Section 2:Ottomans in the Modern World

(19th -early 20th C.)

Revolution in the Caliphate: conflict, refugees and challenges to survival

‘The Balkan Wars 1912-13’Nov. 19-21

Studying the Ottomans:

Crisis in the Balkans 1912-13 (also origin WWI 1914):- ‘roots’ in Treaty of Berlin (1878) [Week Oct. 22-26, Additional Rdgs]

- conference chaired by Bismark (newly unified Germany) to establish his value as ‘new player’ in European game imperialism

- ‘mediated’ between Russia (had established several puppet states in Balkans as consequence of 19th c. wars against Ottomans) and….

Balkan Wars 1912-13

…. And European Powers (worrying about degree to which Russian victories over Ottomans posed threat to them: ‘balance of power’ issues…)

- Balkan states ‘parceled out like prizes at gigantic raffle party’ [Quataert]

- Quataert points to importance in terms of showing European Power to carve up maps irrespective of peoples’ culture, ethnicity, religion, language

Balkan Wars 1912-13

- Bulgaria: ‘autonomous’ but ‘tributary principality’ under the Sultan, with a Christian government, militia

- Bosnia, Herzegovina: occupied, administered by Austria-Hungary who has right to garrisons, military and commercial roads BUT remained ‘vilayet of Bosnia’ in Ottoman Empire

- Montenegro, Serbia, Romania ‘independent’: but with specific conditions regarding respect for different religions (worship, public employment etc); Romania lost Bessarabia to Russia

Balkan Wars 1912-13

- full significance not seen until those thusly ‘managed’(Balkan States and Ottoman empire who had been left in nominal control Bosnia, Herzogovinia) ‘reacted’ in wake of 1908 Revolution

- generations late 19th-turn-of-20th C. lived in uncertain, unstable situation of poorly defined ‘national’ territories, ambiguous terms of influence and control between ‘Europe’ ‘Russians’ and ‘Ottomans’ – more volatile then ever before

Balkan Wars 1912-13

Balkan Wars:- 1912 Greece (independent from 19th C.), Bulgaria, Serbia,

Montenegro: all declared war on Ottomans

- intention seize (divide among them) remaining Ottoman lands in ‘European’ territory: esp. Macedonia

- took advantage of unstable ‘Young Turk’ regime (‘counter revolution’, 1909; followed by revolt in Albania, 1910; and Italian occupation (and successful defense) of Tripoli, North Africa, 1911)

Balkan Wars of Independence

Main Areato be“Divided”as spoilsfollowingWarNO AGREEMENTAS TO HOW!

Videos on Balkan Wars:- first (focusing on Macedonia) meant to give sense of complex situation, especially how Ottoman rule (‘the Turks’) had used religion to cross-cut language, ethnicity, culture [map ‘Ethnic Regions’, below]

- second moves into ‘geopolitical’ aspects of lead up to First Balkan War (1912)

- third (brief) completes that story of ‘united front’against Ottomans [links in ‘Additional Readings’]

Balkan Wars 1912-13

Ethnic ‘Regions’ of Ottoman Empire c.1911

- ultimate ‘victory’ against Ottomans (1913) did not end war, however

- ‘victors’ fought each other (‘Second Balkan War), continued to involve Ottomans

“Peace came late in 1913, and all that was left of the Ottoman Empire in Europe was a little under 11,0000 square miles of territory. A year later WWI began…”[Arjami & Ricks, 174,5]

Balkan Wars 1912-13

Ottoman Soldiers, Balkan War 1912

Mevlevi[sufi association] Battalion(Played key role inre-taking of Edirne)

TurkishCavalry,(above)Infantry(right)

BulgarianArmyDiggingTrenches,Siege ofAdrianople1912

Greek Army Corpswith Cannon, 1912

Earlier 19th c. practice ‘consolidating nationalism’ through murder and expulsion (Greece, Serbia) repeated:- Muslim villages, town quarters destroyed

- refugees fled

- joined by persecuted Jews

- European observers estimated about half never reached sanctuary

Balkan Wars of Independence

A Serbian Example:- Serbian-orchestrated massacres Albanians, other Muslims in Kosovo and Macedonia: soon discovered by the press

- not only the Hapsburgs, Ottomans press but disaffected Westerners and …

- even Serbs: one Serb who had previously served in army commented on crimes his own people committed…

Balkan Wars of Independence

.

..the horrors actually began as soon as we crossed the old frontier. By five p.m. we were approaching Kumanovo. The sun had set, it was starting to get dark. But the darker the sky became, the more brightly the fearful illumination of the fires stood out against it. Burning was going on all around us. Entire Albanian villages had been turned into pillars of fire... In all its fiery monotony this picture was repeated the whole way to Skopje...

Balkan Wars of Independence

For two days before my arrival in Skopje the inhabitants had woken up in the morning to the sight, under the principal bridge over the Vardar- that is, in the very centre of the town- of heaps of Albanian corpses with severed heads. Some said that these were local Albanians, killed by the komitadjis [cjetniks], others that the corpses were brought down to the bridge by the waters of the Vardar. What was clear was that these headless men had not been killed in battle.”

[Cited in Glenny, Misha. The Balkans, quote p.234]

Balkan Wars of Independence

Ottoman estimates: 413,000 survivors settled in Empire after wars- refugee camps struck by disease

- cholera in camp outside Istanbul [think about article on ‘Cholera’ in an Iranian city]

- other camps: typhus, typhoid widespread

Balkan Wars of Independence

Balkan Wars of Independence

Cholera struckthe TurkishArmy

(fromInternationalCommittee of the Red CrossHistory)

“As the Ottoman Empire came to the period of the First World War, it had already suffered greater blows than any other combatants were to suffer in the Great War”.

[McCarthy]

Balkan Wars 1912-13