlorencepassedontotheMedicifamily
in1434toberuledforthenext60years.LorenzoMediciwasadespoticruler(Lorenzothe
Magnificent).
iii) Expansionofcitystates:Therewasatendencyoflargercitystatestocontrolthesmaller
citystates.Whateventuallydevelopedby1500wastheexistenceoffivedominantcity
states:thePapalStates(controlledbytheRomanCatholicChurch),theDuchyofMilan
(Viscontidespots),theKingdomofNaples,Venice(theGreatCouncilandthedoge)andthe
RepublicofFlorence(Medicifamily).
OverviewtableofRenaissance:
Trecento(1300s) Quattrocento(1400s) Cinquecento(1500s)
Literature FrancescoPetrach
(13041374):Fatherof
ItalianRenaissanceand
humanism.Florentine.
Religious.Likedmonks.
Wrotesonnets.Loved
GreekandLatinclassics
butdidnt
understand
them.Lovedwifeof
anotherguy.
GiovanniBoccacio
(13131375):Florentine.
Illegitimateson.Sentto
Naplestoworkinbank.
Wrotepoemsand
prose.Bestwork
Decameron(100
storiesofmanytheme,
anticlerical,manyPOV).
1393:famousGreek
scholarcametoItaly
ManuelChrysaloras.
Sentfrom
Constantinopoleasan
ambassadorof
Byzantines.
1413to
1423:
Giovanni
Aurispaandhis250
manuscriptsofmany
famousGreeks.
Poggio,Becadelli,
Filelfo,Pontano
LorenzoValla(1406
1457).Wrotehistory.
CriticizedChurchby
provingforgeries.
Consideredof1500s.
LudivicoAriosto
(14741533):Wrote
epics.Orlando
furiousobestwork.
JacopoSannazaro
(14581530):Wrote
pastoralpoetry.
Arcadiabest
work.
NiccoloMachiavelli
(14691526).Wrote
dramaandhistory.
Mandragola(drama)
bestwork.
FrancescoGuicciardini
(14831540).Wrote
history.Thehistoryof
Italyfrom1490to
1534bestwork.
Objective.
Arts Giotto(12761337):
Naturalism.Lifelike
painting.2Dcharacters.
Surpassedteacher,
Cimabue.WorksSt.
Francispreachingto
birds,Themassacreof
innocence.
Masaccio(14011428):
Realist.Introduced
uniformity(senseof
space).Lightshade.
Nudeart.Expulsionof
AdamandEvefrom
thegarden.
Tintoretto(1518
1594).High
Renaissance.
Venetian.
RaphaelSanti(1483
1520):Mostpopular.
Charming,not
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FraLippoLippi:
Memberofreligious
brotherhood,drawing
normalpeopleinto
saints,psychological
analysis.
SandroBotticelli(1445
1510):Beautyofsoul.
Psychological
treatment.Pensive
sadness.Yearningfor
divine.Classicalmyths.
AllegoryofSpring,
BirthofVenus.
DaVinci(14521519):
Versatile.Patronized
byLorenzo,thenby
Sporzafamily
in
Milan.
Scientificstudybehind
art.TheVirginofthe
Rocks,TheLast
Supper,Monalisa.
Titian(14771576):
HighRenaissance.
Venetian.Venetian
lifestyle.
Giorgione(14781510):
HighRenaissance.
Venetian.
emotional.Pious.
CopiedVincis
technicalfeatures.
Seekedbeauty.Glorify
formandcolor.
SchoolofAthens,
SistineMadonna.
Michelangelo(1475
1564).Badchildhood.
Tempestuous
mentality.Pessimistic.
Universaltragedy
theme. Masterpiece
isseriesoffrescosin
SistineChapelceiling.
TheLastjudgment,
Godcreatingearh,
Fallof
man.
Pagan
spiritinhumanshapes
(muscular).
Sculpture Donatello(13861466):Individualism.Chosetoshowcharacteroverbeauty.
DavidandGoliathshowednaturalismandglorificationofnude.
Gattamelatashowedequestrianmonument.
Michelangelo(14751564):Greatestofthatera.Perfectionist.Brokestatueif
notsatisfied.Pessimistic.Tragicsceneseen.Expressionofthoughtinstone.
Distortioninfigure. WorksBoundSlaveandMosesinTombofPopeJulius
II.DawnandSunsetonTombofMedici.Pietaforhisowntomb.
LiteratureofTrecento:
a) FrancescoPetrarch(13041374):PetrachwasaFlorentine.HeistermedasthefatherofItalian
Renaissance.HewasclosetothestudyofmedievalperiodsandhebelievedfirmlyinChristianity
asthewayofsalvation.Hewasaddictedtomonks.HewasafanaticoftheTuscandialect
(previouslyusedbyDante).Hisbestknownworksincludesonnetscontainingchivalrouslove
elements.Asaresult,hewascalledthefatherofhumanismaswell.Anothersideofhimshowed
greatadmirationtowardsGreekandLatinclassics.Thesadparthereisthathedidnt
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understandGreek,sohejustlookedattheworks.Hefellinlovewiththewifeofanotherman,
whichwasthesourceofmanyofhisgreatestworks.
b) GiovanniBoccacio(13131375):HewasalsoaFlorentinelikePetrarch.Hewasanillegitimate
sonofarichmerchantandsohewassenttoNaplestoserveasanapprenticeinabank.But
accountingboredhim.HeinsteadfoundNaplesaestheticallybeautifulandthisservedashis
sourceof
inspiration.
Although
he
started
out
with
poems,
he
moved
on
to
prose.
His
first
work
ofmeritwasFiamettawhichwaslikeapsychologicalnovel.Hismostpopularworkis
DecameronwhichhewrotewhenhereturnedtoFlorence.Thewordmeans100and
contained100storiesfromPOVof7ladiesand3men.Ithadmultiplethemes(fromfarceto
tragedy)whichwereunitedbytheoverallplotthese10peopleescapingFlorenceduetoBlack
Deathandtookshelterinasafehouse,tellingstoriestoeachother.Butmanystorieswerenot
original.Therewasarecurringanticlericalcharacteristic.Thisbookwasimportantsinceitset
thepatternforItalianproseandhadanimpactonwritersfromothercountriesaswell.
Bocacciosdeathin1375somewhatmarkedtheendofTrecentoinItalianRenaissance.
Literatureof
Quattrocento:
SomeofthebestnamesofthisperiodarePoggio,Beccadelli,Filelfo,Pontano,etc.Mostofthemshow
aninherentpassionforGreekstudies.Althoughthiswasalsopresentpreviously(e.g.Petrarch),there
wasnoonetoteachGreekphilosophiesbackthen.
In1393afamousGreekscholarcomestoItalynamedManuelChrysaloras.Heservedasanambassador
fromtheByzantinesinConstantinoplesenttoswayItalianstowardsthemintheirwaragainstOttoman
Turks.TheItaliansconvincedhimtoacceptprofessorshipattheUniversityofFlorencetoteachGreek
Classics.
Atthe
beginning
of
the
15th
century,
Platonist
philosophers
started
to
come
to
Italy
to
teach
them
their
ways.ThiswasfollowedbyItalianphilosophersgoingtoConstantinopletolookforGreekmanuscripts.
Oneofthem,GiovanniAurispa,broughtback250manuscriptsofmanyfamousGreekssuchas
Sophocles,Euripides,Thucidydes,etc.from1413to1423.
LiteratureofCinquecento:
Duringthisperiod,ItalianlanguagewasraisedtofullequalitywithGreekandLatinclassics.Classicaland
modernphilosophieswereblendedtocomeupwithaformandcontentthatwasoriginal.Tillnow,
literaturewasmainlycopiesfromtheclassicalLatinandGreekphilosophies.Butnow,itwasnolonger
so.
OneimportantchangethatcameaboutinthisperiodistheshiftoftheliterarycapitalfromFlorenceto
Romeinthefirsthalfof16thcentury.ThereasonbehindthiswasthepatronageoftheChurchand
Popes.OneexampleisPopeLeo10th.HewasthesonofLorenzotheMagnificentandbecameacardinal
attheageof14throughhisfathersconnections.Hewasnotthatreligiousgiventhefamilybackground.
Rather,hewantedtoenjoythePapacy.Helavishedrichgiftinaspendthriftmanneronartistsand
writersandalsofinancedsomeofthemostbeautifulChurchesinhistime.
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Someofthenamesthatcomeupduringthistimeare:
a) LudovicoAriosto(14741533):Hewasbestknownforepics.HisbestworkisOrlandoFurioso
whichwasbasedonancientlegendsderivedfromclassicalsources.Thethemewaslight,
portrayedverylittleidealismandwasfilledwithlove,natureandromancetocharmthe
readers.
b) JacopoSannazaro(14581530):Hewasbestknownforpastoralpoetry,whichdealtwiththe
glorificationofthesimplerurallife.Inthesepoetries,theauthoryearnstogobacktothegolden
agetotheunspoiledruralbeauty.HisbestworkisabookcalledArcadia.
c) NiccoloMachiavelli(14691526):Hewasbestknownfordrama.TheItalianswerenotthat
successfulindramaliketheGreeks.Theywerenotthatgoodinwritingtragicdramassincethey
weremoreoptimisticthantheGreeksandthuswerementallymismatched.Theyweremore
individualisticandsowerenotinfluencedbythemesofsufferings.ThebestworkofMachiavelli
indramawasMandragola.ThisbookwasverywittyandwasbasedonlifeinFlorence.Ithad
elementsofsatireinitwhichshowedhiscynicalviewonthehumannature.Accordingtohimin
thisbook,
everyone
thinks
that
he/she
is
right
no
matter
how
stupid
they
really
are.
People
wantedtocoveruptheirperspectiveswithrefinementsoflearning.Peoplewereselfish.
Machiavellishowedtheseinahumorousway.OneofthebooksthatMachiavelliisfamousfor
(althoughitisnotadrama)isThePrince.Healsowroteonhistory,ontheevolutionof
FlorenceafterthedeathofLorenzoMedici.
d) FrancescoGuicciardia(14831540):Hisbestworkswereinthefieldofhistory.Duringthis
period,historicalwritingsachievedacertaindegreeofcriticalaspectandobjectivity.Hewasan
ambassadorofFlorenceandagovernorofthePapalterritories.Asaresult,hesawfirsthand
howpoliciesandreactionsoperatedandwroteaccordingly.Hegaveminuteandrealistic
analyseswhichwereobjectiveandneutral.Hisaccountswerethusdispassionate.Hisbestwork
isThe
History
of
Italy
from
1490
to
1534.
e) LorenzoValla(14061457):Hisbestworkswereinthefieldofhistory.Althoughhebelongedto
thequattrocento,heisconsideredtobeahistorianfromthecinquecento.Heisconsideredto
bethefatherofhistoricalcriticism.AlthoughhewaspatronizedbytheChurch,hisbestworks
ledtodivulgingdocumentsthattheChurchforgedinordertokeepcontrol(example:donation
ofConstantinople).ThisstimulatedamuchbroaderattackontheChurch.
ArtsofTrecento:
ArtisconsideredtobetheproudestachievementsoftheRenaissanceandthedevelopmentsinthisfield
occurredparalleltotheonesinliterature.
a) Giotto(12761337):HeistopaintingwhatPetrarchandBoccacioistoliterature.Withhim,
paintingtookthestatusofindependentart.Heinauguratedthenaturalisminpainting.Although
hisartswerequitemedieval(2Dandlowallegoricalitems),hestartedthetrendtowards
naturalism.HisteacherwasCimabuewhowasalsoatoppainted,butGiottosurpassedhim.
Healsoworkedonfrescos,twoofwhichareSt.FrancispreachingtothebirdsandThe
MassacreofInnocence.
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ArtsofQuattrocento:
Duringthisperiod,thefocusonpaintingwasincreasedtremendouslydueto:
i) Increaseofwealthofthecitystates.
ii) Partialtriumphofthesecularspirit(Artwasnowfreedfromthedomainofreligiousthinking
ithadtranscendedreligion.Thusthesubjectmatterofpaintingincreased).
Asaresultofthese,thechurchwasnotthesolepatronoftheartsandthereweremanyotherwealthy,
secularpatrons. Therewerechangesinthesubjectmatteraswell:therewasanonreligioustheme
infusedinthereligioustheme.Also,thepaintingstructurechangedaswell:portraitswerebecoming
morepopulartorevealthemysteriesofthesoul.Theywereintendedtoappealnotonlytotheeye,but
alsototheintellect.
Thenewestfeatureintroducedwastheconceptofoilpaintingwhichrevolutionizedtheindustry.This
techniquewasfirstintroducedinFlanders,Belgium.Itcontributedtotheartisticadvancementare:
i) Oiltakeslongertodryandsopaintersgetmoretimetofinishpainting.Scopeofcorrection
ishigh.Moretimecanbespentindifficultareas.Soperfectionlevelishigher.
ii)
Moreglossypaintings.
iii)
Longlastingpaintings.
MostofthepaintersfromthisperiodwereFlorentines.
a) Masaccio(14011428):HeisconsideredtobethefirstoftherealistpaintersoftheRenaissance.
Hewasgeniusintheanalysisofspace:persons,trees,houseswereshowningeometrically
determinedplaces.Heintroduceduniformityandemotionsinthestory.Hewasalsogoodat
nudeart.
His
best
works
are
Expulsion
of
Adam
and
Eve
from
the
garden
(now
in
the
Santa
MariaChurch,Florence)andThetributemoney.Hewasalsothefirsttohighlightthethickness
inlightandshade.Hediedat27yearsofage.
b) FraLipoLippi:Hewasthememberofareligiousbrotherhood,butyethispaintingshadhuman
appeals.HeusednormalFlorentinestodepictsaints.Hisportraitswereveryvividashecould
drawtheinnersoulverywellonapersonsface.Thus,hecommencedthepsychologicalanalysis
inthefieldofart.
c) SandroBotticelli(14451510):Hisworkscarriedpsychologicalmeasurementandanalysis
further.Moreover,hispaintingreflectedthebeautyofthesoul.Therewasayearningforthe
divineinhispaintingwhichgaverisetopensivesadness.TwoofhisbestworksareAllegoryof
Springand
Birth
of
Venus.
All
of
these
were
based
upon
classical
mythology
and
showed
yearningforancientGreeceandRome.
d) LeonardoDaVinci(14521519):Heisthemosttalentedofthemall.Hewasaversatileperson
whoexcelledateverythinghetouched(music,science,sculptures,maths,philosophy).Hisbest
qualitywashiszealforknowledge:hepushedforwardexplorationswithunmatchedskillsand
penetrations.Hewastheillegitimatechildofalawyerandanoblewomanandwasbornin
Florence.HewasfirstsenttoVerrocchiowhowasthechiefFlorentinesculptorofthattime.But
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bythetimehewas25yearsold,hecaughttheeyeofLorenzotheMagnificent,whopatronized
himforquitesometime.Butaftersometime,DaVincibecamedissatisfiedwiththeartisticview
ofLorenzoandsohewenttoMilantobepatronizedbytheSforzafamily,whereheproduced
someofhisbestworks.HisworkmarkstheHighRenaissance(late1400sandearlyyearsof
1500).
Vincisartistic
approach
included:
Impatienceagainstclassicalmodelimitation.Hisworkswereoncloseobservationofthe
nature.
Hebelievedartshouldbebasedonscientificstudyofnature.
Hedidntwanttoconfinehisintereststothesurfaceasheknewnaturessecretswere
verywellhidden.Sohetriedtoconcealhismessages.
Hewasfascinatedbythegrotesqueandtheunusualinnatureandponderedoverthem.
Hissubjectmatterincludedexceptionsofhumantypes.Example:facesthatwould
revealterror,beauty,hypocrisy,sincerity,etc.Sotherewasahighqualityofrealism.
Realityrepresentedsymbolicallyandphilosophically.
Hismasterpieceswere:
TheVirginoftherocks:Showshistechnicalskillsandpassionforscienceandhisbelieve
inorder.Thefigureswerearrangedingeometriccomposition.
TheLastSupper:PaintedonthewallsoftheSantaMariaChurchinMilan.Thiswasa
studyofthepsychologicalreactionswhenacalmChristrevealedtohisdisciplesthat
someoneinthatroomwouldbetrayhim.Thepaintingshowsthereactionsofthe
peopletothis:surprised,guilt,horrified.
MonaLisa:ItliterallymeansmyladyLisa.Itwastheportraitofanactualwomanand
reflectsthe
varying
moods
of
the
woman
through
her
smile.
It
supposedly
satisfies
all
explanations.Vinciintroducedanewstylewherehepunctuatedthedarkerareaswith
littlespotsoflighttogivethefaceapensivelook.Heplayedwithlightandshadetoo
andthusmanifestedthelawsoftheuniverse.ItisnowsituatedattheLouvreinParis.
ArtsofHighRenaissance(LateQuattracento):
Inthisperiod,therewasanewschoolofpaintingemerging:theVenetianschoolofpainting.These
paintingsappealedtothesensesratherthantheintellect.Therewasnophilosophicalorpsychological
theme.ThepaintingsshowedtheluxuriousandpleasurelovinglifestyleofVenice.Thepaintingswere
mainlyoflandscapesusingcolorstomakeitmoreattractive.ExamplesareVenetiansunsetsand
moonlights,palaces,clothes,jewelriesetc.Thesereflectedthetasteofthewealthyclass.Somefamous
nameswere:
a) Titian(14771576)
b) Giorgione(14781510)
c) Tintoretto(15181594)
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ArtofCinquecento:
Bythistime,theevolutionofartwasatitspeak.ThefirstsignofdecaycomesinasRomebecomesthe
centerofart,butyettherewasFlorentineinfluence.Someofthemostfamousnamesare:
a) RaphaelSanti(14831520):HewasthemostpopularpainterofItalianRenaissanceand
consideredbymanyastheprinceofItalianpainters.HewasntdisturbedlikeVinci(withhis
mentalcomplexities)orMichelangelo(withhisemotionaltorment).Heappealedinthecharm
andsimplehumanismratherthanemotionalthinking.Ononehandhewasanardentadmirerof
DaVinciandcopiedmanytechnicalaspectsofhimandontheotherhandhestucktohis
thoughtsofsweetnessandpietyinstilledbyhisearlierteachers.Heglorifiedformandcolorfor
theirownsakesandnotforgivingthewholethingintellectualmeanings.Hewasdifferentfrom
bothVinciandMichelangelobecauseheconcentratedonlyonpaintingwhereastheotherswere
moreversatile.Hedevotedhimselftothecultivationofanidealtypeofbeauty.Hisgreatest
worksareSchoolofAthensandSistineMadonna.
b) MichelangeloBuonarotti(14751564):Michelangelohadadifficultchildhoodashehadtolive
throughpovertyandwasalsoharassedbygraspingrelatives.Moreover,hehadatempestuous
mentality(selfdestructive).Hewasalsoasculptorandanarchitect.Inhisearlyyears,he
workedasaprotegeofLorenzotheMagnificent. Heisconsideredasoneofthemosttragic
figuresintheartworld.Hewantedtoshowauniversalconceptionoftragedyintheorderof
things.Hegrewupwithdarksentimentswhichshowedinhisarts.Healsoemphasizedon
intensehumanismandinanimateobjectswerenoteventhereinthebackgroundsofhis
paintings.HisbestachievementswereaseriesoffrescosontheceilingofSistineChapel.Itwas
anextremelylaboriousjobandheworkedonitfor4.5yearscovering6000squareft.with400
figuresabout10ft.instature.Theywereseriesintheepicoftheevolutionofhumanraceasper
the
Christian
legends.
Some
of
the
names
are:
God
creating
earth,
God
dividing
light
from
darkness,CreationofAdam,FallofManetc.ButhismostfamouspaintingisTheLast
Judgment(finished22yearsafterthefrescos)onthealtarsbackwall.Itisreferredtoasthe
mostfamouspaintingintheworld.AlthoughtheconceptisChristian,thespiritisPagan
(muscularChristandnudefigures).Thereweresuggestionsoftheruthlessdeity(universal
tragedy).
SculpturesofRenaissance:
Inthemedievaltimes,sculpturewasnotconsideredtobeseparatefromarchitecture.Nowin
Renaissance,itwasestablishedasaseparateartandithaditswayofreflectingsecularthinking.Twoof
thebiggest
names
in
this
respect
are:
a) Donatello(13861466):HeoccupiedthatspaceinsculpturewhichMasacchioheldinpainting.
Heintroducedindividualisminsculptures.SomeofhisbestworksareDavidandGoliath
showingthestatueofDavidstandingoverslainGoliath.Thisshowednaturalismand
glorificationofthenude.Healsoproducedthefirstmonumentalequestrianstatuewhichacted
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asthesymbolofpower,successandglory.ThestatueofGattamelataisanexample,which
waswroughtinbronze.
b) MichelangeloBuonarotti(14751564):Heisconsideredtobethegreatestsculptorofthat
period.Hispersonalpreferencewasalsomakingsculpturesoverpainting.Hewasa
perfectionist:wheneverhewasnotsatisfiedwithasculpture,hebrokeit.Thisshowedasense
ofhopeless
pessimism.
His
works
show
aprogression
in
his
style
from
his
early
life
(where
his
stylewascopiedfromclassicalobservations)tohismaturestage(blendofnaturalisticand
classicalmodels). Hefocusedontragicthemeshereaswell.Hismotivatingfactorwasto
expressthoughtsinstone.Heuseddistortion(abnormalityinthehumanfigure)togivepowerful
effects.Mostofbestworkswereforthetombsofleaders.
Forexample,thetombofPopeJulius2ndhadtwofigures:boundslave(showingpowerand
talentrestrainedbyfate)andMoses(showstherageoftheprophetonthechildrenofIsrael).
AnotheroneisthetombofMediciwhereheproducedacoupleofallegoricalfigures:Dawn(a
womanawakenedfromdreamlesssleepintosuffering,showingthesorrow)andSunset(a
powerfulmanwhoseemstobesinkingundertheloadofhumandespairandmisery).Buthis
intendedmasterpiece
was
Pieta
which
was
astatue
done
in
marble.
It
shows
Virgin
Mary
holdingthedeadbodyofChristinanexpressionofpitytowardsthepeoplewholosthim.This
wasintendedpossiblyforhisowntomb.
ArchitectureofRenaissance:
ThearchitectureofRenaissancewasmorerelatedtothepastthatthepaintingsandsculptures.Dueto
thestrongrevivaloftheLatinculture,theRomanandRomanesquestyleshadactedasinspirations.The
greatestarchitectstookideasfromthemonasteriesandchurchesofthatera.OneexampleisFilippo
Brunellecschi,aFlorentinewhojourneyedtoRometostudytheancientbuildings(theirsecrets,beauty
and
grandeur).
Someofthetechniqueswere:
i) Squarefloorplans
ii) Domes(whichwereattimesusedasbelltowers)
iii)
Columns(withalotofheight)
iv) Archesandstairs
FinestexampleofthisisSt.PetersChurchinRome,whichwasbuiltunderthepatronageofPopeJulius
2ndandPopeLeo10th.Itwasdesignedbythemostcelebratedarchitects:Michelangelo,Raphael,
Bramante,
etc.
It
was
decorated
with
the
most
expensive
paintings
and
sculptures
and
remains
as
the
mostmagnificentchurchofalltime.
WhydidRenaissanceend?
Therearenoclearanswerstothis.Butthemostprobablereasonisthefactorthatgaveititsplaceinthe
veryfirst(economicsupremacy).Thiswasbroughtaboutby:
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i) Ageofexploration:Bynow,thediscoveryofthenewworldhadcomeintoplay.Anew
worldisdiscoveredintheearly16thcentury(America).Thisledtoashiftinthecentreof
tradefromtheMediterraneantotheAtlanticcities.SoeconomicsupremacyoftheItalians
startedtogodown.TheItalianmoney,whichactedasthelifeandbloodoftheculture,was
drainedawaybythisshiftasthismeantlesspatronage.
ii)
Politicalinstability:
Renaissance
was
brought
about
amidst
political
instability.
Now,
this
broughtaboutitsdownfall.Jealouslyamongcitystatesbroughtaboutdespotsanddictators
whoattimesusedgangsterstocontrolthepublic.Someofthefirstrulersbackatthestart
ofRenaissancewerestrongandcompetentandsotheyroseaboveallthepoliticalturmoil.
Buttheirsuccessorswereweakastheyweremoreinterestedinenjoyinglife.Sotheylost
control.AnexampleisPiero,Lorenzossuccessor,whobecomesthedictatorofFlorence.He
wascharming,butstupid.
iii) SelfishmiddleclassandSavonarolasrole:Renaissancemadepeopleacquirewealth
throughprovidingthemwithopportunities.Previously,theyhadtobelinkedtothechurch
ofnobility.ButinRenaissance,businessflourishedandcreatedthemiddleclass.However,
percentagewise
this
middle
class
was
small
in
number.
So
the
few
who
became
rich
were
notinterestedinfurtherpatronizingotherpoor,talentedpeople.Theydidnotlookback
andthusthesystemofuniversaleducationwasabsent.Sothemasspeoplewerestill
ignorantandsusceptibletosuperstitions.ThiswaswhenamancalledSavonarolacomesto
play. Hewasbornin1452andwasthesonofaspendthriftperson.Borninthecityof
Ferrara,hisearlyeducationwasmorefocusedonreligionthankstohismotherand
grandmother.At19,hefallsinlovewithhisneighborsdaughterfromanaristocraticfamily
andaftergettingturneddown,hebecomesamonkinamonastery.Duringthepolitical
turmoil,heactedasapreacherandwasbrilliantatit.Heattractedpeopletohissermons
andpreachedabouttheotherworldlygoods.Heestablishedstrictrulesandthusbeginsto
controlthecity.Hetookawayluxuryitemslikebooks,paintings,etc.termingthemasworks
ofdevil.HewaslatercondemnedandputtodeathbytheChurch.
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COMMERCIAL
REVOLUTION
Timeperiod:13thcenturytoearly18thcentury
Place:Europe
Prior
to
revolution:
Theeconomywaslandbasedandwasrunbymanorialsystem(estatesystem).InEnglandforexample,
farmerswouldworkunderknights.Notonlywouldthesefarmersworkonland,theywouldalsobe
summonedwhentheknightshadtofightfortheroyalties.Therewasbartersystemwhichwas
predominant.Thissystemcollapseddueto:
a) Riseofcapitalism
b) Blackdeath
FeudalismwasbeinggraduallyreplacedbysecularismandcapitalisminEurope.Secularismmeant:
a) Separationofreligionfrompolitics
b) Separationofreligionfromstates
OverviewofCommercialRevolution:
CommerceinEuropeincreasedinthestartoflatemiddleage.Thestimulusinthiscasewasvoyagesof
explorationbyEngland,Spain,etctoAsia,AmericaandAfrica.Onefeatureofthisperiodwaschartered
companywhichpromotedmercantilism(promotionofbusinessinordertogetricherinanationalway
believingthatthericheranationis,themorepowerfulitis.ThisledtheEuropeanstogooverseasfor
trade).Mercantilismwasasignificantdriverofcolonialism(colonyexistsforthebenefitofthemother
country).Bubbleswerecreatedtomonopolizethecompanyoftheparentcountry.Also,economic
specializationincreasedasnewinstitutionssuchasstatebanksandinsurancecompanieswerebeing
established.
Thecommercialrevolutionwasthensucceededbyindustrialrevolution.
CausesofCommercialRevolution:
a) Falloffeudalismandmanorialsystem
b) Gradualdemiseofthetradeguilds:Previously,businessusedtobecarriedoutthroughthese
tradeguildswiththepermissionoftheknights.Theywereassociationofmerchants,artisans,
blacksmiths,winemakers,bakers,etc.thatwouldcontrolthepracticeofthecraftsinaparticular
town.Themainfeatureofthemwasthattheyweremonopolisticinnatureandthattheirmain
objectivewasoftentoimprovetheeconomicandsocialconditionsofthemembers.Theguild
usedtocontrolhoursworkedandwagesandusedtotrainapprentices.Tobeapartoftheguild,
onehadtostartasapprentice,thengetpromotedtojourneymanandfinallybecomeguild
master.Guildsflourishedinbetween11thand16thcentury.Butnow,guildswerebeingreplaced
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Emergenceoftotalitarianism,nazismandfascism:
Interwarperiod
FailureofWWIandpeacetreatiestoresolvetheproblemsthatcausedthewarinthefirstplace
Unjusttreatiesledtopoliticalinstabilityandextremism
Emergence
of
the
three
ideologies
Totalitarianism:
Itisapoliticalsysteminwhichnearlyeveryaspectofpublicandprivatelifeisregulatedbythestate.
Someofitsfeaturesinclude:
a) Unlimitedpowerofstate
b) Rulebyasinglepoliticalparty
c) Rulingpartycontrolledbyoneperson(personalitycult)
d) Suspensionoffreedomanddemocraticrights
e)
Violent
suppression
of
all
opposition
Itcanbeofthreetypes:fascism,nazismandbolshevism.
Fascism:
Representsextremeright
Introduced
first
in
Italy
under
Mussolini
Reaction
of
Italian
rightists
against
rise
of
socialism
Weaknessofdemocraticforces
RisingpopularityofFascistpartyamongupperandmiddleclasses
Controlled
Italy
for
over
20
years
Containsallthefeaturesoftotalitarianism
Creationofacorporatestateinanattempttomergeeconomicandsocialinterestsof
differentclassesandgroupswiththeinterestsofthestate.
RiseofNazism:
DefeatinWWIandhumiliationbyVersaillestreaty
Failureofparliamentarydemocracy
Economicdifficultiesduetothewarandthegreatdepression
Rise
of
socialism
was
a
fear
held
by
the
German
upper
and
middle
class
Nazi
party
under
Hitler
took
power
in
1933
FeaturesofNazism:
Allthefeaturesoftotalitarianism
Racialpride(pureAryans)
Claimingtobethebestrace(Germans)
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Jews
condemned
as
inferior
people:
they
were
hated
and
were
to
be
physically
eliminated
Genocide
of
Jews
(Holocaust):
5.6
million
to
5.9
million
of
them
killed
including
1.5
million
children
Differencebetweenfascismandnazism:
Both
were
essentially
Fascist
ideologies
Nazismwasamoredevelopedandextremeversion
Militarism:
Adoptionofmilitarismasstatepolicybytotalitarianismideologies:warisseenasthesolutionto
allproblems
Militarypowergiventhehighestprioritysuppressionofliberty
Chauvinism:
Extreme
form
of
nationalism
Promoted
by
the
Nazis:
Claim
of
German
racial
supremacy
Usedasadangerousweaponfordominatingothernations
CausesofWWII:
Unresolvedconflictbetweenoldandnewimperialistcountries
FailureofthetreatyofVersailles
AggressivepoliciesfollowedbyGermanyandItalyrapidincreaseofmilitarystrength
Lackoftrustandcooperationamongantifascistforces
Policy
of
appeasement
WWII:
Germany
attacked
Poland
on
Sep
1,
1939
BritainandFrancedeclaredwaronGermanyonSep3,1939
GermanyattackedUSSRinJune,1941
Conclusion:
Totalitarianism:extremelyharmfultohumancivilization,violenceandsufferingfrompeopleall
around
the
world
WWII:55millionpeoplekilledandover1000billionUSDofeconomiclosses
Explosionoftwoatomicbombs
Broughtinnewphaseofcivilization
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Reformation: Breakup of the Church
At the open of the 16thcentury, Roman Catholic Church was the most important organization of the
Western Europe. Every person was born in the church. The language was Latin and the churches were
conducted by this language. The pope was the Head of the Church. He was the supreme lawgiver, thesupreme judge and the supreme administrator. He gave edicts/bulls/decrees. He could give exemption
from religious rules. He was the ultimate judge of religious lawsuits. He was the supreme administrator
of the church.
Under his supreme authority, there was an elaborate organization for administration. Under the pope,
there were cardinals (selected by the pope). Together they were called Sacred College of Cardinals. They
elected the next Pope. Before 1586, the number of cardinals was 53. In 1586, the Pope decreed that the
number of cardinals should not exceed 70. In this hierarchy, the arch bishop was after the cardinal. Heused to be the head of the province and the head of a cathedral of a large city. His duty was to establish
religious laws.
After this, the bishops headed the sub-division of a province. They were also appointed by the pope.
After them, the heads of the village-level churches were called priests. The clergy used to do their work
through sacraments. It is a power to clean up wrongdoings, given by the God/
There were seven Sacraments. These were:
I. Baptism
II. Confirmation
III. Penance
IV. Marriage
V. Ordination
VI. Eucharist
VII.
Extreme Unction
Baptism is done to clean the previous sins. Through confirmation, you are confirmed as a member of the
church. You are freed from the sins that you have done after Baptismthis process is called penance.
Extreme Unction is when death is confirmed for a person, a soul is prepared for the next life through
cleansing.
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Marriage and ordination were optional, the other five were mandatory for every Christian. There priest
is rendering a religious tie in the marital bond through a marriage. Ordination is the process of entering
into a church and becoming a priest.
The people who disobeyed the laws of the church were excommunicated from the church. He would bedeprived of the benefits of Sacraments. At times they were caught and killed by burning. They didnt
have protection against the Church.
Age of Reformation:
At later stages, renaissance was followed by another movement called reformation.
1stPhase: Protestant Revolution (started 1517)
2ndPhase: Catholic/Counter Reformation (around 1560)
Between these two phases, there was reformation. These two together are called reformation.
There is a relationship between renaissance and reformation. There were certain areas where
renaissance and reformation were working together. But the statement that reformation is a part
(religious aspect) of renaissance would be historically inappropriate.
There were economic causes like capitalism, the rise of the middle class, etc. in both these movements.
In both the movements, people tried to go back to the original roots. Despite these resemblances, the
reformation was not merely a religious aspect of the renaissance. The essence of renaissance was to
enjoy this life. The essence of reformation was to think about the spiritual life, rather than the content
of the flesh. During reformation, they thought human nature is generally corrupt. But the renaissance
people thought human nature is good. The renaissance people emphasized on reasoning, tolerance, etc.
but the reformers emphasized on faith and conformity. In this aspect, we can say that reformation was
not a part of renaissance.
How it started:
In reality, there were more to reformation rather than only religious aspects. There were new political
and economic aspects related to the reformation.
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Religious causes:
The thing that triggered this movement was the abuses that were going on in the catholic churches.
Nobody would even question this fact and people knew that massive abuses were going on in the
churches. For example, people appointed as clergy people were not eligible for those posts; they wereignorant about what they had to do, they didnt even know the Latin language and the Gods prayer.
Moreover, a large number of the church people lead a scandalous life.
The popes were leading grand lives. The cardinals were keeping taverns, gaming horses, etc. After the
renaissance, people started questioning these. There were also a vowof Chastity that had to be taken
by the church people. Pope Alexander the Sixth had 8 illegitimate children.
Pope used to sell religious offices to other people. These people try to earn back this money after
getting into these posts through corruption. Another thing was dispensation this is a kind of
exemption from the law of church. This had to be taken from the local religious leaders. The church
people used this exemption for their economic benefits. Example: exemption from fasting, having an
illegitimate marriage, etc. Sale of dispensations, abuses from the church, all of these led to a terrible
situation.
The Sale of Indulgences:
It was the most vicious abuse. Indulgence is remission of all or part of your sins. After getting
indulgence, you can get exemption from the punishment of your sins.
Treasure of merit was drawn up in the 13thcentury. Jesus and the other saints did many good works ad
earned excess merits from God. The pope could draw from these merits and use it for the people who
contributed for the betterment of the church, for strengthening the church.
The renaissance pope had moved forward from the core and they had insatiable greed. They saw that
sale of indulgences could be a profitable business. Leo X almost gave this right to banking/financing
houses to sell these indulgences. They presented this indulgences to the ignorant people as if it were a
passport to heaven.
By the 16thcentury, this became a nefarious and gigantic abuse of the common people. Some people
realized that what the popes were doing was not right. The churches also misused the Veneration of
Sacred Relics.
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It was an important material of Catholic Worship. Objects used by Virgin Mary, Jesus, etc. had
miraculous power this was believed by the catholic people. Some people wanted to earn benefit from
these. People were easily convinced into these and thus were cheated. These people who were cheating
the common gullible people, were somehow connected to the church. Therefore, the rage was against
the church.
But these abuses didnt lead to the split of the church, some pious Catholics were already taking
measured against these abuses. The main reason behind the split was the clash between the main 2
theologies. One was Augustinian Theologythe main idea of it wasthere is an omnipotent God.
Nothing happens without the divine decree. Human nature is depraved, he is dependent on God. So
the main idea of this theology wasyou are helpless. You cant do anything to change your fate that is
pre-determined by God.Whatever we are doing, we are doing it for the other world. It was prevalent in
countries like Germany, where progress was little bit slower. Gradually, in the abundant cities of Europe,
this theory was replaced by a more modern theory. With the progress, this pessimistic philosophy was
replaced. This Augustinian theory made the presence of organized church unnecessary as there wont
be any urge of the people to go to church. No sinner would go to the priest to confess his sins.
So, there was a new way of thinking, by Peter Lombard and St Thomas Aquinas. It said, Man was given
by God, a freedom of reasoning to choose good or evil. Man cannot do this unaided. They need some
support from heavenly grace. Sacraments were means of communication of the grace ofGod. Except
for Baptism, you need a priest for all other sacraments.
Protestant Reformation was a rebellion against the second set of theology. The misuse of power
affected the conscience of common people. This 2ndtheology was never accepted officially. Reformers
wanted to go back to the old system (Augustinian Theology)
Political Causes of Protestant Revolution:
There were 2 causes: Growth of nationalism, and Rise of Despotic Government.
There was a growing sense of independence among the people outside Italy. Pope now increasingly
came to be viewed upon as a foreigner. They started to feel that the pope was interfering. Statute of
Provisors and Praemunire. was passed in the parliament in the middle of the 14thcentury in England.
For this growth of nationalism, there was better control of the churches of their own country.
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Pragmatic Sanction of Bourgeoisie was passed by the King of France. He thus abolished all the Papal
powers in his country and this power was transferred to civil magistrates.
For a despotic ruler, it was in his gain if the power of church got weakened. These rulers were
supporting the Protestants and the national sentiments. These rulers were willing to work to cut downthe power of the church.
Economic Causes:
The foremost cause was the possession of the wealth of the churches. They also wanted to tax the
wealth of the Pope. At the time, the church was the largest land owner of Western Europe. One-third of
the land of Germany and one-fifth in France were owned by the church. These lands were granted to
church by the kings, nobles, etc. and also came as a gift from common pious people.
Legacy hunting was also a favorite work of the church. Pope Alexander passed a decree that No Will
will be accepted if it is not made with the presence of a priest. These wills were made at the most
vulnerable time (at the death bed). This accumulation of wealth became a great possession of the
church.
Under the rules of despotic rulers, there were more wars and they needed a lot of money to maintain
the huge defense force. The church used to enjoy the wealth without any tax. It transmitted to the
common people and their tax burden increased. So the negative feeling continue to develop in the
minds of the common people.
There were some papal taxes as well. One tax was called Peters pence and it was imposed on all
Christian population. There was another tax called Tithe it means 1/10thof the income of the
Christian people needed to be to the local church for maintenance. There were numerous taxes other
than these two. These taxes were collected from different countries and were sent to Italy. This was
spent behind the lavish lives of the pope and the church people of Italy.
Why did the Protestant revolution begin in Germany?
I. Germany was somewhat backward during the time. Renaissance touched it lightly. So, the
legacy of the dark ages remained stronger in Germany. Therefore the dependence on religion
was also high. So, the society was more conservative.
II.
The Catholic practices were very high, and so were the abuses.
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III. Germany didnt have a strong ruler back then and it was divided as well. Therefore they couldnt
protest against those abuses.
IV. Church in Germany had the largest amount of land and it constituted the best agricultural land.
During this time the issue of transition (money economy, wage economy, etc.) was coming up.
The lower classes and the upper middle classes were suffering. But nobody could protest against it. By
the dawn of the 16thcentury, Germany was right for a religious revolution. All they needed was a leader
to guide them. Then Martin Luther came up as the leader.
Martin Luther was born in 1483. His parents were peasants. His upbringing was not ideal. He was
whipped at home for trivial mistakes. He was at times whipped until blood came out. There was a
picture of demons and witches in his mind. Some of the superstitions stayed until the end of his life.
At the age of 18, he went to University of Erfurt to study law. He was a hard working student. In 1505,
an incident changed his life. He was overtaken by a storm. He thought that God was going to strike him
dead. He vowed that he would spend his life as a monk if he were alive. Then he joined an Augustinian
Church. Then he started to meditate about his life. He thought that he had done numerous sins and then
tried to engage his spiritual activities.
He spent his days without food and tortured himself. But these increased his aguish. He found that faith
and faith alone, was more important than the salvation of soul. In 1517, John Tetzel, a Dominican Friar,
appeared in Germany as the hawker indulgence. He sold indulgences as tickets to heaven. Luther was
appalled at the brazen fraud. At a statement; he hung a notice against sale of indulgence on October 21,
1517. He also sent them some of his friends. Now all over Germany he was considered to be a leader
sent by God against these clergy.
At the time, Pope decided to take action and ordered the head of Augustinian Church to make Luther
withdraw his statement in 1518. Luther refused to do so. More and more people asked different
questions to Luther and thus different statements came up which was against the current practices of
Church.
Now the church wanted to persecute Luther but it didnt happen for 2 reasons. Pope was busy with the
elections within the church and the upper middle class was supporting Martin Luther. Luther was
excommunicated from the church.
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Ultimately, a different church was set up. It was called Lutherian Church/Protestant Church. Luther
replaced Latin with German as the Church Language. He removed the celestial hierarchy. He removed all
the sacraments except for Baptism and Eucharist. He gave the priest permission to marry. Luther
emphasized on faith rather than good work for salvation. Theory of Transubstantiation was replaces
with Theory of Onsubstantiation. In Old Catholic belief, it was said that church would be supreme over
state. Luther abandoned this theory.
This particular form of Protestantism was not very famous outside its native land. It spread in Norway,
Denmark, Switzerland, etc.
After Luther, the famous leader of Protestantism was Ulrich Zwingli. He took the holy order at the age of
22. He entered there for his literary interests. In 1519, he went through a change. The Black
Death/Plague in Europe and the impacts of Luther had an effect on him. Ultimately, he was killed in1529. He was considered the father of Protestantism in Switzerland.
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CALVINISM
Ulrich Zwingli
- An independent reform in Switzerland by Ulrich Zwingli.
- Born on New Years Day, 1484 in a village of Toggenburg.
-
Ulrich had no childhood problems like Luther rather he was free from grinding poverty andspiritual struggles.
- He took a masters degree from the University if Basel in 1506.
-
His deep interest in the classics caused him to become a priest as he would be able to continue
his humanistic studies.
- Was in charge of Glarus for ten years, then Einsiedeln.
- He didnt attack indulgences and pilgrimages with the impetuosity of Luther, however, but
rather sought to ridicule them out of existence.
- 1518 he became the vicar at the cathedral church of Zurich.
- Obtaining immense power and influence from his position, in 1519 he forced Bernard Samson (a
seller of indulgence) to leave Zurich.
-
While he probably would have denied any influence from Luthers work, Ulrichs work of reform
bears the impress of Luthers ideas.
- In 1523 he debated with the city council over sixty-seven points of reform: asserted the sole
authority of the Bible and affirmed the doctrine of salvation by faith, rejected all characteristics
peculiarities of the catholic creed such as the papacy, mass, invocation of saints, fasts, festivals,
pilgrimages, monastic orders, the priesthood, auricular confession, absolution, indulgences,
penances, and purgatory.
- He won over the councils support and major changes were brought to Zurich.
- Zwingli and Luther were in agreement over all doctrines except Lords Supper.
- Luther believed in the literal meaning of the statement This is my body.
-
Zwingli believed it as only a relic of Catholicism.- The both never agreed even after a discussion in Marburg (1529) after which Luther said that
they were of different spirit even when Zwingli extended a hand of fellowship.
- There has always been hostility between the Protestants and Catholics, while a treaty was made
in 1529, the imminent war broke out in 1531, and Zwingli was defeated on October 11 same
year. Ulrich died in the war.
John Calvin
-
Calvin was born on July 10, 1509, in Noyon, France, where his father Gerald Calvin held the
posts of secretary of Noyon bishopric and attorney for the cathedral chapter.
- Calvin was destined to be a priest by his father.
-
Calvins clerical education was funded by two incomes granted to him until his father decided he
should study law.
- Though legal studies was uncongenial to him, it left a mark on his mind which could be seen in
form and content of his theology.
- After the death of his father in 1531, he started studying humanism. He published a
commentary on Senecas Da Clementia in 1532.
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- After the study Calvin had a sudden conversion after which he severed his connections with
the church in 1534.
- He shifted to Switzerland and spent early month of 1536 in Basel publishing The institutes of
the Christian religion, which helped him rank among reformers.
- The first edition had only 6 chapters but contained the basic foundation of Calvinism, in 1559, a
later edition had 80 chapters. For materials, Calvin was indebted to Luther.- 1541 Calvin even translated the book from Latin to French in order to win over Francis I,
however it failed and the book was declared as heretical and burned in Paris in 1542.
-
Calvin and Luther both insisted upon the sole authority of the Bible in matters of faith and
conduct, upon sinfulness of man and his impotence to save himself, and upon doctrine of
justification by faith.
- They differed in, Calvin sought to suppress everything not directly sanctioned in the Bible, and
Luther permitted everything not specifically forbidden in it.
-
Calvin followed the Old Testament and concept of Gods majesty while Luther followed the New
Testament and the concept of love for God.
- Calvin took a midway interpretation of Lords Supper, teaching a spiritual presence.
-
The central and peculiar dogma of Calvinism is the doctrine of predestination. This doctrine
states that some people are predestined to be in salvation while the rest was to suffer for their
sins.
- Calvin determined that those who are predestined for salvation would be those who zealously
endeavor to fulfill to the last iota of moral laws as in the Bible.
- However their duty doesnt stop there but they are supposed to reform others around. Thus a
Calvinist has a divine mission.
-
Calvin went to Geneva in 1536, where a reformer named William Farel induced him to stay and
create a protestant community (a model Christian community).
- Together they were so severe that a rebellion in 1538 caused both to leave Geneva. However in
1541 Calvin was requested to come back as Geneva was filled with disorder.- In September 1541, Calvin entered Geneva again and under his supervision the famous
Ecclesiastical Ordinances were prepared consisting of 6 (later 12) clergyman and twelve elders
to supervise the moral of the citizens of Geneva.
- Geneva became a theocracy under Calvins rule, who formulated the laws, founded entirely on
the Bible to regulate the life of every citizen in its minutest details. The Bible was the final
authority not only in religion but also politics.
- Activities such as church attendance, behavior, dress, amusements, and luxuries were all
regulated by the law.
- Women were imprisoned for wearing an exaggerated headdress, dancing was prohibited,
musicians were permitted to stay if they dont play dance music, and plays were to only be of
subjects related to the Bible. Parents were forbidden from giving names of saints and legendary
heroes.
- Geneva became outwardly a city if God.
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LUTHERANISM
MartinLutherwasnotinitiallyareformerbutratheraconservativeChristian,withthefearof
Godinstilledinhimdeeply.
BorninEisleben(villageinSaxony),in10thNovember,1483,sonofpeasantminer.
Hischildhoodwasnthappybecauseofseveritybothathomeandschool.Mainreasonthat
strictChristianlawswerethere(legallaws)
HencehewascontinuouslytorturedbyaneverpresentfearofGod,whomheconceivedasthe
implacablejudgewhoinexorablypunisheseveryinfractionofHislaws.
Hisfatherwantedhimtobealawyerinordertoincreasetheirsocialstatus.
At18,hewenttoErfurtandtookadegreeofMasterofArtsin1505andthenpursuelaw.
ButsincehestillwantedtopleaseGod,hewentandjoinedAugustinianFriars,amendicant
orderofmonks.
AtthemonasteryhedevotedhimselftoGodbytheactivitiesoffasting,prayers,andscourging.
Howeverhewasstillnotatpeace.PeacefinallycametohimasaresultofhisstudyoftheBible
andwritingsofSt.Augustine.
When
he
learned
that
man
is
saved
from
the
wrath
of
God
not
by
faith
and
good
works,
but
solelybyfaithinGodsmercyandgrace.
Howeverthisdidntbringamonumentalchangeinhislifeandhekeptonhisway.
1n1508,MartinwascalledtoUniversityofWittenberg,wherehetaughtfirstlyphilosophyand
latertheBible.
1511hewenttoRomewherehewasdisturbedbytheabuseshesawintheHolyCity.Although
hisfaithwasntshaken,butthevisitlateronrousedhimtolaunchavigorousattackontheevils
henoticed.
InRomehepursuedtheusualcourseofvisitingthemostcelebratedshrinesinordertotake
advantageoftheindulgencesgrantedtopiouspilgrims.(Talkabouttheparentdeadthing).
1515appointedtotheofficeofdistrictvicarandplacedinchargeof11monasteries.Hewould
havelived
alife
of
apious
Catholic
had
it
not
been
for
some
provocations.
Provocation1:JohnTetzel,aDominicanFriar,nearWittenbergwassellingindulgenceswithout
penitenceofthebuyer.
IndulgencesaccordingtotheChurcharegrantedtothosewhoparticipateinacrusadeorfor
actsofpersonalpiety.Howeverlateronitwasbeingsoldformoney.
ForLutherthissaleofpromiseofforgiveness,grace,andheavenwithoutinsistenceupon
penitence,wasanunmitigatedevilagainstwhichhehadtoact.
Sohevoicedhisconcernsbythe95thesesandhepostedonthedoorofCastleChurchin
WittenbergonNovember31,1517.
The95theseshadanelectriceffectonthemasspublicandwasprintedanddistributed
throughoutGermany
with
unprecedented
speed.
Aheateddisputearousedasonepartyfeltsympathywhileotherwerefaithfulchurchmen.
Consequences:ThepopewouldhaveignoredthisasmonkishquarrelbutlatercalledLutherto
Rometoanswerforhisarrogance.
ThroughmediationbyFredericktheWise(electorofSaxony),thetrialwassetonGermansoil
andLutherhadtogotoAugsburgin1518.
HemetwithCardinalCarjetanwhotoldhimtoretracthisopinionsandLutherrefused.
ThencamecardinalMiltitzwhomadeadealofkeepingbothpartiesquiet.
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Provocation2:Dr.EckchallengedLuthertoadebate(famousLeipzigDisputationof1519).
ThedebatelastedforaweekinwhichDr.EckgotLuthertoadmitthatburningHuss(burnedby
theCouncilofConstancein1415)waswrong.
TheadmissionexposedLuthertochargeofheresy.
EckappliedforabullofexcommunicationwhichwasansweredbytheChurch.
June
16,
1520
the
Church
condemned
forty
two
propositions
taken
from
Luthers
writings,
orderedtoburnallofhisbooks,forbadehimtopreach,anddemandedrecantationofhiserrors
within60daysunderpainofexcommunication.
LutherburnedthebullpubliclyandseveredtieswiththeChurch(indicationofhowstrongthe
resistancetoPopewasinsomepartsofGermany).
Throughthemeansoftheprintingpresshewrotemanythesesbutthreeofthemstoodout
publishedin1520.
Theses1:AddresstotheNobilityoftheGermanNation.AcallforGermanstouniteand
demolishthepowerofthepope.PoliticalandsocialmanifestationofLutheranReformation.
CreationofGermanNationalChurch,abolitionofmendicantorders,theimprovementofmoral
conditionsamongstpriests,reductioninnumberofholydays.
Theses
2:On
the
Babylonian
Captivity
of
the
Church.
To
search
criticism.
Rejected
all
sacraments
butbaptismandLordsSupper.AttackedthreeabusesofLordsSupper1)withdrawalofthecup
fromthelaity2)doctrineoftransubstantiation3)teachingthatmassissacrifice.
Theses3:TheFreedomofaChristianMan.Expoundedtheideaofpriesthoodofallbelievers.
Conditionswerefavorableforthemovement.CharlesVwhocouldhavestoppeditwastoobusy
withaffairsofhisvastempire.
Bythetimehedid(1521),Luthercouldnolongerbecondemnedwithoutahearing.Hewas
summonedtotheDietofWormsthesameyear.
ThejourneytoWormswasinnatureofatriumphaseveryoneacclaimedandencouragedhim.
AtWormshewasaskedtwoquestions;didyouwritethesebooks?Willyouretractthem?
He
answered
to
first
one
and
then
was
given
24hrs
for
the
second
answer
in
which
he
said
no.
OnhisreturnhewastakentoWartburgcastlebyFredericktheWiseforhissafetyandstayed
thereforayear.
Therehewrotelettersofadviceandencouragement,commentaryonthePsalms,andOn
MonasticVows.HealsowrotetheGermanversionoftheBible.
HereturnedtoWittenbergtocalmdownaviolentmovementtakingplace.
1525LuthergotmarriedtoKatharinevonBora,anexnunwhohadrunawayfromaconvent
afterreadingOnMonasticVows.
LutherreturnedtohisoldlifeinWittenbergintheAugustinianMonastery.
HemadechangessuchasserviceswerenowinGerman(notLatin).Wrotetwosummariesofthe
Lutherandoctrinesforreligiouseducationofcommonpeople.
Till
1524
Lutheran
movement
gained
strength
in
Germany
but
later
lost
alot
of
its
support
due
to:
ThePeasantsWar:inwhichpeasantswerechallengingthenobilities,thoughtLutherwasgoing
tobetheirhero,triedtopassa12articledemand,thingsgotviolentandLutherleft,Luther
encouragedthenobilitiestokillpeasants,Lutherlostsupportofpeasantsandnobilityafterthe
war.
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8/9/2019 Overview of Europian History
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Counter Reformation:
By the year 1560, Protestantism had spread across Europe, Northern and Western Germany,
Scandinavian Countries, Scotland, Switzerland, Poland, etc. even in Italy and Spain, where Catholicism
was prevalent.
To regenerate Church and Attract people to Catholicism, the counter/catholic reformation started. And
it was very successful. Catholicism was again prevalent in northern and western Germany, Spain, Italy,
etc.
This reformation was started by the Pope through 3 agencies:
1. The Council of Trent:
it was a religious council for the priests. It was called in 1542 and sat after 21 years. It came upwith some concrete solutions in 1563. It had 2 streams of thinking. One was of the Popes he
was against any kind of compromise in issues of religion. It should provide specific answers to
Protestant questions. The rulers beliefs were different. These rulers didnt wasnt any
interruption in their ruling, there was politi