overview- lecture 6 1.types of memory: age differences 2.the phenomenon 3.information processing...
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Overview- Lecture 6
1. Types of Memory: Age Differences
2. The Phenomenon
3. Information Processing Framework
4. Cognitive and Social Cognitive Explanations
5. Memory Training
6. Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited
Overview- Lecture 6
1. Types of Memory: Age Differences
2. The Phenomenon
3. Information Processing Framework
4. Cognitive and Social Cognitive Explanations
5. Memory Training
6. Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited
Types of MemoryTypes of Memory
Semantic priming
Free recall
Recall 7 numbersSimple Span
Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Procedural memory Riding a bicycle
Source memory Word spoken or read
Working memory Computational span
Flashbulb memory Details of distinctive event
Implicit memory Repetition priming
Tip of tongue Recall familiar word
Remote memory Events from past
Autobiographical memory
Personal events from past
Prospective memory something in future
False Memory Untrue memories
Aging and MemoryAging and Memory
Semantic priming
Free recall
Recall 7 numbersSimple span
Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Procedural memory Riding a bicycle
Source memory Word spoken or read
Significant
None
Working memory Computational span Significant
Flashbulb memory Details of distinctive event
Significant
Implicit memory Repetition priming None or small
Significant
Tip of tongue Recall familiar word Significant
Remote memory
Minimal
Events from past Significant
Autobiographical memory
Personal events from past
None if event important “Reminiscence bump”
Prospective memory something in future
None or small
Significant for for time-based (self-initiated)
False Memory Untrue memories Significant
Age Difference?
Overview- Lecture 6
1. Types of Memory: Age Differences
2. The Phenomenon
3. Information Processing Framework
4. Cognitive and Social Cognitive Explanations
5. Memory Training
6. Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited
The Phenomenon
The Phenomenon Shown another way
• Memory– lists (words, digits)
– sentences
– texts (read/listen)
– source/reality monitoring
– cued recall
– free recall etc.Young Old
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Is the age difference important?
• Applied Reasons
• Theoretical Reasons
Overview- Lecture 6
1. Types of Memory: Age Differences
2. The Phenomenon in Need of Explaining
3. Information Processing Framework
4. Cognitive and Social Cognitive Explanations
5. Memory Training
6. Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited
Assumptions of Information Processing
1. People are active
2. Quantitative and Qualitative aspects of performance can be examined
3. Series of hypothetical stores
Information Processing Framework: MemoryInformation Processing Framework: Memory
SENSORYSTORE
SENSORYSTORE
Visuo-spatialScratch Pad
Visuo-spatialScratch Pad
PhonologicalStore
PhonologicalStore
CentralExecutive
CentralExecutive
EpisodicmemoryEpisodicmemory
SemanticmemorySemanticmemory
ProceduralmemoryProceduralmemory
WORKING
MEMORY
LONG-TERM
MEMORY
If there are age differences
• Is it because of a storage problem?
• Is it because of a processing problem?
• A combination?
Investigating the Nature of Age-Differences:
1. Process-oriented approach
2. Correlational approach
Overview- Lecture 6
1. Types of Memory: Age Differences
2. The Phenomenon in Need of Explaining
3. Information Processing Framework
4. Cognitive and Social Cognitive Explanations
5. Memory Training
6. Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited
Explanations: Hypothesis 1
• Cognitive Basisdecline in working memory capacity (e.g.,
Wingfield et al., 1988)
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Working Memory TaskWorking Memory Task
COMPUTATIONAL SPAN:COMPUTATIONAL SPAN: Complete these addition problems.
What was the secondsecond number in each problem?
5 + 6 = ?
4 + 3 = ?
8 + 9 = ?
Memory:Memory:Effects of Aging on Working MemoryEffects of Aging on Working Memory
Visuo-spatialScratch Pad
Visuo-spatialScratch Pad
PhonologicalStore
PhonologicalStore
CentralExecutive
CentralExecutive
WORKING
MEMORY
•Deficits in spatial memoryDeficits in spatial memory
Clear age-related decrementsClear age-related decrements
•Decrease in articulation rateDecrease in articulation rate•Affects processing of informationAffects processing of information
Explanations
• Cognitive Basis– age-variance can be
accounted for by taking into account age differences in working memory capacity
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Working Memory CapacityHypothesis
• But why does capacity decrease?
• Is there a more focused (fundamental) account?
Explanations: Hypothesis 2
• Cognitive Basis– decline in working
memory capacity (e.g.,
Wingfield et al., 1988)
– decline in processing speed (Salthouse, 1996)
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Explanations
• Cognitive Basis– age-variance can be
accounted for by taking into account decline in processing speed (Salthouse, 1996)
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What is Speed?What is Speed?
Psychomotor SpeedPsychomotor SpeedPsychomotor SpeedPsychomotor Speed
•Process a signalProcess a signal•Prepare a responsePrepare a response•Execute that responseExecute that response
= amount of time taken to:= amount of time taken to:
Psychomotor SpeedPsychomotor Speed
Reaction time studies:Reaction time studies:
AA Item called Item called targettarget will appear on screen will appear on screen
Push button when target appearsPush button when target appears
Psychomotor SpeedPsychomotor Speed
Types of reaction time studies:Types of reaction time studies:
SimpleSimpleSimpleSimple Target is present or notTarget is present or not
ChoiceChoiceChoiceChoicePerform one response for one Perform one response for one stimulusstimulusPerform different response for Perform different response for another stimulusanother stimulus
ComplexComplexComplexComplex Multiple targets, many decisionsMultiple targets, many decisions
ReactionTime
ReactionTime
AgeAge
Psychomotor SpeedPsychomotor Speed
Reaction time increases with age:Reaction time increases with age:
Reflects biological AgingReflects biological AgingReflects biological AgingReflects biological Aging
Psychomotor Speed: Age DifferencePsychomotor Speed: Age Difference
General Slowing HypothesisGeneral Slowing HypothesisGeneral Slowing HypothesisGeneral Slowing Hypothesis
Age Complexity HypothesisAge Complexity HypothesisAge Complexity HypothesisAge Complexity Hypothesis
•Aging causes general decline of Aging causes general decline of information processinginformation processing speedspeed
•Age differences increase with Age differences increase with increasing complexity of taskincreasing complexity of task
ExplanationsExplanations
Information Processing: Information Processing: Psychomotor SpeedPsychomotor Speed
Brinley PlotBrinley Plot•Plot of RT of old Plot of RT of old to RT of youngto RT of young•Supports the Supports the General Slowing General Slowing HypothesisHypothesis
Sliwinski & Hall, 1998
Speed deficit hypothesis (Speed deficit hypothesis (Salthouse)Salthouse)
Limited energy for cognitive processes
Limited energy for cognitive processes
Reductions in CNS capacityReductions in CNS capacity
Decreased Decreased working working memorymemory
Decreased Decreased working working memorymemory
Impact on Working Memory OperationsImpact on Working Memory Operations
Mechanisms
• Limited Time Mechanism
• Simultaneity Mechanism
Speed Hypothesis
• The hypothesis to beat.
• Is speed the whole story?
ReviewReview
Attentional Resources Attentional Resources (Salthouse)(Salthouse)
Limited energy for cognitive processes
Limited energy for cognitive processes
Reductions in CNS capacityReductions in CNS capacity
IncreasedIncreasedReaction Reaction TimeTime
IncreasedIncreasedReaction Reaction TimeTime
Speed deficit hypothesis (Speed deficit hypothesis (Salthouse)Salthouse)
Limited energy for cognitive processes
Limited energy for cognitive processes
Reductions in CNS capacityReductions in CNS capacity
Decreased Decreased working working memorymemory
Decreased Decreased working working memorymemory
Impact on Working MemoryImpact on Working Memory
Why else might RT increase and Working Memory decrease?
Focus on Attention
What is Attention?What is Attention?
Attention=Attention=Attention=Attention=•Ability to focus or concentrateAbility to focus or concentrate•Shift focus as neededShift focus as needed
Further cognitive operationsFurther cognitive operations
InformationInformation
Type of AttentionType of Attention
Positive primingPositive priming
ExampleExample Effects of AgingEffects of Aging
Prime decreases search time for target
Should benefit older adults
Information Processing: Information Processing: Attention (see Text on this section)Attention (see Text on this section)
Negative primingNegative priming Target on one trial isdistractor on next
Negative
CuingCuing Cue indicates wheretarget will appear
Results not clear
Memory search-Memory search-consistent mappingconsistent mapping
Target held in memory and does not change
Older adults can develop automatic search
Memory search-Memory search-varied mappingvaried mapping
Target changes with distractor
Negative
Divided attentionDivided attention Dichotic listening Significant but not when individual tasks controlled
Watch screen for event Increase with frequency, unpredictability of target
Sustained attentionSustained attention
Inhibitory Deficits Inhibitory Deficits (Hasher & Zacks)(Hasher & Zacks)
Limited resources for inhibition
Limited resources for inhibition
•Activation
•InhibitionAttentionAttention requires:
Another reason RT increases Another reason RT increases
IncreasedIncreasedReaction Reaction TimeTime
IncreasedIncreasedReaction Reaction TimeTime
Inhibitory Deficit Inhibitory Deficit (Hasher & Zacks)(Hasher & Zacks)
Accumulation of “mental clutter”
Accumulation of “mental clutter”
•Inhibit irrelevant information
•Remove unnecessary informationMemoryMemory requires:
WorkingWorkingmemory memory deficitsdeficits
WorkingWorkingmemory memory deficitsdeficits
Impact on Working MemoryImpact on Working Memory
Explanations: Hypothesis 3
• Cognitive Basis– decline in working
memory capacity (e.g.,
Wingfield et al., 1988)
– decline in processing speed (Salthouse, 1996)
– declining inhibitory efficiency (Hasher & Zacks, 1988)
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Explanations
• Cognitive Basis– age-variance can be
accounted for by taking into account age differences in inhibition
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Evidence for Decline in Inhibition
• Stroop Interference
• Negative Priming
INSTRUCTIONS:INSTRUCTIONS: Read the color of the INK
EFFECT: Response is slower when colors don’t don’t matchmatch than when colors matchmatch the ink
redredredredyellowyellowyellowyellowgreengreengreengreen
Stroop InterferenceStroop Interference
INSTRUCTIONS:INSTRUCTIONS: Identify the REDRED letter
EFFECT: Response is slower to AA
PRIMING TRIAL:A XX
CRITICAL TRIAL:
AA X
Negative primingNegative priming
Explanations: Summary
• Cognitive Basis– age-variance can be
accounted for by taking into account cognitive mediators…but not all (Kwong See & Ryan, 1995)
– other mediators?Young Old
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Explanations: Hypothesis 4
• Social Cognitive Basis
– internalizing negative old age stereotypes compromises performance?
– Some evidence (e.g., Levy & Langer, 1994)
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Overview- Lecture 6
• Types of Memory: Age Differences
• The Phenomenon
• Information Processing Framework
• Cognitive and Social Cognitive Explanations
• Memory Training
• Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited
Memory Training
• EIEIO classification• External Memory Aids
• Internal Memory Aids
Memory Training
• Characteristics of a successful program– own memory strategies– self-guided practice– consistency with preferred learning style– cognitive restructuring
• Some good applications
Overview- Lecture 6
• Types of Memory: Age Differences
• The Phenomenon
• Information Processing Framework
• Cognitive and Social Cognitive Explanations
• Memory Training
• Myth Busting: Facts on Aging Revisited
Myth Busing: Facts on Aging Revisited
• # 8 Aged drivers have fewer accidents per driver than those under age 65.
»True
Myth Busing: Facts on Aging Revisited
• #12Old people usually take longer to learn something new.
True
Myth Busing: Facts on Aging Revisited
• # 14 Older people tend to react slower than younger people.
True