AN OPEN EDUCATION RESOURCEDEVELOPED TO ENCOURAGE

STUDENTS TO THINK, DISCUSS AND LEARN ABOUT ETHICAL CONCERNS IN

COMPUTING

MODULE ONE

SUSAN BENNETT

Overview of Ethics and Information Technology

Contents

ObjectivesWhat are Ethics?Historical DeterminantsContemporary ViewsGeneral IdeasLegalityGuidelinesCodes of EthicsComputing Issues

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Objectives of this resource

To provide a foundational understanding of ethical theory

To provide a process for analysing ethical situations and for making decisions in response to them

To provide the opportunity for students to consider some ethical circumstances involving Information Technology that have the potential to harm individuals, organisations, or society

Introduction: What are “Ethics”?

“The study of what it means to ‘do the right thing” (A Gift of Fire: Social, Legal, and Ethical Issues for Computing Technology, (4th ed) Sara

Baase p.333)

“Making a principle-based choice between competing alternatives” (Ethical decision making and information technology : an introduction with cases. E A

Kallman & J P Grillo, p.3)

Ethics comes from a Greek word meaning “usual” or “the instituted order”

Making principled decisions Making defensible decisions

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What are ethics?

Principles based on our understanding of what is good, right, proper, moral, or ethical.

Ideas of behaviour that are commonly acceptable to society

We are influenced by a variety of sources such as family, religious institutions, educational institutions, professional organisations, government, etc.

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Why care about ethics?

Self-interest: Some unethical actions are also illegal Some can effect our careers and reputation

For the interest of the others Some unethical decisions can hurt other individuals,

the organisation we work for, or society Ethical decision making impacts on the type of society

that is created Ethical practices are a reflection of the factors that

the members of a particular society place value on

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What is Ethical Decision Making?

When faced with an ethical dilemma the objective is to make a judgment based on well-reasoned, defensible ethical principles

The risk is poor judgment i.e. a low-quality decision

A low-quality decision can have a wide range of negative consequences

Historical Determination of Ethics

Religious ethical standards– Judaism, Christianity and Islam

Divine Command Theory

Good actions are those aligned with the will of God and bad actions are contrary to the will of God.

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Ten Commandments

Further Information on Christian Religion Beliefs

Historical Determination of Ethics

Community ethical standards. Usually a consensus interpretation of religious ethics but added to or modified where necessary

Moral philosophers – Socrates and Plato – mused on the nature of men and of explanations for their actions

More information about Socrates More information about Plato

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Immanuel Kant

Philosopher. 1724 - 1804

Deontology

Absolutism

Kantian EthicsStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Deontology

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Deontology

From the Greek word deon meaning “Duty” 

EtymologyDe (to disestablish connection).

 

Ontos (Greek ontoVMeaning “being).

Immanuel Kant’s use of the word essentially means that we should “separate ourselves” and our own needs and preferences from our

ethical decisions. Thus we do right as a matter of “duty”

Our ethical methods and values should arise outside ourselves. They do not depend on humans for their existence.

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Kant’s Principles

Kantian Ethics – also known as Absolutism Based on the idea that the only

consideration is the “Act” itself Actions are either intrinsically moral or

not moral Decisions should be based on whether or

not the action is a moral one

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Kant’s principles

2. The principle of RESPECT: Always consider human beings as ends in themselves, never as means to an end. (i.e. Treat others as valued people. Never just use them for your purposes.) This is Kant’s principle of “respect”.

1. The principle of CONSISTENCY: Judge your actions by considering the outcome should your action be made a universal law. (i.e. What if it was compulsory for everyone to do what you are doing?)

3. The principle of DUTY: Actions performed out of a sense of duty (that also conform to 1 & 2 above) are morally praiseworthy actions.

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Kant would say…

We have responsibilities and duties.

Some things are “right” and some are “wrong” regardless of whether we agree or not.

Doing “right” will not necessarily be to our advantage. In fact, whether an action is or is not to our advantage is a very poor way of judging its merits.

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Strengths of Kantian ethics

In Theory it is based on “pure reason”:-

Provides a much needed challenge to moral relativism.

Facilitates ethics based on the big picture. What is seen as “hypothetical” is really a

“logical extension” of consequences. Takes moral consequences seriously. Avoids problems caused by the complexity

and diversity of human opinion, culture and need.

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Challenges to Kantian ethics

“Pure reason”:-

Lacks compassion. Leaves no flexibility to take human frailty

and diversity into account. Offers a single moral solution to what is

really a complex and diverse problem. Can be challenged as “essentially

hypothetical”. Can be challenged as being simplistic.

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Contemporary Ethical Theory

Emphasis on the individual rather than the community.

Rights rather than duties or responsibilities.

Harm minimisation.Relativism (rejection of external

authority sources).EgoismConsequentialism. (Teleology = telos =

goal)

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Societal changes

A move from Absolutism to Relativism

Similar shift in Ethics towards the consequentialist approach , where the focus is on the results or the consequences of the “Act”

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Relativism

Relativism – No real distinction between truth and opinion. Right and wrong are relative to individual or community opinion.

Subjective and Cultural No standards or rules of behaviour can be

reasonably applied at all times and all places. Actions must be judged as moral depending on

the time and culture in which they take place. What is considered moral can change

considerably over time within a culture.

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Utilitarianism

Act and Rule Consequentialist theory Attempts to determine whether an action

is moral by considering the consequences. Actions are moral if they create the

greatest happiness (utility) for the greatest number of people.

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Utilitarianism

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The Morality of Murder?

Whats the right thing to do? Professor Michael Sandel at Harvard Law

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Two Types of Ethical Choices

Right vs wrong: choosing right from wrong is the easiest

Right vs right Situation contains shades of gray i.e. all alternatives

have desirable and undesirable results Choosing “the lesser of two evils” Objective: make a defensible decision

Choosing Right from Wrong

Examples: Stealing Lying Murdering

Society prohibits these acts

Does the scale of the situation change things?

Finders Keepers?

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Scale

Scale: Murder is murder. However, what about stealing? If you receive

$100 in error in your bank account that you know is not yours, what do you do? What if it’s $1,000? What if $100,000? What if $1?

Finding things: Wallet with lots of money? Coins left in a phone box?

Is Wrong a continuum from “badly wrong” to “not very wrong”? White lies? Telling the police you weren’t speeding?

Choosing Right from Right

Is it wrong to steal if your child is starving? It is right not to steal. It is right not to allow your

child to starve.Is it wrong to lie to an ill friend?

It is right to tell the truth. It is right to be optimistic when talking to a sick friend

Ethical choice is often complex

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Making Defensible Decisions

First step in ethical decision making is to recognise that an ethical dilemma exists

“defensible decision” Two well-meaning individuals can examine the same

situation and arrive at different courses of actionHigh-quality ethical decision: based on reason

and can be defended according to ethical concepts

Ethical decision making is not a science. It is however a skill -- a survival skill

Behavioural model for ethical decision making

Decision ProcessInformation acquisitionInformation processingCognitive processPercieved rewardsPercieved losses

Govt/Legal EnvironmentLegislationAdministrative agenciesJudicial system

Social environmentReligious valuesHumanistic valuesCultural valuesSocietal values

Ethical behaviour

Unethical behaviour

Individual attributesMoral levelPersonal goalsMotivation mechanismPosition/statusSelf conceptLife experiancesPersonallityDemographics

Personal environmentPeer groupFamily

Professional environmentCodes of conductLicensing requirementsProfessional relationships

Work environmentCorporate goalsStated policyCorporate culture

Decision

Percep

tion

Degree

of influ

ence

Perception

Degree of influence

Percep

tion

Degree

of influ

ence

Perception

Degree of influence

PerceptionDegree of influence

Perception

Degree of

influence

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Ethics vs Legality

Actions can be Ethical and legal Ethical but Illegal Not ethical but legal Not ethical and Illegal

If case in 1 or 4, decision is obvious If case in 2 or 3, or if law is not clear then

further analysis is needed. If law provides answer, no further investigation

is needed

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Actions can be…

Ethical and Legal Using licensed s/w Obeying speed limit Buying s/w online,

buying cd Not Ethical and Legal

Gambling Having an affair Prostitution Visiting adult porn web

site strip clubs

Not Ethical and Not Legal Murder Sexual harassment Child porn Downloading music Hacking any sites

Ethical and Not Legal Vigilante stuff Political activism Smacking

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What is the Law’s Place in Morality?

Law is basically legislated morality. The purpose is to enforce penalties and sanctions upon those who do not act morally.

Laws are usually enacted when either1. There is a need to restrain some morally harmful

activity.2. There is a risk that people may do something

morally harmful. 3. When voluntary and professional restraints on

morality either aren’t working or the potential outcomes of immoral actions are sufficiently serious as to concern the whole community.

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Progression from Morals to Law

Accepted Moral constraints

Professional Codes of Ethics & “Good

Practice

Legislative Constraints on

business practice

No legal force. However, these behavioural constraints are agreed by “Community Consensus” and enforced by relational sanctions.

Quasi legal authority. Enforced outside of the legal system. These behavioural constraints are agreed by the individual’s “Professional Body” and enforced by professional sanctions.

Legal authority. Codified and enacted by Parliament. Enforced by the justice system. These moral constraints are agreed by the whole community and given “teeth” by the Law.

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How is legislation developed?

Exercise: Investigate the mechanisms in your society for the

development of new Law. Discuss with friends and colleagues what opportunities you have to participate in this process.

Investigate the mechanisms in your society for the revision of existing Law. Discuss with friends and colleagues what opportunities you have to participate in this process.

Develop a plan for participation based on the mechanisms used locally.

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What is the New Zealand Parliament?

The supreme legislative power The Sovereign (Governor-General) The House of Representatives

Four main functions Provide representation for the people Pass the legislation Scrutinise the activities of the Government Approve the supply of public funds to the Government

Parliament makes the LawThe Government administers the LawThe judiciary (the courts) interprets the Law New Zealand Parliament

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Legislative Process in New Zealand

The law is the framework within which citizens consent to be governed

Legitimacy given by citizens to lawmakers by virtue of their election

Citizens consent to abide by these lawsBills are proposed

Government Bills – Policy platform Members Bills – Introduced by Ballot Local Bills – Promoted by Local Authorities Private Bills – Relate to exemptions from general law

for an individual or group

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How a Bill becomes an Act of Parliament

Bill Introduced

1st Reading – Initial Debate

Select Committee – Public submissions, Amendments, Reports to house

2nd Reading – Main Debate on the principles after amendments from Select Committee

Committee of the whole house – Detailed consideration of each clause

3rd Reading – Final Debate on whether bill should be passed

Royal Assent – Governor General assents to the bill becoming an Act of Parliament

(Office of the Clerk of the House of Representatives 2006)

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Guidelines to Ethical Decision Making

Informal Guidelinesto recognise if facing an ethical problem

Is there something you or others prefer to keep quiet? The shushers test: Who wants to keep things quiet? The Mum test: Would you be ashamed to tell your mother? The TV test: Would you be happy if your actions we on

national TV The market test: Would your company be able to use the

behaviour as a marketing tool?

The smell test: does your instinct tells you something is wrong?

Informal Guidelines

Does the behaviour violate the “Golden Rule”? treat others the way you wish them to treat

you.

This is the rule that most rational people use when making decisions about how to behave. It is very easy to determine whether we would like a particular thing to happen to us – so we are able to use the “other persons shoes test” in order to determine the appropriate action.

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Informal Guidelines

Exercise: Discuss with friends if you have used any of the

informal guidelines in the last seven days? Write a list of those you used and for what reason. How helpful were these in deciding what the best

behaviour should be.

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Guidelines to Ethical Decision Making

Formal Guidelines Is the act illegal? Does the act violate corporate policy? Does it violate corporate or professional

code of conduct or ethics? What if all above guidelines not helpful?

Look at ethical principles

Professional Codes of Ethics

What characteristics mark a profession? Must have: Extensive training Intellectual skills Ability to provide an important service in society Might have: Certification or licensing requirement Organisation of members Autonomy Code of Ethics

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Professional Codes of Ethics

Professional groups often adopt particular standards and enshrine these is Codes of Conduct or Codes of Ethics

In New Zealand computing professionals can be members of the Institute of Information Technology Professionals

This group – IITP have a Code of Professional Conduct that guides members in their ethical decision making

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Professional Codes of Ethics

Exercise: IITP Code of Professional Conduct

Read the IITP Code of Professional Conduct In particular, consider the Tenets of the Code (Pg 5) What ethical theories do you think underlie the

tenets of the Code? Are they historical determinants, or more

contemporary models? Are informal guidelines obvious in the tenets?

Discuss your thoughts with others What are the sanctions for breaching the Code?

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Computer Ethics vs Regular Ethics

Is there an ethical difference between browsing through someone’s computer files and browsing through her desk drawer? No difference New technologies can make them seem different Technology makes some unethical actions easier to

take and easier to conceal Technology makes it easier for people to be

emotionally and physically distant from the consequences of their actions

Are “computer” ethics different?

Computers may provide more opportunities to breach ethics Opportunities: much more information is stored

electronically now. Payroll data might be available more easily in a business, for example, whereas in the past it would have been locked away.

Physical distance means you don’t have to open any doors marked Private. “I only looked at the file, I didn’t take it.”

The volume of computer data also links to privacy issues.

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Difficulties posed by computers

Altered relationship Personal contact reduced and the speed of the

communicationElectronic information is more fragile

Easily changed More vulnerable to unauthorised access Easily reproduced without affect the original

Protection of information needs conflict with the benefits of information sharing.

Order of magnitude effect Effort effect

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Order of Magnitude effect

Many unethical activities that are possible without computers are not done because Their limited scope also limits the rewards (e.g.

Scam letters)Computer use greatly increases the “effect”

of some activities (e.g. SPAM) thus even a very small hit rate is worthwhile due to the vast (order of magnitude) of distribution.

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The effort effect

In any group of people some will do unethical things provided There is a reasonable chance of getting

away with it. It is “worth the effort” (rewards greater than

costs)Computers

Reduce the effort for unethical users Offer anonymity Appear to provide barriers that make

detection difficult

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Why should we care?

Live an authentic life integrity

Increase success Well suited to the kinds of interactions needed for a

thriving businessCultivate inner peace

Calmer and more focusedCreates a stable society

Ethical people working together in coordinated ways.May help in afterlife

Religious traditions believe ethics is the key to something greater

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Summary

Ethical decisions impact on the quality of our lives

Ethical expectations are all around us and influence our behaviour

Ethical decisions are complex and may well differ over time

Ethical decision making has been studied for centuries

Computing provides a space for poor behaviour

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