40

Wave action normally is a reliable guide to the

wind velocity at the surface of the water. TheBeaufort Scale, a guide to wind action on

water, would indicate that the wind velocitywas between one and three m.p.h. when this

picture was taken over long Island Sound.

OVER WATER

I

f

and know-how are standard, if cer­tain precautions are observed, andif the rules are strictly followed.

In the United States there is noother area where as many overseashops are logged as in South Florida.The airports of Miami, Fort Laud­erdale and West Palm Beach arethe jumping-off points each year forthousands of lightplanes bound forthe Bahamas, the Caribbean Is­lands, and to Central and SouthAmerica. The Bahamas start about60 miles out and range east andsoutheast in a continuous sweep toHaiti, where the West Indies forma closely linked chain to the SouthAmerican mainland. Cuba lies only90 miles south of Key West, andwhen its skies open up again, it willonce more be the bridge to Jamaica,the Yucatan, Mexico and all the Cen­tral American countries.

While no accurate statistics areavailable on overwater movementsof general aircraft, U. S. Customsofficials at Broward InternationalAirport in Fort Lauderdale esti­mate that the average there hasbeen about 225 to 230 per month.Add West Palm Beach and Miami,and the total should be about 400per month, or between 4,000 and5,000 per year for the entire area.Although it is only an estimate, thisis indeed a respectable figure.

The U.S. Coast Guard headquar­ters for the district reports thatthey recorded only 13 calls for as­sistance from general aircraft overa 12-month period. More significanteven is the fact that six of thesewere false alarms; all six wereeither lost or unreported and werefinally located. Of the remainingseven, three made safe intermediatelandings, one crashed on an airporttakeoff and only three were lost atsea. Of the latter group, two wentdown in the evening and darknessinterfered with the search. The re­maining one left no clues or ex­planation.

We have talked to a good numberof pilots who have logged manyhours over water. They profess nofears and few qualms, and their keyanswer is usually: "Don't get yourfeet wet." In other words, take allthe precautions and use all yourknow-how to forestall ditching indeep water. Much more than onland, emergency landings on waterare unpredictable and fraught withperils, and they should be distru~ted.Even if the ditching is successful,the odds of survival are not alwaysthe best. However, with propercare and precaution the emergencyshould not arise.

"Red" Gamber (AOPA 79931) ofRed Aircraft Service at Fort Laud-

THE AOPA PilOT

Our country is nearly surroundedby water. It is ringed by morethan 12,000 miles of coastline, it isindented by large gaps and bays andit embraces some of the greatestlakes in the world.

The more you fly for business orpleasure, the more often you willcome to the end of land, where thetrack projects out over water. Onyour course you may be cutting aslice through one of the GreatLakes, you may be jumping a broadinlet or you may be reaching for oneof the many islands that beckon sonear to our coasts. It is the type offlying that involves only short openwater crossings. It is qualified byits limited nature and must be dis­tinguished from transoceanic flyingwhich is in a category of its ownand calls for different considera­tions.

Ask the man on the airport aboutflying over water, and he will haveone of two ready made answers.One will throw up his hands andproclaim, "Not for me, mister, un­less I'm loaded with equipment andhave two or four fans going." Thenext one will just as readily assureyou that "There's nothing to it atall. Engines never skip a beat, andit's just like going from St. Louisto Kansas City." Both are wrongand presumptuous, and the true an­swer lies somewhere in between.However, an appraisal of all the as­pects involved in limited overwaterflying will show that the answercomes close to the second statement.

The pilot who is unconcernedwhen he travels from coast tocoast, over square miles of boulderstrewn areas, over vast stretches oftimber pickets and over barriers ofjagged mountains, should have nocause for alarm when his coursetakes him out over water. The truthis that limited overwater flying ina light aircraft, single-engine ortwin, is no more hazardous thanroutine cross-country, if equipment

• EDITOR'S NOTE: This is the thirdin a series of articles designed to helppilots in their flying over land andwater. The first in the series told youabout the special conditions you mightencounter in flying over desert areas;it appeared in the May, 1960, issue ofThe PILOT. Navigating by watchingthe ground alone was the subject ofthe second article in the series, "Ter­rain Flying," which appeared in theJune issue. This article discusses spe­cial conditiol1s you may encounter, andthe preparation you should make, forshort overwater flights. It should notbe interpreted as a blueprint for trans­oceanic flights, which is an entirelydifferent field.

AO? A 5503by HANS GROENHOFF

Leaving land behind on short

hops shouldn't be feared if

your plane is functioning

properly and you have made

adequate preparations in

advance. Veteran pilots givetheir views on what should be

included in this planning

FLYING

Photo.'f by the author

Clouds tell the overwater flyer much about conditions on the ground. Quite

often they indicate an island, particularly in tropical and semi-tropicalclimates, but if you are on a VFR overwater flight, you shouldn't attempt

to "fly on top" of clouds such as these. Go around them, or go back, ifyour course is blocked.

Flying in pairs always is a safe practice when you leave land behind.

These two Piper Apaches are on a flight off the toast of southern Florida.

Survival equipment is a must for planes on overwater flights. Brilliantlypainted life rafts, such as this one, help rescuers find you, if you haveto ditch while flying offshore.

When the flyer from the United States approaches Bahama Islands, Hopetown on Great Abaco quite

often is one of the landmarks he seeks. Special water conditions sometimes help pilots find the

Bahamas (see accompanying article).

Good visibil ity is vital in overwater flying. Wave

action gives you the direction of the wind and

cloud formations tell you what to expect ahead.When low scud rolls across your path, or rainobi iterates the horizon, it is time to head backto land.

42

erdale Airport flies regularly to theislands and has seen literally thou­sands of small planes off on overseasventures. He comments, "Whereveryou fly, the engine of a well main­tained airplane just won't quit sodead that it can't be nursed alongfor a stretch, unless it dies from fuelstarvation."

Bob Iba, who runs Aircraft FerryCompany in Fort Lauderdale, whichhas flown more light aircraft over­seas than anyone else; and who hasmade numerous Atlantic crossings,places uppermost emphasis on fuelsupply and navigation. "The recordshows," says Bob Iba, "that almostin every instance where airplanes hadto be ditched, they ran out of fuel orthey became lost and ran out of fuel.Our experience proves that there aretwo all-important safeguards, a good,well compensated compass and bar­rels of extra fuel."

Red Gamber adds that he is ap­palled at the number of pilots he hasobserved going out to sea with nomore care than on overland cross­country. One of the precautions ofoverwater flying is careful plotting.[Planning charts, supplemented byWAC's, are available from AOPA'schart department, as are radio fa­cilities charts.-Ed.]

The intrinsic problem of navigat­ing over water stems from a defi­ciency of the sea: it has no terrain,no distinctive features; water is bar­ren and trackless; it provides nofootholds or check points. Horizonsare faint, often extinct. Small massesof land tend to blend with the seaand look much like cloud shadows.To go from land to land over water,

navigation must be exacting. Therecan be no margin for faults and fail­ures. Over distance, a slip of a fewdegrees on the compass can grow toa disastrous error. Make sure thatyour radio equipment is efficient andaccurate and that you have all thenecessary radio facilities charts.Plot your course on the chart andcarefully study the outline of yourlandfall. By checking the coast atyour destination, rivers and inlets,settlements, landmarks and theshapes of small islands, you willknow where to turn and avoid stray­ing over more water than you wereprepared to negotiate.

On all overwater flights, even onshort hops across lakes, bays andinlets, you must know how to tellwinds and weather and recognizesudden changes. Above all, protectflanks and back, have an escapeplanned to an alternate and keep therear secure for a 180.

Small ragged patches of gray seendrifting low over shorelines or waterare danger signs. They may closeand turn into. fog or low ceilings, andobscure both the landfall and thehorizon. Areas of rain should beshunned for the same reason. Whenlow scud rolls across your flight path,or when precipitation blots out thehorizon, it is high time to do a 180.

Good visibility is vital in over­water flying. Make certain you cansee down and ahead. By lookingdown, you can check wind directionand velocity by streaks and whitecaps on the surface. With good visi­bility ahead you can pick off weatherbarriers, spot land and check yourheading against the contour of theshoreline. Don't fly on top, whenthere are only scattered holes. Youmay overfly land and may be startledto find that the openings reveal noth­ing but water. Don't fly over the seaat night.

Low ceilings, scud and fog are rareover southern shores. But when theyoccur at the point of departure, ac­cept them as warnings to stay on theground. Even if your destination isreported open, as it often will be,such conditions may strip you of oneof your best safety devices, the 180·turn.

High buildups, thunderstorms andheavy showers are the year-roundweather traps over southern oceans.They are signposts of treacherousturbulence and should be skirted:,While they billow up and spread outrapidly under the rays of the tropicalsun, they can as a rule be easilydodged. The same clouds can be agreat aid in overseas navigation.They form quite regularly over is-

(Continued on page 51)

THE AOPA PilOT

Overwater Flying

(Continned I"om page 42)

lands, and where they loom in massivehumps over the horizon, they often areskymarkers indicating land.

Bob Iba places much emphasis on theability of his pilots to read wind cluesfrom signs on the water.

"I cannot recommend too strongly,"he said, "that the flyer who goes out tosea should be acquainted with the Beau­fort Scale describing wind velocitiesover water. If turbulence is encounteredin clear air and curving windstreaks areseen on the water, or a line that lookslike a riptide, it is almost certain thatthere is going to be a severe wind shiftand that the wind factors will have tobe recomputed. If you are in a smallairplane and encounter velocities in ex­cess of 25 knots, you will be exposingyourself to the risk of not gettingwhere you are going. A windshift atthis velocity is dangerous, if it isn'treadily noticed and countered by aheading" correction."

The Beaufort Scale reads as follows:

Sea flat, like a mirror.

Ripples with the appearance of

scales, but without crests.

Small short waves. Pronounced tops

have a glassy appearance, but do notbreak.

Waves are bigger. Crests begin to

show and foam has glassy appear·

ance. Some scattered whitecaps.

Waves growing longer. Fairly fre­

Quent whitecaps.

Moderately big waves, taking a more

pronounced long shape. Many white­

caps. Chance of some spray.

Large waves. White foam crests

everywhere and more extensive. Some

spray.

Sea wallows heavily and white foam

is streaking in wind direction.

High waves of increased length.

Crests break into spindrift. Foamblown in well marked streaks in

wind direction.

High waves. Dense streaks of foam.

Sea is rolling. At low altitude spraymay affect visibility.

Very high waves with overrunningcrests. Dense foam in broad streaks.

On the whole, the surface takes on

a white appearance. Rolling of sea

is shocklike. Visibility is affected.

From this description, the principalwarning signals and clues to high windsare pronounced whitecaps indicatingapproximately 20 knots, and streaks ofspray and foam at about 30 knots.

The same as the marks on the watertell about winds, the coloring of the seaprovides clues as to its depth and thenearness of land. Deep water, like theGulf Stream, has a metallic, opaqueappearance and the color is dark green,blue or purple. Where it is shallowover banks, shoals and reefs, and whereit approaches a shoreline, the waterbecomes translucent and the hueschange quite abruptly to light greens,blues and yellows. The breaks, where

Wind Velocity

(in knots)

lor less

1-3

4-6

7-10

11-16

17-21

22-27

28-33

34-40

41-47

48-55

Description of the Sea

DECEMBER, 1960

the color changes, can be used as checkpoints for shoals indicated on charts,and can usually be taken as signs thatland is near, even if it cannot be seen.

Red Gamber has this to say on thesubject: "If I were on a flight to theBahamas and had run way past myET A, I'd turn into a wide circle andstart looking for light-colored water,and by tracking the brighter colors, I'msure I could find a recognizable island."

The magnitude of the risk involved inflying over water is determined entirelyby the distance. On a short haul, nego­tiated with ordinary care, the hazard isslight. Extended flights over water nat­UJ·ally entail greater hazards. Yet, Air­craft Ferry Company, which has mademore than GOO ferry flights overseaswithin the past six years, has a recordof only two ditchings. In both the pilotssurvived. Only one was an up-to-dateairplane. The other one was a spentwarhorse, with Iba himself as the pilot.More remarkable even is the fact thatmore than 90% of the flights were com­pleted in single-engine aircraft. Therecord of Aircraft Ferry Companyproves how small the risk is with prop­er safeguards.

Although the rules and precautionsfor short ovenvater hops are elemen­tary and should be known to all pilots,they are too often ignored or forgotten.They cannot be repeated too often.These are the 10 commandments ofoverwater flying:

1. Be sure that YOUI' airplane and itsnavigational equipment are in first ratecondition, that compass deviations areup- to-da te.

2. Plot course carefully in advance.Note radio facilities and study the con­tour of the land within. a broad radiusof your destination.

3. Check winds and weather. Obtainforecasts at your point of departure aswell as your destination. Do not fly ifbad weather is threatening at eitherlocation. If you can't get there, youmust be able to get back. Do not golate in the day and do not fly overseasat night.

4. Carry basic survival equipment:Life vests for all, and for longer hops alife raft, a signaling mirror, flares anda flashlight. Life vests should be worn,and all occupants should be briefed inthe use of the equipment.

5. Be sure tanks are full. Fuel re­serve should be 100(;' throughout theflight.

G. File a flight plan. It is your mostdependable lifeline.

7. For your course over water, choosethe shortest land to land route, even ifit adds mileage. Don't be in a hurry.

8. Climb high while still over or nearland, and maintain altitude all the wayto your destination. If you stay high,you will see better, get better clues onweather, you will be safer, feel safer,and maintain better radio communica­tion. From high altitude you may alsobe able to close your flight plan whileover your destination.

9. Keep close track of time and head­ings, especially when winds or weathercause you to stray from your course.

10. Maintain radio contact withoutintermission. In case of an emergency,get on the mike without touching thedials.

Of all the safeguards over water,altitude is priceless. Howard Piper(AOP A 97315), vice president of PiperAircraft Corporation, who has flownhigh and wide over land and water andwho has crossed the Atlantic in anA]Jache, has this comment to make: "IfI were going on an island hopping flightin a single-engine airplane, I wouldprobably use the altitude technique ofgoing as high as possible between landareas. I would climb above 10,000 feetwhile still in sight of land, and thenthere would be only a few minutes dur­ing which I couldn't reach one side orthe other."

Red Gamber has deep respect for thesea, also for the frailties of the averagepilot. He is always preaching the samesermon, and he obeys it in practice: "Gohigh on your climb-out, and if yourengine should quit anywhere over 10,­000, you can be almost certain that youcan glide to land with a windmillingpropeller."

Howard Piper suggests that, if youcan manage to stop the propeller, dis­tance and time can be stretched. Herecalls that John Thorp, a fellow de­signer, told him that he once glided aComanche with a stopped propeller overa distance of 40 miles from a height of12,000 feet. When you add up all thebenefits gained by flying high, it is diffi­cult to understand why pilots persistin crossing water low on the deck. Incase disaster should strike on a cross­ing, the prospects of survival are emi­nently superior with height.

It is the good fortune of island hop­ping flyers that their overwater travelis constantly guarded by the U.S. CoastGuard. The protective arm of the CoastGuard reaches far beyond our coasts.For example, in the Southeast, the Co­ordination Center and the Air Stationfor the entire seventh district are lo­cated in Miami. Their radius of opera­tion is far-fiung. It ranges north to theCarolinas, east through the Bahamasas far as Bermuda, and south through­out the West I ndies to the South Ameri­can coast. Little do flyers know that ifthey go over water on a flight plan, theyare under the constant protection ofthese Argus-eyed guardians.

The Coast Guard Rescue Coordina­tion Center is linked to all radio chan­nels. A call for aid on any channel willeither be heard on one of the open linesat the Air Station, or else it will bereceived by the Center, and relayed tothe Air Station.

A spokesman at the Miami Air Sta­tion suggests this: "A pilot in distresscan be of material assistance if heleaves the dials alone and makes his caH.on whatever channel he is using beforehe does anything else in the cockpit. Heshould mention the frequency he istuned to, and make a change only aftercommunication is established if he is soadvised. Next in importance is infor­mation as to the nature of the emer­gency and precise location. As soon as

THE AOPA PilOT

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escape. Also, move any massive looseobjects to the floor of the cabin, wherethey cannot turn into dangerous mis­siles.

In a moderate sea, line up with theswells and try to touch down in atrough. In high winds, however, youcannot risk a crosswind landing, butmust take a chance of a hard bounceacross the waves. The impact is hardand sudden. It is likely that the cabinwill be submerged. At that instant youmust move swiftly and use your sur­vival equipment. If the airplane re­mains afloat, stay with it. If YOUI' pre­dicament is known, help will be on theway. But save your signaling devicesuntil rescue is in sight.

When all is told, and the aspects oflimited overwater crossings are care­fully weighed and respected, thereshould be no cause for concern. \Vithordinary care and foresight, there willbe no extraordinary hazards, no crisis,and the mere hurdle of a shorelineshould not thwart a pilot from hisplotted course 01' from a route to pleas­ure and adventure. END

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into a frown when his one experience ismentioned.

"Any ditching," he said, "is definitelydangerous and frightening. There aretoo many unpredictable factors." A re­ported ditching is a real cause for alarmto the Coast Guard and will send themscurrying in a total effort.

Elaborate procedures for ditchinghave been devised by the airlines andthe military forces. None are foolproof.However, there are some basic rulesthat fit any aircraft. If there is a sparkof life left in the engine, by all meanskeep it going and head for the nearestland or shallow water, for a knownshipping lane, or towards a ship, if youcan spot one. \Vith or without power,maintain safe flying speed all the waydown to the water. Don't stall beforemaking contact, or your nose will dropand hit hard. Just before touchdown,pull the nose up a few degrees and tryto hit with the tail low. On the waydown, open a window and unlatch thed001', if the design of the airplane per­mits it, or else pressure and impactforces may jam the door and block the

we have something to aim at, we'll getthere the fastest and with the mostest."

If an aircraft is overdue on an over­water flight plan, A TC will alert theCoast Guard and a search will bestarted promptly.

Communication and time are theessence of a search and rescue opera­tion. Time is the criterion of survival.Once an airplane is down on water,there is no telling if and how long itwill keep floating. It may go straightdown on impact 01' it may stay afloatfor hours. Without the remains of theairplane, any survivors in life vests arenot easily detected, especially in roughsea. Moreover, in cold water a man maysurvive only a brief period. At 32° hemay last less than an hour, at 50°, oneto six hours; above 700, however, hemay live more than a day.

In tropical waters sharks present areal danger. Nobody knows if and whenthey will attack, but it is a fact thatwounds will cause them to strilw. Thereis no known effective repellent. Therepellent supplied in vests and liferafts, however, provides some degreeof protection in that it muddies thewater and screens a swimmer.

The Coast Guard is systematic andindefatigable in its rescue work. Theyregard life vests as being only minimumprotection. They advocate strongly thatsignaling devices be also carried. Theyshould include signal mirror, a waterproof flashlight and day and nightflares. Dyemarker, which is found inthe pocket of a life vest, is importantfor recognition. They point out that alone swimmer, even in a yellow vest, istoo small a target to be easily detectedand that a signaling or recognition de­vice of any nature will materially im­prove and hasten the prospects of res­cue. For the same reason they alsobelieve firmly that on any but veryshort hops over' water a life raft shouldbe canied. The large yellow patch of araft can be spotted from a considerabledistance. A raft also serves the impor­tant function of sheltering the victimfrom the bite of the sea and its preda­tory creatures.

Charles Manhart, a veteran pilot whooperates Pan Avion, Inc., a survivalequipment sales and rental business atMiami International Airport, has thisto say: "A life vest is only the basicitem in a complete list of safe overwaterequipment. The raft is by far more valu­able and effective. With each raft PanAvion supplies a complete set of otheressential equipment. This includes firstaid kit, flares, flashlight, mirror, waterand rations" and other essential items.If you carry a fully outfitted raft, youwiJI need no additional equipment."

Life rafts come in all sizes and holdfrom one to seven persons. The smallertypes suitable for light airplanes arepacked in tight bundles and do not addmuch weight.

Rafts may be rented by the day, weekor month, and if they are ordered inadvance, they will be waiting at the air­port of departure.

Ditching an airplane at sea cannotbe taken lightly. Bob Iba, usually buoy­ant and cheerful, wrinkles his brow

DECEMBER, 1960 53