ovenant university · b) using appropriate diagrams, describe concisely sexual reproduction in...

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COVENANT UNIVERSITY

OMEGA SEMESTER TUTORIAL KIT (VOL. 2)

P R O G R A M M E : A P P L I E D B I O L .

400 LEVEL

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DISCLAIMER

The contents of this document are intended for practice and learning purposes at the undergraduate

level. The materials are from different sources including the internet and the contributors do not

in any way claim authorship or ownership of them. The materials are also not to be used for any

commercial purpose.

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LIST OF COURSES

BLY422: Marine and Fisheries Biology

BLY423: Industrial and Microbial Biotechnology

BLY424: Economic Botany

BLY425: Bio-Ethic, Bio-Safety, Patents and Regulations in Biotechnology

BLY426: Environmental Biotechnology

BLY427: Biotechnology in Sustainable Energy

*Not include

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COVENANT UNIVERSITY CANAANLAND, KM 10 IDIROKO ROAD

P.M.B 1023 OTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA

TITLE OF EXAMINATION: B.Sc DEGREE EXAMINATIONS

COLLEGE: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

SESSION: 2015/2016 SEMESTER: OMEGA

PROGRAMME: APPLIED BIOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: BLY 422 COURSE UNIT: 2

COURSE TITLE: MARINE AND FISHERIES BIOLOGY

INSTRUCTION(S): PROVIDE APPROPRIATE DIAGRAMS TO SUPPORT YOUR

ANSWERS WHEREVER NECESSARY. ATTEMPT THREE (3) QUESTIONS IN ALL; AT

LEAST ONE FROM EACH SECTION

TIME ALLOWED: 2 HOURS

SECTION A

(1a) Copy and complete this table

17marks

(b) Man and animal life probably would have been worse off without the

Giant Kelp. Discuss. 7 marks

Groups Photosynthetic

Pigment

Major Food

Reserve

Major Cell Wall

Component

Significance in

the Marine

Environment

Green Algae

Brown Algae

Red Algae

Flowering

Plants

5

2a) Write a short note on the morphology of giant kelps, highlighting the functions of its

various parts 10 marks

b) Using appropriate diagrams, describe concisely sexual reproduction in Spirogyra. 10 marks

c) What three factors can influence gamete development in algae? 3 marks

3a) Highlight any five features of the bryophytes. 5 marks

b) Using a simple diagram briefly describe alternation of generation 5 marks

c) With respect to sexual reproduction in the moss plant, define the

following:

Protonema

Antheridia

Archegonia

Capsule

Neck 5 marks

d) In what five ways is the moss plant useful? 5 marks

e) Define the following – Meroplankton, Dinoflagellates, Diatoms. 3 marks

SECTION B

1a) Write briefly on Delta and Lagoon as typical of Estuarine or brackish habitat. 6 marks

b) Itemize factors affecting marine habitat. 2.5 marks

c) Highlight five significant roles the aquatic environment plays to its organisms. 5 marks

d) Sketch a well-labeled zones of the marine ecosystem. 4 marks

e) Write on the fish adaptations and list the distinct groups of fish with example 6.5 marks

2a) Discuss the freshwater habitat in terms of:

i. Divisions

6

ii. Characteristics

iii. Endemic plants and

iv. Animals 6 marks

b) Explain process of thermal stratification of a freshwater. 3 marks

c) Draw the morphological features of a typical fish, showing all the fins. 5 marks

d) Write on five economic importance of fisheries. 5 marks

e) Highlight the major characteristics and digestive system of a bony fish 5 marks

7

COVENANTUNIVERSITY

CANAANLAND, KM 10, IDIROKO ROAD

P.M.B 1023, OTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA. TITLE OF EXAMINATION: B.Sc EXAMINATION

COLLEGE: COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY



COURSE CODE: BLY 422 CREDIT UNIT: 2 UNITS

COURSE TITLE: MARINE AND FISHERIES BIOLOGY

INSTRUCTION: ANSWER ANY THREE QUESTIONS TIME: 2 HOURS

1a

8

16 marks

1b Economic Importance of Kelp

Giant kelp has been used for years as a food supplement for many years because it contains iodine,

potassium, other minerals, vitamins and carbohydrates.

Algin is used as an emulsifier to bind oily and watery fluids together and is used for this purpose to

prevent salad dressings from separating in containers. It is also a suspender to keep pigment particles

mixed with the carrier as in paints, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals.

Algin aids in controlling viscosity and makes ice cream smoother and cake icings stiffer.

It is used to smooth and thicken more than 300 preparations from ice cream to paints, sauces and

toothpaste.

Algin is used in a wide range of foods including desserts, gels, milkshake mixes, dairy products,

canned foods, salad dressings, cake mixes, and meringues.

Groups Photosynthetic

Pigment

Major Food

Reserve

Major Cell Wall

Component

Significance in the

Marine

Environment

Green Algae Chlorophyll a,b Starch Cellulose Primary producers

Brown Algae Chlorophyll a,c Laminarin Cellulose, Algin Primary producers,

dominate kelp

forests

Red Algae Chlorophyll a,

phycoerythrin,

phycocyanin

Starch Cellulose, Agar Primary producers,

sources of

calcareous deposits

in coral reefs

Flowering

Plants

Chlorophyll a,b,

carotenoids

Starch Cellulose Dominant primary

producers, nursery

grounds for many

species, protects

coast from

turbulence

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Algin's hydrophilic, colloidal properties are also useful in the manufacture of food, drugs, cosmetics

and building materials.

Kelp products are also used in the manufacture of livestock and poultry feed, pharmaceuticals and

fertilizers.

It is used in bakery products from cake mixes to meringues to improve texture and retain moisture.

Algin is used in frozen foods for its stabilizing properties to assure smooth texture and uniform

thawing. It is also used to stabilize beer foam.

The primary industrial applications for algin are in paper coating and sizing, textile printing and

welding-rod coatings. Pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications for algin include its use in products

including tableting, dental impression compounds and anti-acid formulations.

Kelp forests are among the most diverse and productive ecosystems in the world. They create

sheltered areas and provide nutrients, thus creating a hospitable environment for animals and other

algae.

Kelp is a nursery ground for juvenile fish, a garden for grazing limpets and sea urchins, a

smorgasbord for sea otters and seals.

Forests on land are known for their diverse animal life, and host species from about three major

groups or phyla. The animal life in kelp forests is even more varied, and represents 10 phyla. Some

of the many creatures found in kelp forests include: fish, birds, seals, sea otters, crabs, lobsters,

shrimps, barnacles, sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, jellyfish and anemones, limpets, clams,

octopus, sponges, and less well-known animals such as lampshells, “moss-like” bryozoans, flatworms

and segmented worms. Any 7 = 7 marks

2a

Giant Kelp (or Macrocystis) has the distinction of being the largest marine plant (and seaweed) in

the world; with the largest attached plant recorded being 65m long. The kelp plant has a root-like

holdfast that fixes to rocky surfaces; a long slender stalk or stipe that allows for branching; and long,

leaf-like blades or fronds, that are the major site of photosynthetic activity. The kelp plant is

supported in the water by gas-filled bladders on each frond called pneumatocysts which enables it to

float on water. The holdfast is cone-shaped and can grow up to 60 cm in diameter in large plants.

5 marks, and 5 marks for diagram 10 marks

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2b

10 marks

(1) Amount of nutrients (2) Temperature (3) Length of day light 3 marks

3a Gametophyte dominant

Lack vascular tissues

Homosporous

Possess waterproof cuticle

Dispersal by windblown spores

Swimming sperm Any 5 = 5 marks

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3b

3c A protonema is a thread-like

chain of cells that forms the

earliest stage (the haploid phase)

of a bryophyte life cycle Antheridia is the male

reproductive organ in algae

Archegonia is the female

reproductive organ in algae

Capsule is a sac containing the

spores of bryophytes or

liverworts Neck is the swollen lower part

of the female sex organ in plants

such as mosses and ferns

archegonium where the ovum

develops

3d Help decompose dead wood

Serve as pioneer plants on bare rock or ground

Help prevent erosion

Provide shelter for insects & small animals

Used as nesting material by birds

Peat moss is burned as fuel 5 marks

3e Diatoms - a group of phytoplankton that are green and have a shell of silicon. They make

the water green in color.

Dinoflagellates - a group of phytoplankton that are reddish-brown and have armored plates

of cellulose. They can act like both animals and plants, and can move through the water.

Most are bioluminescent and toxic.

Meroplankton - temporary plankton; zooplankton in the egg or larva stage, that will live on

the sea floor or become a powerful swimmer as an adult. 3 marks

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COVENANTUNIVERSITY


P.M.B 1023, OTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA.

TITLE OF EXAMINATION: B.Sc DEGREE EXAMINATION





COURSE CODE: BLY 423 CREDIT UNIT: 3

COURSE TITLE: INDUSTRIAL AND MICROBIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

INSTRUCTION: ANSWER ANY FOUR QUESTIONS

TIME: 3 HOURS

1 a. Briefly discuss genetic manipulation of microorganisms. (6 marks)

b. Define microbial diversity and describe the major groups of microbes. (4 marks)

c. Enumerate the rationale for the development of bioinsecticides and describe the two

commonly used bioinsecticides. (7 ½ marks)

2 a. Illustrate the procedure for microbial production of ethanol on large scale. (5 marks)

. b. Discuss the microbial degradation of sewage, with special reference to methane

production from the sewage. (6 marks)

c. Explain the procedure involved in the isolation and purification of enzymes. (6 ½ marks)

3. Write comprehensively on the following:

a. Principle and application of biosensors (6 marks)

b. Prospects and challenges of biofertilizers (6 marks)

c. Application of microbial biotechnology in paper industry (6 ½ marks)

4. Discus Immunotoxins and their involvement in Drug Design. (23 marks)

5. a) Discuss types and approaches in metabolic engineering. (14 marks)

b) Highlight the applications of microbial biotechnology. (9 marks)

6. a) Discuss bacterial toxins are their implications to human health. (13 marks)

b) What are the potential areas of application of industrial biotechnology? (10 marks)

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COVENANTUNIVERSITY









COURSE TITLE: INDUSTRIAL AND MICROBIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

MARKING SCHEME

1 a. Briefly discuss genetic manipulation of microorganisms. (6 marks)

b. Define microbial diversity and describe the major groups of microbes. (4 marks)

c. Enumerate the rationale for the development of bioinsecticides and describe the two

commonly used bioinsecticides. (7 ½ marks)

(a) Topic(s) covered for each question: genetic manipulation of microorganisms, microbial diversity

and bioinsecticides

(b) Answer hints/keywords for each question: methods in genetic manipulation of microorganisms,

types of microbial diversity and development, prospects and challenges of using bioinsecticides

(c) Full answer for each question:

1 a. Briefly discuss genetic manipulation of microorganisms.

i. Mutation by mutagenesis with chemical agents and UV light

ii. Protoplast fusion for unrelated species by mixing two protoplasts in selective media

e.g. in yeasts and molds.

iii. Insertion of short DNA sequences using Site-directed mutagenesis

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iv. Transfer of genetic information between different organisms (Combinatorial

biology-transfer of genes e.g. those for the synthesis of a specific product, from one

organism to another

v. Modification of gene expression through over expression or metabolic pathway or

control engineering

vi. Natural genetic engineering e.g. forced evolution and adaptive mutations; specific

environmental stresses are used to force microorganism to mutate and adapt,

creating microorganism with new biological capabilities

6 marks

b. Define microbial diversity and describe the major groups of microbes.

microbial diversity: Degree of variation of minute life forms involving microorganisms, within a given

species, ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet 1 mark

Description: of bacteria, archaea, fungi, microalgae, protozoans and protists 3 marks

c. Enumerate the rationale for the development of bio-insecticides and describe the two

commonly used bio-insecticides.

Use of chemical pesticides is being discouraged due to:

i. spread of insect resistance,

ii. environmental pollutions

iii. rising cost

Bioinsecticides are:

iv. biodegradable,

v. non-toxic and

vi. cost effective 6 x ½ marks = 3 marks

Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) are composed of bacterial spores, crystal proteins and inert fillers.

BT is registered against 90 diff insects, bioinsecticide market makes 5% of the total insecticide

market

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Nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) possess insecticidal properties. Boll worms that damage

cotton can be controlled by NPV

4 ½ marks

2 a. Illustrate the procedure for microbial production of ethanol on large scale. (5 marks)

. b. Discuss the microbial degradation of sewage, with special reference to methane

production from the sewage. (6 marks)

c. Explain the procedure involved in the isolation and purification of enzymes. (6 ½ marks)

(a) Topic(s) covered for each question: microbial production of ethanol, isolation and purification

of enzymes and sewage treatment

(b) Answer hints/keywords for each question: microbial production of ethanol, extraction and

purification of enzymes and sewage treatment


a. Illustrate the procedure for microbial production of ethanol on large scale.

1. Three substrates are used as raw materials: roots and tubers rich in starch; molasses or

sugarcane juice and wood or waste products

2. Substrate are ground, filtered and dried

3. Starch is liquefied by boiling under pressure, cooled and hydrolysed enzymaytically using

amylase for the production of glucose

4. Glucose is further fermented in the presence of yeast using diammonium phosphate as

a source of nitrogen @ pH of 5.0 @ 30-50C

5. Distillation is carried out to recover the ethanol from the fermentation process

6. Cellulose is becoming good candidate as a renewable source of alcohol - liquour of paper

industry and agric biomass (hay) are sources of cellulose

Any 5 points 1 mark = 5 marks

b. Discuss the microbial degradation of sewage, with special reference to methane production

from the sewage.

1. Degradation of sewage involves the use of micro-organisms that develop naturally within the

sewage treatment system

2. Anaerobic digestion of sewage water involves the use of septic tanks, which is used for

sedimenting and digesting the components such as lipids, carbohydrates, proteins.

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3. Efficiency of digestion has always been enhanced by increasing the population density of

microorgs.

4. Methogenic bacteria are able to utilize acetate, methanol, formate and H2 and CO2 of the

organic waste and digest them into methane and CO2

5. Bacteria such as Desulpho vibrio reduce SO4

2-

to S2-

while denitrifying bacteria oxidize organic

substrates containing NO3

-

to liberate N2.

6. The methanogenic bacteria contain several cofactors that are involved in the reduction of

CO2 to CH4, with the generation of ATP.

7. The degradation of macromolecules to smaller molecules is called liquefaction phase

8. The composition and amount of the biogas produced is related to the quantity of substrate

used and the temperature.

Any 6 points 1 mark = 6 marks

c. Explain the procedure involved in the isolation and purification of enzymes.

1. Extraction of enzymes

2. Preparation of crude enzymes

3. Purification of enzymes (dialysis, chromatography, electrophoresis)

4. Final processing of enzymes

Description of each step attracts 1 ½ marks x 4 = 6 + ½ = 6 ½ marks

3. Write comprehensively on the following:

a. Principle and application of biosensors (6 marks)



(a) Topic(s) covered for each question: Biosensor, Microbial biotechnology and biofertilizers

(b) Answer hints/keywords for each question: Biosensor, microorganisms used as biofertilizer,

microbiological techniniques used in paper industry


a. Principle and applications of biosensors.

PRINCIPLE

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Interaction of a biological material with an analyte.

The interaction produces some detectable physical change that is measured and converted

into an electrical signal by a transducer.

The electrical signal is amplified, interpreted and displayed as an analyte concentration in

solution.

An anayte is a compound whose concentration is to be determined in this case by a

biosensor.

The biological materials used are usually enzymes.

The nature of interaction between the analyte and the biological material used in the

biosensor may be of two types

(i) the analyte may be converted into a new chemical molecule by enzymes (catalytic

biosensors).

(ii) the analyte may bind to the bio-material present on the biosensor e.g. antibodies, nucleic

acids (affinity biosensors).

APPLICATIONS

In medicine, used to measure amount of blood glucose in an undiluted blood sample of a

diabetic patient

In food industry, used for checking pathogen in fresh meat. Also used to check fermentation

in yeast

In environment, used to check the quality of water and air and also the toxicity of waste water

In military, used to detect explosives

In drug design, nano-sensor is used in drug design

Any 12 points ½ mark = 6 marks


Micro-organisms employed to enhance the availability of nutrients eg. Nitrogen and

phosphorus to the crops are called BIOFERTILIZERS

Nitrogen fixing bacteria include Rhizobium, blue-gree algae and Azolla (fern)

Phosphatic biofertilizers include bacterium Bacillus and mycorrhizal fungus Glomus, help

to increase solubility/availability of nutrient P, which is scarsely present in the soil in soluble

form

The Rhizobium spp. Are gram-negative soil bacteria capable of forming root nodules in most

legumes and non-leguminous plants

The bacterium contains genes for nitrogen fixation (nif genes), they enter the plant through

the root hairs and immediately form root nodules

Inside nodules, bacterial cell changes into non-dividing bacteroids, which produce

nitrogenase, the enxyme that reduces atmospehric N2 to ammonia, which is made available

to the host plant

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Practice is to select for efficient N2-fixer and inoculate the plant with it, which gives 10-15%

yield increase over non-inoculated plants

Azotobacter and Azospirillum: Azotobacter uses the organic matter in soil to fix nitrogen

asymbiotically while Azospirillum sp occur in association with the roots of many plants of

the grass family

Blue-green algae and Azolla: Blue green algae are photosynthetic prokaryotic organisms

which fix N2 asymbiotically e. Nostoc, Anabaena. Azolla fixes N2 based on its symbiotic

association with Anabaena azollae which has been used successfully as biofertilizer for rice

Phosphate solubilizing micro-organisms such as Bacillus convert non-available phosphrous

present in soil into an available form utilizable by crop plants. Also this bacterium removes

iron present in the root zone making it unavailable for harmful microorganisms and hence

enhance plant protection by preventing metal toxicity. Also certain fungi eg Glomus form

association with plant roots (mycorrhiza).

Advantages: low cost, ecofriendly, biodegradable, sustainability

Challenges: do not provide fast response like chemical fertilizers, not suffiecient nutrients

are provided.

12 points ½ mark = 6 marks


Paper manufacture involves wood processing, pulping, bleaching and sheet formation.

Wood fibre are glued together by lignin

Separation of fibres by degradaton is chemical pulping

Mechanical tearing of the fibres is mechanical pulping

Use of micro-organism (lignolytic fungi) to facilitate degradation is now being employed

Treatment of wood chips with Phanerochaete crysosporium gives improved tensile strength

and burst strength – biochemical pulping

Introduction of biological step before and after defibration by treatment with Trametes

versicolor also enhance tensile strength and reduce energy cost

Any 5 points x 1 mark = 5 + ½ marks = 5 ½ marks

Question 4: Discus Immunotoxins and their involvement in Drug Design (17½mks)

Immunotoxins and Drug Design Immunotoxin - Definition - 1mk Immunotoxins are called magic bullets

cytotoxic drugs that attack specific targets in cells - 1mk

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Parts - two parts: i. A toxin polypeptide called the A Chain - 1mk ii. A cell binding recognition

polypeptide (or antibody) called the B Chain - 1mk

Antibody-toxin Conjugate: - A combination of the toxin (A Chain & B Chain) and the target cell specific

antibody. - 1mk Example: RICIN - a protein synthesis inhibitor - ½mk

The antibody-toxin conjugate must i. Retain the capacity to recognize the target efficiently - 1mk ii.

Enter the target cells through endocytosis. - 1mk iii. Be stable during the passage through the body and

access to target cells. - 1mk

Drug Designing Drug designing related to immunotoxins involves at least three steps: 1. Knowledge of

the site structure up to the atomic resolutions so that the surface for attack is known. - 1mk 2. A ligand

wwill be designed to fit the binding site such that it will facilitate makimum interactions between atoms

of the ligands and the site. - 1mk. 3. Once the ligand is designed to fit the binding site, ligand need to be

modified to have pahrmacological and toxicological properties while maintaining its affinity for binding

site. - 1mk

1. Drug Designing by Blocking Enzymes Activity. - 1mk a. Trimethoprim (TMP) Inhibitor - TMP is a clinical

antimicrobial drug. ½mk b. Renin Inhibitor : Renin is a enzyme. ½mk

2. Drug Designing through Blocking Hormone Receptors. - 1mk a. Propranolol : A drug widely used for

treatment of heart diseases. ½mk b. Cimetidine : An anti-ulcer drug for stomach ulcers. ½mk

3. Drug Designing through Inhibition of Nucleic Acid System. - 1mk a. 6 - Mercaptopurine & Thioguanine:

The drugs inhibit DNA synthesis. ½mk b. Azathioprine : The drug acts through attack on the immune

system. ½mk Total = 17½mks

5. a) Discuss types and approaches in metabolic engineering (10 Marks) METABOLIC ENGINEERING

Metabolic Engineering refers to the practice of optimizing genetic and regulatory processes within the

cell to increase the cell’s production of a certain substance “products”. - 2mks

To achieve a good output from the system, it is imperative that the biosynthetic pathways to be

modified and their regulatory controls are well known and the genes involved are identified and cloned.

- 1mk

Two approaches involved include; a. Recombinant Protein: The proteins encoded by the transgenes are

the product of interest e.g immunogenic proteins used in prevention of diseases. - 1mk b. Metabolite

Engineering: The metabolites generated by the transgene-encoded enzymes are the products of

interest. The existing metabolic pathway are modified, extended and made more efficient or new

pathways introduced. - 1mk

The various approaches in metabolic engineering include; 1. Product Modification: A transgene may be

added, which encodes an enzyme that modifies a metabolite produced by the organism to yield a new

product of interest. - 1mk 2. New Substrate Utilization: The enzyme encoded by transgene may enable a

better utilization of the substrate or even previously inaccessible components oof the substrate. E.g

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Normal yeast are unable to utilize cyclodextrins present in the malt, this increases the calorie content of

beer. Trangenic yeasts capable of utilizing cyclodextrins are now commercially used to produce low

calorie beer with 1% more alcohol content. - 1mk 3. Completely New Metabolite: All the genes of an

entirely new biosynthetic pathway may be transferred to generate new products.e.g two genes are

involved in the conversion of Acetyl-CoA to polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), which is used to produce

biodegradeable plastics. The genes are transferred from Alcaligenes eutrophus into E. coli which in turn

accumulates PHB to 50% of their dry weight. - 1mk 4. Enhanced Metabolite Production: The conversion

of an intermediate product to the end product may be slow due to a low activity of the rate-limiting

enzyme. In such cases, the activity of the rate-limiting enzyme can be increased by amplifying the genes

encoding that enzyme. - 1mk 5. Enhanced Growth: Several gene transfers have enhanced growth rates

of the organisms, reduced their nutrient requirements and enabled their growth to higher cell densities.

- 1mk 10 Marks b) Highlight the applications of microbial biotechnology (7½mks Marks)

Microorganisms as Tools 1. Microbial Enzymes ½mk i. – Taq (DNA polymerase), cellulases, proteases

½mk 2. Bacterial Transformation ½mk i. – The ability of bacteria to take in DNA from their surrounding

environment ½mk ii. – Cells must be made competent (to take up DNA) 3. Source of antibiotics, blood

cholesterol lowering drugs ½mk 4. Grow anaerobic or aerobic - Examples: Pichia pastoris (grows to a

higher density than most laboratory strains), has a no. of strong promoters, can be used in batch

processes

½mk 5. Cloning and Expression Techniques ½mk i. Fusion Proteins ii. Use recombinant DNA methods to

insert the gene for a protein of interest into a plasmid containing a gene for a well-known protein that

serves as a “tag” 6. The Yeast Two-Hybrid System ½mk i. • Used to study protein interactions ½mk 7.

Microbial Proteins as Reporters - Examples: the lux gene which produces luciferase ½mk 8. Using

Microbes for a Variety of Everyday Applications ½mk ii. Food Products E.g. Rennin used to make curds

(solid) and whey in production of cheese ½mk 9. Energy Production in Bacteria ½mk i. Aerobic

respiration (oxygen is final electron acceptor) ½mk ii. Anaerobic respiration (inorganic molecules, such

as nitrate, etc) iii. Fermentation/ anaerobic but doesn’t involve an electron transport chain (beers, wines

yogurts etc.) iv. • Glucose pyruvate (produce ATP and NADH) - Two types: lactic acid and alcohol

10. Therapeutic proteins ½mk i. Recombinant insulin in bacteria ½mk 11. Field Applications of

Recombinant Microorganisms ½mk ii. Ice-minus bacteria (remove ice protein producing genes from P.

syringae ) ½mk

12. Using Microbes Against Other Microbes ½mk iii. Antibiotics – Penicillin was the first ½mk

13. Vaccines ½mk iv. First was a vaccine against smallpox (cowpox provides immunity) v. DPT-diphtheria,

pertussis, and tetanus, etc ½mk

14. Microbial Genomes ½mk i. Microbial Genome Program (MGP) ½mk

15. Viral Genomes ½mk ii. Decipher genes and their products so that agents that block attachment,

block replication can be made ½mk

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16. Microbial Diagnostics ½mk iii. Using Molecular Techniques to Identify Bacteria ½mk

17. Combating Bioterrorism ½mk iv. Using Biotech Against Bioweapons ½mk

Max = 7½Marks Total =17½ Marks

6. a) Discuss bacterial toxins are their implications to human health (9 Marks). How Bacterial Cells

Damage Host Cells Three mechanisms: – Direct Damage - ½mk – Toxins - ½mk – Hypersensitivity

Reactions - ½mk

1. Direct Damage ½mk ◆ Some bacteria can induce cells to engulf them ( E. coli, Shigella, Salmonella,

and Neisseria gonorrhoeae ).

2. Toxin Production (Any 2 x - ½ = 1mk) ◆ Toxins: Poisonous substances produced by microbes. - ½mk

◆ Frequently toxins are the main pathogenic factor. - ½mk ◆ Toxigenicity: Ability of a microbe to

produce toxins. - ½mk ◆ Toxemia: Presence of toxins in the blood. - ½mk ◆ Toxin effects: fever,

cardiovascular problems, diarrhea, shock, destruction of red blood cells and blood vessels, and nervous

system disruptions. - ½mk ◆ Of 220 known bacterial toxins, 40% damage eucaryotic cell membranes. -

½mk

Two types of toxins: – Exotoxins - ½mk – Endotoxins - ½mk

A. Exotoxins (Any 2 x - ½ = 1mk) – – Proteins: Enzymes that carry out specific reactions. - ½mk – –

Soluble in body fluids, rapidly transported throughout body in blood or lymph. - ½mk – – Produced

mainly by gram-positive bacteria. - ½mk – – Most genes for toxins are carried on plasmids or phages. -

½mk – – Produced inside bacteria and released into host tissue. - ½mk – – Responsible for disease

symptoms and/or death. - ½mk

Types (Any 2 x - ½ = 1mk) ◆ Cytotoxins: Kill or damage host cells. ◆ Neurotoxins: Interfere with nerve

impulses. ◆ Enterotoxins: Affect lining of gastrointestinal tract. – Antibodies called antitoxins provide

immunity. – Toxoids: Toxins that have been altered by heat or chemicals. Used as vaccines for diphtheria

and tetanus

Important Exotoxins (Any 3 x - ½ = 1½mks) ◆ Diphtheria Toxin ◆ Erythrogenic Toxins: ◆ Botulinum

Toxins: ◆ Tetanus Toxin: ◆ Vibrio Enterotoxin: ◆ Staphylococcal Enterotoxin:

Endotoxins (Any 2 x - ½ = 1mk) – Part of outer membrane surrounding gram-negative bacteria. - ½mks –

Endotoxin is lipid portion of lipopolysaccharides (LPS), called lipid A. - ½mks – Effect exerted when gram-

negative cells die and cell walls undergo lysis, liberating endotoxin. - ½mks – All produce the same signs

and symptoms: Chills, fever, weakness, general aches, blood clotting and tissue death, shock, and even

death. Can also induce miscarriage, Fever: Pyrogenic response is caused by endotoxins. - ½mks –

Endotoxins do not promote the formation of effective antibodies. - ½mks

– Organisms that produce endotoxins include: (Any 2 x - ½ = 1mk) • Salmonella typhi • Proteus spp. •

Pseudomonas spp. • Neisseria spp. – Medical equipment that has been sterilized may still contain

22

endotoxins. - ½mks • Limulus amoebocyte assay (LAL) is a test used to detect tiny amounts of endotoxin

- ½mks Max = 9 Marks

b) What are the potential areas of application of industrial biotechnology? (7½ Marks)

Biotechnological processing uses enzymes and micro-organisms to make products in a wide range of

industrial sectors including chemicals, pharmaceuticals, food and feed, detergents, paper and pulp,

textiles, energy, materials and polymers. 1mk

Biotechnology can both replace existing chemical processes and allow the production of new products.

(½mk).

The environment (½mk) benefits because biotechnological processes are efficient users of (often

renewable) raw materials, creating little end-of-pipe waste, which itself can be often used as input into a

further biological process. At the same time, moving from chemical to biological processes can lead to

significant reductions in carbon dioxide emissions, energy consumption, and water use (½mk).

The economy (½mk) The economy can benefits as biotechnology enables the introduction of more

efficient, less energy-intensive processes (½mk).

The society (½mk) will become more sustainable when these environmental and economic

benefits contributes towards a more sustainable society, with greater opportunities for job creation and

retention, and a reduced dependence on fossil fuels (½mk).

Products of Industrial Biotechnology • Bulk chemicals (½mk): Fermentation processes are already used

to produce a number of important chemicals at very-high volumes, including L-glutamic acid, citric acid

and Vitamin C. New bulk polymers such as bio-degradable plastics and monomers (eg 1,3-propanediol

for novel polyester production) have also come on stream, and there is almost unlimited scope for

further development based on tailored enzymes and micro-organisms. These could include improved

liquid crystals and materials with superior mechanical properties or temperature resistance (½mk).

Bio-fuels and bio-energy (½mk): The world is increasingly dependent on energy imports, and indigenous

sources of energy will play an important role in reducing this dependence. A biotechnological process to

use cellulosic waste materials such as straw and corncobs as a fermentation source for bio-ethanol

would be an enormous step forward, as would a biological process to produce bio-diesel (½mk).

• Fine and speciality chemicals (½mk): Specialised, high-value chemicals often require complex and

inefficient chemical processes for their production. It is not surprising, therefore, that simpler and more

efficient biological processes are already important in this sector (½mk).

• New materials (½mk): In the longer term, nature will serve as the inspiration for entirely novel

materials and manufacturing processes, for example more efficient solar cell using controlled transport

phenomena. Bio-based performance and nano-composite materials will derive their properties from

their specific nano- (or micro-) scale structure, or will be produced using the principles of natural self-

organisation (½mk). = 8½mks Total = 17½mks

23

COVENANT UNIVERSITY


P.M.B 1023, OTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA. TITLE OF EXAMINATION: B.Sc DEGREE EXAMINATION


SCHOOL: SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCEES




COURSE TITLE: ECONOMIC BOTANY


1. Write a review on the economic value of plants amongst different indigenous

people in Nigeria. (23 Marks)

2. Highlight your position on the state of Economic Botany as it relates to our

educational system and global economy, particularly in the face of global oil price

downturn. (23 Marks)

3. Write short review on:

a) Economic value of plants in Nigeria (13 Marks)

b) Global trends in Economic Botany (10 Marks)

4. Discuss in details the classification of economic plants available in Nigeria, giving

appropriate examples in each group (23 Marks)

5. Write a review on growth in Economic Botany in Nigeria with respect to emerging

areas and future of economic plants. (23 marks)

24

COVENANT UNIVERSITY





SCHOOL: SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCEES




COURSE TITLE: ECONOMIC BOTANY


MARKING GUIDE

1. Write a review on the economic value of plants amongst different indigenous people

in Nigeria. (23 Marks)

Definition of term encompassing the notion of biodiversity, indigenous people and

their engagement for biodiversity particularly plant for various uses. – 3mks

Uses based on usefulness and diversity of plant around their environment – 1mk

Various aspects of use of plants by indigenous people: Food, Medicine, Timber,

Construction, etc (Any correct = ½mk. Max = 5mks)

Regional references = West, East, South, North, etc (Any correct ½mk. Max =

4mks)

Tribal references = Igbo, Yoruba, Hausa, etc (Any correct ½mk. Max = 4mks)

Specific references to plant species linked to regional/tribal uses (Any correct ½mk.

Max = 6mks)

Total = 23 Marks

2. Highlight your position on the state of Economic botany as it relates with our

educational system and global economy, particularly in the face of global oil price

downturn. (23 Marks)

Highlight the place of economic botany to the economic sustenance of the Nation – 4mks

Highlights the present perspective about Economic botany in our educational system –

3mks

Highlight the present efforts towards the sustenance of the study of economic botany -3mks

Global situation of Oil and possible alternatives – 5mks

Present and future global population – 3mks

25

Possible ways to redirect efforts towards economic valuable plants for various sectors –

5mks

Total = 23 Marks

3. Write short review:

a) Economic value of plants in Nigeria (13 Marks)

Outline the value of plants to the economy of the nation. – 3mks

Highlight various economic sector and the importance of plant to the sector – Any

correct sector = Max 5mks

Highlight various plants relevant to each sector and the economic role of the plant

in the sector = Max 5mks

b) Global and trends in Economic Botany (10 Marks)

Total global herbal market1 is of size 62.0 billion dollars, - 1mk

European union is the biggest market with the share 45% of total herbal market. North

America accounts for 11%, Japan 16%, ASEAN countries 19% and rest of European Union

4.1%. Countries like Japan and China have successfully marketed their traditional

medicines abroad. 1mk

Nigeria is among major importers of herbal products alongside others like the US, UK,

European Union – 1mk

Regulatory Status of Herbal Medicine Worldwide

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 4 billion people—80 percent of the

world population--use herbal medicine for some aspect of primary health care – 1mk

Europe & America - Drug approval considerations for phytomedicines (medicines from

plants) in Europe are the same as those for new drugs in the United States – 1mk

Asia - In more developed Asian countries such as Japan, China, and India, "patent" herbal

remedies are composed of dried and powdered whole herbs or herb extracts in liquid or

tablet form – 1mk

Developing Countries Herbal medicines are the staple of medical treatment in many

developing countries. Herbal preparations are used for virtually all-minor ailments – 1mk

Market Scenario

USA - There is growing awareness among people in US about health and there is a shift in

attitude of the people towards nature care products due to a powerful “green wave” – 1mk

European Union: In EU, the reform/ wholefood category includes range of health and

26

health related products, food supplements, diet foodstuffs and herbal based remedies,

cosmetics and tonics – 1mk

Limitations and Bottlenecks of the System

The medicinal plants have been traditionally obtained from forests and no systematic effort

was made in past for developing the package of practices for cultivation of these plants –

1mk

Adopt sustainable system of cultivation – 1mk

Reward indigenous people for their contributions to medicinal plant development – 1mk

Max = 10mks

Total = 23 Marks

4. Discuss in details the classification of economic plants available in Nigeria, giving

appropriate examples in each group i. Botanical Classification 1 mk

Seedless and Seed plants (Spermatophytes) are subdivisions of the plant kingdom

reproduced by seeds – Gymnosperms and Angiosperms (monocotyledons e.g.

grasses, cereals and sugarcane) and dicotyledons: legumes, cowpea. Example =

1 mk.

ii. Agronomic Classification 1 mk

Plants are classified according to the products from the plant and or their use, rather

than any form of character similarity. Examples are Cereal crops, Roots, Tuber,

Grain legumes,Vegetables, Sugar crops, Forage, Fruit crops, Oil crops, Nut crops,

Rubber, Timber or Tree crops, Fibre crops, Spices and stimulants, Medicinal Plants

and Timber plants. Example = 1 mk

FOOD CROPS

Group members Example Sources

Grain Legumes Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata),

(Sphenostylis stenocarpa), Cajanus

cajan, Arachis hypogea, Soybean, Parkia

biglobosa

Fabaceae / Papilonoideae.

Mainly protein

Cereals Poacea family; Rice (Oryza sativa), millet,

maize (Zea mays) etc

Grass / Poaceae family

Vegetables Leafy (cabbage, spinach, onions, okra);

root (carrot, turnip), Moringa leaves,

cassava leaves etc.

Spinach, Amarinths etc

Euphorbiaceae etc.

27

Roots and Tubers Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz),

Yam (Dioscorea species), Cocoyam

(Colocasia esculenta) etc.

Rutaceae,

Euphorbiaceae,Discoreacea

etc

Spices Onion Allium cepa, Allium sativum, Parkia

biglobosa

Liliaceae family

TREE CROPS

Fruit Trees Anacardium Occidentiale, Mangifera indica,

Spondias mombin Annona muricata, Guava,

Coconut, Cocoa, Almond etc

Anacardiaceae, Rutaceae,

Malvaceae, Sterculiaceae,

Alcohol /

Stimulants

(Threbroma cacao L.), Kola nut (Cola

sp.), Terminalia catapa

Malvaceae, Sterculiaceae

Timber Khaya sp (Mahogany), Rubber, red wood,

Terminalia superb, Naudea dederich

(Opepe), Brachylaera hudinislis, Bamboo,

neem tree ect.

Anacardiaceae, Rutaceae,

Malvaceae, Sterculiaceae

etc.

Wood Tectona grandis, Triplochiton sclerexylon

(Obeche), Ceiba pentadra, ,

Chlorophora excels / Milisia excels,

Cedrela odorata, Khaya sp

(Mahogany), Terminalia superb,

Naudea dederich (Opepe),

Brachylaera hudinisli, Newbodia

leavis,etc.

FORAGE CROPS

Grasses Tridax procubens,Carpet grass – Axonopus

sp etc

Compositeae, poaceae etc

Shrubs Aloe, Bougaevillea, Hibiscus etc Liliaceae, Malvaceae,

Xanthorhoeaceae e

Medicinal Crops Any example

Each class + example = 2 mks/2 = 19 + 4 = 23 mks.

5. Write a review on growth in Economic Botany in Nigeria with respect to

emerging areas and future of economic plants.

Paradigm shift from low use to increase in utilization of plants:

particularly herbal products ranging from medicine/drugs, tooth paste,

28

insecticides etc. 3 mks

Metabolites and pharmaceutical products other than direct herbal use. 2

mks

Product development needs and strategies 2 mks

Research and development on natural resources especially economic

plants and growth of economic botany. Economic botany drives research

and development nationally and globally. E.g. RMDR, IITA, among

others 3 mks

Diversification theory/economic policy in favor of economic botany 3

mks

Increase in awareness on utilization of plants for health and other

significant purposes among others.

3 mks

Emerging areas include: pharmaceutical, cosmetic, nutraceutical, food,

energy and power industries; biofuel e.g. methane from cassava etc 4 mks

A bright future: Power generation lies with biofuels 2 mks

Other points relating to above. 1 mks.

Total = 23

29

COVENANTUNIVERSITY




SCHOOL: SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES



COURSE CODE: BLY425 CREDIT UNIT: 2 UNITS

COURSE TITLE: BIO-ETHIC, BIO-SAFETY, PATENTS AND REGULATIONS IN

BIOTECHNOLOGY


1. a. Explain the use of biotechnology in:

i. DNA analysis in the identification of crime suspects (4 marks)

ii. Identifying lineage and relation of a dead man (4 marks)

b. What are the concerns of genetically modified crops and food? (5 marks)

c. Highlight four areas of biotechnolgy contributions to the health sector (6 marks)

d. Discuss the challenges governing Biotechnology policies (4.5 marks)

2. a. Discuss the human genome project (HGP) (5 marks)

b. Explain methods of gene transfer in plants in terms of Agroinfection,

electroporation and microinjection. (4 marks)

c. Write on the followings:

i. animal cloning (4 marks)

ii. somatic nuclear transfer (2 marks)

iii. embyo cloning and (2 marks)

iv. embryo manipulation (2 marks)

d. In brief, highlight the basics of tissue culture techniques (4.5 marks)

3. In recent times, concerns on the safety of living modified organisms (LMOs) or genetically

modified organisms (GMOs) and their products have increased.

(a) Discuss the health and environmental risks often associated with gene manipulation.

(13 marks)

(b) Highlight ten (10) safe bench practices that should be observed while handling toxic

and mutagenic substances in the laboratory. (10 marks)

4. (a) List the bio-safety levels and briefly discuss the containment practices required for

each bio-safety level. (12 marks)

(b) Write short notes on the following:

(i) Biosafety (ii) Biohazards (iii) Risk Assessment (iv) Biosecurity (8 marks)

30

(c) List and describe the function of any three (3) common safety symbols (3 marks)

5. (a) Briefly discuss the common types of intellectual property rights (IPRs) (16marks)

(b) What are the basic criteria that must be met for a product to be patentable? Give an

example of a patentable invention. (7marks)

31

COVENANT UNIVERSITY




COLLEGE: COLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE


COURSE CODE: BLY425 CREDIT UNIT: 2 UNITS

COURSE TITLE: BIO-ETHIC, BIO-SAFETY, PATENTS AND REGULATIONS IN

BIOTECHNOLOGY

COURSE COORDINATOR: DR. DARAMOLA F.Y

COURSE LECTURERS: DR. DARAMOLA F.Y, DR. DARAMOLA J.A

1. Topic Covered: Health and Environmental risks Associated with Gene Manipulation.

Answer Hints/Key points: Toxicity Allergies, bad nutrition: Antibiotic resistance

Answer:

Health Risks

Toxicity

Allergies

Bad nutrition:

Environmental risks

Loss of safe natural pesticide:

Harm to innocents

Superweeds : Insect resistance and herbicide tolerance

Risk of contamination of wild plants which lead to a loss of biodiversity

The proliferation of genetically modified crops threatens the viability of organic

agriculture.

Increased dependence on pesticides and other chemicals.

(13 marks)

(b) Topic Covered: Safe Bench Practices

Answer

Ensure no flammable solvents are in the surrounding area when lighting a flame.

Do not leave lit Bunsen burners unattended.

Turn off all heating apparatus, gas valves, and water faucets when not in use.

Do not remove any equipment or chemicals from the laboratory.

Coats, bags, and other personal items must be stored in designated areas, not on the

bench tops or in the aisle ways.

32

Notify your teacher of any sensitivity that you may have to particular chemicals if known.

Keep the floor clear of all objects (e.g., ice, small objects, spilled liquids).

Keep your hands away from your face, eyes, mouth, and body while using chemicals.

Food and drink, open or closed, should never be brought into the laboratory or chemical

storage area.

Never use laboratory glassware fo Biosafety Level 1

r eating or drinking purposes.

Do not apply cosmetics while in the laboratory or storage area.

Wash hands after removing gloves, and before leaving the laboratory.

Remove any protective equipment (i.e., gloves, lab coat or apron, chemical splash

goggles) before leaving the laboratory

(Any 10x 1 =10 marks)

Total (13+10) = 23 marks

2. (a) Topic Covered: Bio-safety levels and containment practices

Biosafety Level 1, Level 2, Level 3 and 4 (2 marks)

Biosafety Level 1

Bench-top work allowed

Daily decontamination

Required hand washing

Red bag waste

Bio cabinet not required (unless creating aerosols)

2˚ containment (2½ marks)

Biosafety Level 2

Limited access to lab when work in progress

Daily decontamination

Mechanical pipetting

Labcoat, safety glasses and gloves required

Red bag & sharps containers required (2½ marks)

Biosafety Level 3

Public access NOT permitted

Daily decontamination after spill and upon completion of experiment

Autoclave required and waste is disposed at the end of day

Required foot activated hand washing sink and controls

No sharps unless absolutely necessary (2½ marks)

33

Biosafety Level 4

Maximum containment facilities

Pressurized Containment Suite

Chemical decontamination showers

Liquid effluent collection / decontamination (2½ marks)

2+4(2½)=12 marks

2b)

Biohazard: An agent of biological origin that has the capacity to produce harmful effects on

humans; i.e. microorganisms, toxins and allergens derived from those organisms, and

allergens and toxins derived from plants or animals.

Biosafety: Applying a combination of laboratory practices and procedures, laboratory

facilities, and safety equipment when working with potentially infectious microorganisms.

Risk Assessment: Addressing laboratory activities involving infectious or potentially

infectious material and implementing measures to reduce the worker’s and environment’s

risk of exposure to an agent to an absolute minimum.

Biosecurity: Protection of high-consequence microbial agents and toxins, or critical relevant

information, against theft or diversion by those who intend to pursue intentional misuse

2 marks each=8 marks

Flammable

Explosive

Corrosive

Poison

Any 3 symbols listed and described (3marks)

Total (12+8+3)=23 marks

(3) a. Topic Covered: Intellectual Property Rights

Types:

Copyrights,

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Trademarks,

Patents,

Industrial design

and Trade secrets

The IPRs discussed with relevant examples=16 marks.

b) The following criteria must be met by a product to be patentable.

Novelty (new)

Inventive(non-obvious)

Industrially applicable

2 marks each= 6 marks

c) Any correct example of a patentable invention 1 mark

Total(16+6+1)=23 marks

35

COVENANTUNIVERSITY









COURSE TITLE: ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

INSTRUCTION: ANSWER ANY THREE QUESTIONS

TIME: 2 HOURS

1. (a) Discuss the origin of microorganisms’ capacity to degrade xenobiotics. (8 marks)

(b) Highlight the reasons for using mixed microbial population for degrading xenobiotics.

(8 marks)

(c) Discuss the mechanisms involved in phyto-remediation. (8 marks)

2. (a) Write briefly on the applications of biotechnology to waste treatment and environmental

management. (8 marks)

(b) Explain the specific strategies for preventing water pollution. (8 marks))

(c) Discuss the preventive measures that can be taken to minimize accidental releases

of hazardous substances into the environment. (8 marks)

3. (a) Discuss biotechnological significance of ecological genomics to the understanding of

movement of genetic materials in the environment (8marks)

(b) Comprehensively Discuss biofuel with reference to sustainability, feedstock and types

(7marks)

(c) Discuss the importance of biotechnology to biodiversity management (8marks)

4. (a) Discuss gene flow and it importance to crop diversity (8marks)

(b) Discuss the place of biotechnology to the energy crisis of the world (7marks)

(c) Discuss the importance of biotechnology to modern day agricultural biodiversity (8marks)

5. (a) Review energy crops as it relates to biofuel generation (8 marks)

(b) explain five reasons why biofuel is the fuel for future generations (7marks)

(c) Discuss gene expression responses to environmental changes (7 ½ marks)

36

COVENANTUNIVERSITY









COURSE TITLE: ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

MARKING SCHEME

1. (a) Discuss the origin of microorganisms’ capacity to degrade xenobiotics. (7 marks)

The possibility that continued exposure of microorganisms to xenobiotic compounds can lead to

evolution of metabolic processes needed to degrade the xenobiotic.

1 marks

These possibilities include:

mutation can modify the active site of an enzyme so that it has an increased affinity for the

xenobiotic thus enhancing the rate of degradation of a xenobiotic.

2 marks

Transfer of plasmid-borne genes: through conjugation of two microorganisms (natural

recombinant bacteria), which allows a microorganism to acquire the genes needed to

complete the pathway for a xenobiotic metabolism and /or to gain genes which improve the

rate and /or nature of degradation. For example Alcaligenes sp. degrade 4-chlorophenol to

5-chloro-2-hydroxymuconic semialdehyde, which is toxic. However, Pseudomonas strain

B13 has a plasmid-borne gene, which encode the enzyme 1,2-di-oxygenase, which cleaves 4-

chlorophenol by alternative pathway, which avoids the production of toxic intermediates.

4 marks

37

(b) Highlight the reasons for using mixed microbial population for degrading xenobiotics.

(8 marks)

Two different microbes can together degrade a xenobiotic compound completely while

either of them alone is incapable as the product of degradation of one micro-organism serves

as the substrate for the other. For example Acinetobacter sp. cleaves 4-chlorobiphenyl to 4-

chlorobenzoate, which is cleaved by a Pseudomonas putida to produce acetyl-CoA.

One microorganism may produce the growth factor/nutrient required by the other eg.

Norcadia sp degrades cyclohexane but is unable to produce biotin. A Pseudomonas strain

produce biotin but can’t degrade cyclohexane, hence a mixture of the two strains would

breakdown cyclohexane but neither of them can do it alone.

Co-culture may lead to plasmid transfer into a faster growing sp thereby creating a faster

growing sp capable of degrading the xebiotic. Eg. Plasmid transfer from Pseudomonas sp

strain B13 into Alcaligene sp, which is a faster growing than Pseudomonas.

In natural environment, mixtures of xenobiotic compounds are found, hence the use of

mixed cultures increases the likelihood of the microbial components in the mixed culture

being able to degrade all the xenobiotics present in the environment.

8 marks

(c) Discuss the mechanisms involved in phyto-remediation. (8 marks)

Accumulation of organics in plant tissues

Translocation of the organics to leaf and volatilization from the leaf surface

The organics may be metabolized in plant tissues

Active microbial communities associated with plants may degrade the organic contaminants.

4 points x 2 marks = 8 marks

2. (a) Write briefly on the applications of biotechnology to waste treatment and environmental

management. (8 marks)

Development of technologies for degradation and conversion of readily biodegradable

wastes

Cleaner technologies of production, which generate less number of pollutants and much

lower pollution

Safer products, which are far less polluting than their conventional alternatives e.g. biofuels

in place of fossil and/or nuclear fuels for energy production

Use of sensitive and rapid detection techniques for a variety of pollutants are based on either

enzymes (biosensors) or antibodies (ELISA).

38

4 points x 2 = 8 marks

(b) Explain the specific strategies for preventing water pollution. (8 marks)

Industries generating effluent which do not meet the allowable limits should install, operate

and maintain a treatment plant to treat the effluent to the allowable limits before discharge.

Wastewater from boiler blow-down shall be cooled to below 45°C before discharge into

public water.

Wastewater generated from a chemical analysis laboratory should be discharged into a gutter

via the treatment plant, if it available.

Effluent generated from aquacultural farms should be treated to comply with the allowable

limits before it is discharged into a watercourse.

Animal wastes and Sludge generated, should be stabilised, dewatered and disposed of as

solid waste.

Livestock should not be reared in the open. Proper covered sheds shall be erected for the

rearing of livestock.

Effluent generated should be collected and treated to comply with the allowable discharge

limits before discharging into a public gutter or watercourse.

Poultry wastes may be collected for disposal as solid wastes.

Approved Pesticides and fertilizers should be used.

Any 8 x 1 = 8 marks

(c) Discuss the preventive measures that can be taken to minimize accidental releases

of hazardous substances into the environment. (7 marks)

obtain licences/permits from the relevant government agency

Preventive measures include:

(i) containers constructed and inspected in accordance with internationally acceptable

standards AND labeled.

(ii) storage areas are equipped with containment as well as disposal facilities

(iii) drivers of tankers carrying hazardous substances are required to undergo a special

training course on:

safety requirements and precautions,

first aid and firefighting

and a refresher course

7 x 1 = 7 marks

3a) Discuss biotechnological significance of ecological genomics to the understanding of movement

of genetic materials in the environment

Genomics have a role in 9 of the 10 leading causes of birth and death control in the

WORLD

All humans have 99.9% identical genetic makeup

The remaining 0.1% difference may provide useful information about diseases

The goal of genetics is to show why some people get sick from certain infections and

environmental changes while others do not.

39

It has also been increasingly exploited to understand the interaction between different

organisms, particularly between pathogens and their hosts.

Any 6 * 1 ½ Marks= 8marks

3b) Comprehensively discuss biofuel in terms of sustainability, feedstock and types.

Biofuels are alternative fuels made from plant and plant-derived resources.

Biofuels are energy carriers that store the energy derived from biomass.

Biofuels are used mainly for transportation.

Biofuels are referred to as sustainable and renewable fuels because they can meet the present

demand for fuel without preventing the future generations from meeting their needs and they

are replenishable without human intervention.

There are two types of biofuels: bioethanol and biodiesel.

Bioethanol, the principal fuel used as substitute for petrol for road transport vehicles, is

mainly produced by the sugar fermentation process of cellulose (starch), which is mostly

derived from maize and sugar cane. Ethanol can be blended with petrol or burned in its pure

form in slightly modified spark-ignition engines.

Any feedstock containing significant amounts of sugar, or materials that can be converted

into sugar such as starch or cellulose, can be used to produce ethanol.

Common sugar crops used as feedstocks are sugar cane, sugar beet and, to a lesser extent,

sweet sorghum.

Common starchy feedstocks include maize, wheat and cassava.

Biodiesel is produced by combining vegetable oil or animal fat with an alcohol and a catalyst

through a chemical process known as transesterification.

Oil for biodiesel production can be extracted from almost any oilseed crop; the most popular

sources are rapeseed in Europe, soybean in Brazil and the United States of America and

palm.

The production process typically yields additional by-products such as crushed bean cake

(an animal feed) and glycerine.

Biodiesel can be blended with traditional diesel fuel or burned in its pure form in

compression ignition engines.

Sustainability 2½ marks: feedstock 2½Marks and types=2marks =

7marks

3c) Discuss the importance of biotechnology to biodiversity management

Conservation: Biodiversity loss is on the increase all over the world. Most of these losses are

attributed to habitat destruction. Most conservation now involves the use of DNA

technologies to have effective conservation strategies. The DNA bank is an efficient, simple

and long-term method used in conserving genetic resource for biodiversity. Compared to

traditional seed or field gene banks, DNA banks lessen the risk of exposing genetic

information in natural surroundings. Other in situ methods include the seed banks, gene

banks etc. Ex situ conservation of biodiversity is achieved through the establishment

ofprotected areas like National Park, Wild life sanctuary,Biosphere Reserves, Marine

Reserves. Production of transgenic crops and animals isanother application of biotechnology

in biodiversityconservation. Transgenic crops are more likely to increaseagricultural

biodiversity and help maintain nativebiodiversity rather than to endanger it. Such crops may

prove to be very useful to the farmers and can be of commercial value.

40

Evaluation of genetic diversity: Biotechnology is used in evaluating genetic diversity.

Molecular markers are used to map out the genetic base of crops and select favorable traits

to come up with a better germplasm for growers. Germplasm refers to living tissues (e.g

leaves, seed, stem, pollen) from which new plants can form. Thus, if the markers are present,

then the specific gene of interest is also present. After observing the desired traits in selected

plants, these are then incorporated through modern or conventional breeding methods in

existing crop varieties. Also, the DNA and protein of the organism is profiled to evaluate

their genetic relatedness and distances from other relatives.

Gene Transfer: Most cultivated plant species have lost their inherent traits that came from

their wild ancestors. These traits include resistance to harsh environmental conditions,

adaptation to various soil and climate conditions, and resistance to pests and pathogens. To

utilize these important traits in cultivated varieties, scientists search for the genes that confer

such important traits. They use conventional and modern biotechnology to create improved

genetic variations of crops through gene transfer.

Any 3 * 2 ½ Marks= 8marks.

4a) Discuss gene flow and its importance to crop diversity

Gene flow is any movement of genes (or alleles of a gene) fromone population to another

conferring new traits to individuals of the recipient population.

Gene flow from cultivated, including biotechnology-based, crops to and from wild plants is

known to occur.

Theconsequences of this flow vary from species to species, but as a general rule, do not pose

asignificant threat to biodiversity.

In plants, gene flow, or vertical gene transfer may include: seed dispersal, vegetative

propagation and pollen flow. Genes do not travel alone.

If those genes that migrate from one population to another were not previously present in

the recipient population, geneflow is then a source of genetic variation.

Gene flow can be from crop tocrop (or landrace), from crop to wild relative, and even

fromwild relative to crop plant. Gene flow has been a natural, andin some cases desirable,

part of evolution and speciation inflowering plants.

Thus, gene flow is not the mainconcern, but rather the types of genes, and the level of

geneticheterogeneity or homogeneity (genetic diversity) that is spreadthrough gene flow and

its effect on recipient populations, are the relevant issues.

The impact of gene transfer on biodiversity depends mainly on the breed’s suitability to its

new production environments and can be measured in changes to the national population

composition. If they are suitable and the new breeds add to existing genotypes, then

biodiversity increases. If new genotypes replace existing breeds, biodiversity is lost.


4b) Discuss the place of biotechnology in the energy crisis of the world

Energy is inevitable for human life and a secure and accessible supply of energy is crucial for

thesustainability of modern societies.

Continuation of the use of fossil fuels is set to face multiplechallenges: depletion of fossil fuel

reserves, global warming and other environmental concerns,geopolitical and military

41

conflicts and of late, continued and significant fuel price rise. Theseproblems indicate an

unsustainable situation.

The demand for the provision of energy is increasing worldwide and will continue to risedue

to rapidly rising human population and modernization trends across the world.

Renewable energy is the solution to the growing energychallenges. Renewable energy

resources such as solar, wind, biomass, and wave and tidal energy, areabundant,

inexhaustible and environmentally friendly.

Biotechnology can play a major role through the generation of biofuels from crops such as

sugar cane, cassava, rapeseed, soybean etc.

Biofuels are renewable and sustainable.

Biofuels have the potentialto provide energy services with zero or almost zero emissions of

both air pollutants and greenhouse gases; they are also abundant in nature.

Biofuels have enormous potential and can meet many times the present world energy

demand.

They can enhance diversity in energy supply markets, securelong-term sustainable energy

supplies, and reduce local and global atmospheric emissions.

They can also provide commercially attractive options to meet specific needs for

energyservices (particularly in developing countries and rural areas), create new

employmentopportunities, and offer possibilities for local manufacturing of equipment.


4c) Discuss the importance of biotechnology to modern day agricultural biodiversity

Increased crop productivity: Biotechnology has helped to increase crop productivityby

introducing such qualities as disease resistance andincreased drought tolerance to the crops.

Enhanced crop protection: Farmers use crop-protection technologies because theyprovide

cost-effective solutions to pest problems which,if left uncontrolled, would severely lower

yields. Crops such as corn, cotton, and potatohave been successfully transformed through

geneticengineering to make a protein that kills certain insectswhen they feed on the plants.

Improvements in food processing

Improved nutritional value: Genetic engineering has allowed new options for improvingthe

nutritional value, flavor, and texture of foods.Transgenic crops in development include

soybeans withhigher protein content, potatoes with more nutritionallyavailable starch and an

improved amino acid contents.

Fresher produce: Genetic engineering can result in improved keepingproperties to make

transport of fresh produce easier, givingconsumers access to nutritionally valuable

wholefoods and preventing decay, damage, and loss of nutrients.Transgenic tomatoes have

been developed with delayed softening.

Environmental benefits: When genetic engineering results in reduced pesticidedependence,

we have less pesticide residues on foods,we reduce pesticide leaching into groundwater, and

weminimize farm worker exposure to hazardous products.


5a) Review energy crops as they relate to biofuel generation

Energy crops are crops cultivated for the purpose of producing energy.

Energy maybe generated through direct combustion orgasification of the crops to create

electricityand heat, or by converting them to liquid fuelssuch as ethanol for use in vehicle.

These crops have thecapacity to produce large volume of biomass and high energy potential.

The various methods of utilization of biomass as energy sources includes:

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a. Wood: is obtained from fast growing trees like teak, leucaena, eucalyptus, etc. the

predominant mode of utilization of wood as an energy source is in the form of firewood,

which is rather inefficient. An estimated 50% of the total wood harvested each year is

consumed as firewood

b. Sugar/ Starch Crop: these crops are generally efficient converters of solar energy and

produce either fermentable sugars e.g sugarcane or sugarbeet, or starch e.g cereals roots and

tuber crops, which can be converted into fermentable sugars. These crops are used to

produce bioethanol but they also have other uses as food, feed, which often compete with

biofuel.

c. Hydrocarbon producing crops: some plants e.g. Euphobiaceae plants produce

hydrocarbon which can be converted into and used as diesel, called biodiesel. In addition,

some freshwater and marine algae are also known to accumulate hydrocarbon. Some algae

like Chlamydomonas amd anaerobic bacteria like Clostridium produce hydrogen gas, which

can be used as a pollution-free fuel. However, long-term research efforts are still needed to

develop these organisms as sources of bioenergy.

Any 3 * 2 ½ Marks= 8marks BONUS ½ Mark

5b) Explain five reasons why biofuel is the fuel for future generations

Biofuel is regarded as the fuel for future generations due to the following reasons:

Environmental advantage:The main environmental advantage of biofuels stems from the fact

that they are carbon-neutral: thecarbon dioxide they release upon combustion is initially

extracted from the atmosphere duringbiomass production, resulting in zero net greenhouse

gas emissions. Biofuels also reduce therelease of volatile organic compounds, as the addition

of ethanol to gasoline oxygenates the fuelmixture so it burns more completely. Ethanol also

eliminates the need to add lead. In addition,biofuels are biodegradable and non-toxic,

meaning spillages represent far less of a risk thanfossil diesel spillages.

Sustainable and Renewable: Biofuels are sustainable and renewable. In contrast to the fossil

fuels, they have long-term availability that guarantees to meet any present or future

consumption needs and also the energy source is replenishable without human intervention.

Cost: Biofuels compared with the fossil fuels are cheaper to produce and readily available.

The increased use of biofuels for energy production will reduce dependence on import of

foreign fossil fuels thus boosting the country’s revenue.

Economic Development: Encouraging the use of the country’s natural resources for energy

production will attract private investors to generate small plants in rural areas that will boost

economic development.

Alternative fuels: Biofuels are considered alternative fuels to the fossil fuels. No energy

source exist at present as an alternative to fossil energy sources, as the energy and a large

percentage of the by products frompetroleum constitute the very foundation of our modern

society, they have relatively low toxicity when compare to others energy sources and are

available in large globally utilisable volume. However, these biofuels can complement the

fossil fuels especially in the area of transportation and thus reduce dependence on fossil fuel.

Any 5 * 1 ½ Marks= 7 ½ marks

5c) Discuss gene expression responses to environmental changes

The ability to respond rapidly to fluctuations in temperature,nutrients, and other

environmental changes is importantfor competitive fitness and cell survival.

Many environmentalvariations impose stresses that can damage or killthe organism in the

absence of an appropriate response. Forexample, heat shock can disrupt protein folding.

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Cells must coordinate adjustments in genome expressionto accommodate changes in their

environment. Despite ourlack of knowledge about the complete set of genes involvedin these

changes, investigators have identified transcriptionalactivators and repressors that likely

contribute tocoordinate remodeling of genome expression.

Any 3 * 2½ Marks= 8marks

44

COVENANT UNIVERSITY CANAANLAND, KM 10, IDIROKO ROAD






COURSE TITLE: BIOTECHNOLOGY IN SUSTAINABLE ENERGY


TIME: 2 HOURS

1. (a) Write on the importance of biofuels to the economy of developing

nations (17 Marks)

(b) Discuss Biofuels. (6 Marks)

2. (a)Write concisely on the essence and loss of biodiversity (8 Marks)

b). What are the effects of application of biotechnology on biodiversity

(15 Marks)

3. Discuss bacterial augmentation for biofuels (23 Marks)

4. Write extensively on the following:

a. Energy factories and future of energy production (12 marks)

b. Plants and plant cells as factories for high value products (11 marks)

5. With practical examples, discuss renewable feed stocks and classification of bio-

feed stocks (23 marks)

45

COVENANT UNIVERSITY CANAANLAND, KM 10, IDIROKO ROAD






COURSE TITLE: BIOTECHNOLOGY IN SUSTAINABLE ENERGY


TIME: 2 HOURS

6. (a) Discuss Biofuels. (6marks)

i. Biofuels are fuels that contain energy from geologically recent carbon fixation.

(2 marks)

ii. Biofuels are energy sources made from living organisms mass, or waste from living organisms.

(2 marks)

iii. Biofuels are liquid and gaseous fuels, which have been derived from materials such as waste plant

and animal matter. E.g bio-ethanol, biodiesel and gases (Methane, Hydrogen)

(2 marks)

iv. Biofuels are often classified as renewable but not necessarily sustainable.

(2 marks)

Any 3 = 6 marks

(b) Write on the importance of biofuels to the economy of developing nations (17 marks)

Meeting future energy demands (1 mks)

- Energy demand is projected to grow by 50% by 2025, (½ mk)

- Much of the increase in demand predicted to originate from developing countries.

- The vast majority of energy is currently derived from fossils fuels, a limited, non-renewable and

polluting resource. (½ mk)

- Switching to biofuels for transportation needs would reduce energy dependency on oil imports

(½ mk)

- Could boost rural development, providing farmers with an additional source of income

(½ mk)

Reducing greenhouse emissions (1 mk)

- There is strong evidence that the emission of greenhouse gases from human activities is resulting in

significant global warming. Fossil fuel and electricity consumption are main sources of greenhouse

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gases. (½ mk)

- The Kyoto Protocol (5), an international agreement made under the United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was established with the aim of stabilizing greenhouse

gas concentrations in the atmosphere

(½ mk)

Environmental advantages of biofuels (1 mk)

- Biofuels are carbon-neutral (the carbon dioxide they release upon combustion is initially extracted

from the atmosphere during biomass production) resulting in zero net greenhouse gas emissions.

(½ mk)

- Biofuels reduce the release of volatile organic compounds (½ mk)

- Ethanol also eliminates the need to add lead. (½ mk)

- Biofuels are biodegradable and non-toxic, (½ mk)

Plant Biotechnology and Biofuels (1 mk)

-The challenge for biotechnology is to substantially increase crop yield, and at the same time develop crops

with a suitable set of chemical and physical traits for energy production

(½ mk)

The cost of biofuels (1 mk)

- The cost of biofuels needs to be estimated not only in terms of energy derived, but also in terms of

how much energy/resources are required for the production and distribution of biofuels

(½ mk)

- The production of energy crops requires land, fertilizers, and farm machinery, while the fermentation

and distillation of biofuels needs biomass and water

(½ mk)

- The environmental impacts of producing biomass include increased soil erosion, and pollution

related to an increased use of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides

(½ mk)

- The cost of biofuels depend on several parameters such as; security of supply; effect on climate

change; employment generation; and the impact of an expanding bioenergy sector on land demand,

and how this will affect alternative land uses, such as food production and biodiversity conservation

(½ mk)

- These need to be better addressed before the real value of biofuels to developing economies that

still rely on agricultural production for their growth. (½ mk)

5 a). Write concisely on the essence and loss of biodiversity (8 marks

Native biodiversity - The biodiversity that developed through the processes of mutation and selection

all living organisms we know today. (½mk)

DNA is always the storage molecule of genetic information and the complex process of protein

biosynthesis is virtually the same in all organisms. (½mk)

The number of species of plants, animals and eukaryotic microorganisms is probably around 10

million today, but only 1.4 million have been characterised and named.

(½mk)

40’000 vertebrate animals and 300’000 vascular plant species are known. (½mk)

Over a million species each of fungi and nematodes, of which only 70’000 and 13’000 have been

named. (½mk)

There are thought to be far more than a million different insect species as well. (½mk)

47

About 5000 bacteria and viruses have been named individually. (½mk)

Agricultural biodiversity - the biodiversity of organisms used for farming and other human activities.

(½mk)

In agriculture, farmers somewhere in the world use 7000 species of plants, but only 30 species provide

90% of our caloric intake. (½mk)

The top three crops are wheat, rice and maize (corn) with around 500 million tons annual production

each. (½mk)

Many hundred thousand varieties (landraces, cultivars) adapted to local climates, farming practices,

cultural predilections like taste, colour, structure, ability to store the products etc.

(½mk)

Much of this large crop diversity is important for providing starting material for breeding.

(½mk)

Genetic diversity found in crops is much less broad than the genetic diversity observed in plants or

animals living in the wild. (½mk)

This is why wild species are important for agricultural breeding programs. (½mk)

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) – adopted in 1992 and recognises that biodiversity

of organisms in the wild should be maintained both for their own intrinsic value, but also on practical

grounds. (½mk)

Loss of biodiversity and conservation - occurring in many parts of the globe, often at a rapid pace.

(½mk)

Losses require countermeasures such as an increased effort towards conservation by many different

means. (½mk)

The loss of biodiversity can be due loss of individual species, groups of species or decreases in

numbers of individual organisms. (½mk)

The second most important reason for loss of biodiversity is invasion by exotic plants and animals.

(½mk)

Max = 8 Mks

b). What are the effects of application of biotechnology on biodiversity

Conservation Strategies - Conservation may be in situ or ex situ, either in the natural or semi-natural

habitat, or in some purpose-built environment. (1mk)

Applications of biotechnology and its effect on biodiversity - The methods of biotechnology can be

applied to the study of virtually any biological phenomenon and will in some cases have practical

applications for maintaining biodiversity. (1mk)

The first is to use biotechnology as a tool for acquiring knowledge. (1mk)

use biotechnology to directly intervene in plant and animal breeding transgenic crop or farm animal.

(1mk)

Direct gene transfer to crops and farm animals. (1mk)

Strategies

Biotechnology could be used to preserve, conserve and improve native biodiversity

(1mk)

Biotechnology could be use to resuscitate, recapture and resurrect threatened, endangered and

extinct species. (1mk)

Biotechnology (if wisely used) could bring back at least that part of genetic diversity which could

enhances crop plants such as pest resistance and perhaps yield. (1mk)

There are different types of efforts and strategies currently underway to preserve global biodiversity,

linked to biotechnology. (1mk)

The most effective way to preserve biodiversity is through, direct, in situ conservation

(1mk)

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Creation of protected areas inevitably means restricted access to natural resources, biotechnology can

help improve this access (1mk)

A number of market based conservation strategies have been developed, which aim to make

biodiversity conservation profitable. (1mk)

o Ecotourism, (1mk) (mention an example) (½mk)

o Bioprospecting, (1mk) (mention an example) (½mk)

o ex situ conservation efforts through biotechnology in establishing gene banks.

(1mk)

o Sequencing and storing of such sequences as a conservation means of whole plant genomic

information (1mk)

Max = 15 Mks

Total = 8 = 15 = 23 marks

4. Write extensively on the following:

c. Energy factories and future of energy production (12 marks)

d. Plants and plant cells as factories for high value products (11 marks).

Examples of energy factories

a.

Chemical feedstocks: Natural gas as a chemical industry fuel and feed stock. E.g. Methane – feedstock

for hydrogen production. 2 mark

Natural gas condensate (ethane and propane) is an advantaged raw material via ethylene and

propylene to much of the organic chemicals industry (compared to crude-oil-derived naphtha)

2 marks

Crude oil 1 mark

Coal: 1 mark

Municipal waste as factories: e.g. household garbage as burnt fuel etc. 1 mark

Geothermal and nuclear power: though not renewable. 1 mark

Biomass/Biofuel: future of energy production lies with biofuel. Biomass like sugarcane, sugar beet,

maize, corn, cereals, cassava, switchgrass, sunflower, soyabean etc, can be converted to ethanol which

can generate power/energy. 4 marks

12 marks

b.

Plants and their cells are factories for high value products such as recombinant proteins,

metabolites and thus are valuable as industrial and pharmaceutical products.

4 marks

Plant cells, tissues and whole plants can be modified to harness endogenous metabolic

pathways and the protein biosynthesis machinery, allowing the production of high-value

metabolites and recombinant proteins. 4 marks

Other products and Means: Molecular farming. 2 marks

Other products and means: Commercial farming using modern tools: 1 mark

Total = 12 + 11 = 23.

5. With practical examples, discuss renewable feed stocks and classification of bio-feed stocks.

49

Feedstocks refer to the crops or products, like waste vegetable oil, that can be used as or converted

into biofuels and bioenergy. 1 mark

Energy crops are plant species that are efficient users of solar energy for converting C02 into biomass,

which can be used as a source of energy. 2 mark

Examples are; Eucaplyptus, Butea, Casurina, Melia, Cereals like millets, corn etc. Others include

root and tuber crops such as potato, cassava, sugarcane, sugarbeet etc.

any 3 = 3 marks

The nature of biomass obtained from most of these crops is wood, sugar and starch, and

hydrocarbons. Firewood is a type of energy from wood which is insufficient and having negative effect

on forest and environment. 1 marks

First generation feed stocks are commonly grown or cultivated. Divided into the following

Sugars and starches: Plants such as sugarcane, cassava, sweet sorghum, sugar beets, palm, corn, wheat,

potato etc have been processed to generate alcohol such as ethanol, butanol. Any 3 =

3 marks

Waste feed stocks such as cassava peels, citrus peels, whey are feed stocks from sugars and starch.

2 marks

Oils and fats: feed stocks for pure plant oil, biodiesel, biogas. Plant and animal oils and fats have been

used as sources of bioenergy, light and heat. For example peanut oil, Moringa oil. Edible oil plants

such as coconut oil, mustard seed, oil palm, rape seed, soybeans, sunflower seeds. Non-edible oil

plants include; castor beans, Jatropha, Jojoba, Camelina etc. any ½

each = 3 marks

Traditional biomass feed stocks e.g. Bamboo plant 1 mark

Second generation feed stocks: are usually refers to energy crops.

i) Cellulosic feed stocks for example, grasses like switch grass, miscanthus, trees like willow

trees, hybrid poplar and other plants like corn and soybean. Other cellulosic feed stocks

include; algae, halophytes (salt water plants), water hyacinth

2 marks

ii) Silvinia

iii) Cow dung, pig dung and poultry wastes 1 marks

Take note of processes: e.g. in algae = 3 marks

Total = 23

ovenant university · b) using appropriate diagrams, describe concisely sexual reproduction in...

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