Our traits make us who were are. The expression of your genetic code determines how you look and function. In this unit we will review simple genetic expression as well as take a look at more complex patterns of inheritance.

What do you remember about Mendel and his genetics studies? (Austrian monk who studied traits in pea plants)

Work with a partner to generate a list of terms that you remember or think of when you think about Mendelian genetics.

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Pair up with someone near you to describe what you remember about each of these terms. (allow them time to give explanation and descriptions) We will come back to this list later.

An organism with two identical alleles for a character is said to be homozygous for the gene controlling that character

An organism that has two different alleles for a gene is said to be heterozygous for the gene controlling that character

Unlike homozygotes, heterozygotes are not true-breeding

Because of the different effects of dominant and recessive alleles, an organism’s traits do not always reveal its genetic composition

Therefore, we distinguish between an organism’s phenotype, or physical appearance, and its genotype, or genetic makeup

In the example of flower color in pea plants, PP and Pp plants have the same phenotype (purple) but different genotypes

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Mendel chose to track only those characters that occurred in two distinct alternative forms

He also used varieties that were true-breeding (plants that produce offspring of the same variety when they self-pollinate)

Mendel was unaware that traits were carried on our genes. He proposed that the units of inheritance were discrete particles in his particulate theory.

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For example, the gene for flower color in pea plants exists in two versions, one for purple flowers and the other for white flowers

These alternative versions of a gene are now called alleles

Each gene resides at a specific locus on a specific chromosome

For each character, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent

Mendel made this deduction without knowing about the role of chromosomes

The two alleles at a particular locus may be identical, as in the true-breeding plants of Mendel’s P generation

Alternatively, the two alleles at a locus may differ, as in the F1 hybrids

If the two alleles at a locus differ, then one (the dominant allele) determines the organism’s appearance, and the other (the recessive allele) has no noticeable effect on appearance

In the flower-color example, the F1 plants had purple flowers because the allele for that trait is dominant

We will use what Mendel concluded along with contributions from other geneticists to predict patterns of inheritance. By the time we are done will have practiced calculating the inheritance of traits in monohybrid crosses, dihybrid crosses, those that are sex-linked as well as traits that are autosomal linked.

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Lets begin by looking at some of the fundamentals of genetics as presented by Mendel, starting with the law of dominance. When Mendel crossed F1 green pod peas, he noted yellow pods in the F2 generation. The green allele had masked the expression of the yellow pod color in the F1. The yellow pod color could be expressed in the F2 generation when the recessive allele from one parent combined with the that from the other parent. Dominant alleles are those that mask the appearance of other alleles.

Some human traits are thought to be controlled by single alleles expressing dominance.

The allele for this unusual trait is dominant to the allele for the more common trait of five digits per appendage

In this example, the recessive allele is far more prevalent than the population’s dominant allele

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Mendel’s law of segregation can be explained more readily now that we understand the concept of chromosomal inheritance. During the process of meiosis, homologous chromosomes will separate into different gametes. This separation creates gametes that show variation.

Answer: b

This question confronts a widespread misconception. Many people think (incorrectly) that the genetically dominant allele will be most frequent and that dominant alleles increase in frequency within populations over time. The Hardy-Weinberg law shows that this is not the case; dominance and frequency are not related. Allele frequency of dominant alleles can be low (dark hair color in northern Europe) or high (dark hair color in southern Europe). Answer b is the only answer that reflects this pattern. Even though the chapter does not address population genetic ideas, it’s a good idea to try to break this misconception early.

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The law of segregation explains that the two alleles for a heritable character separate (segregate) during gamete formation and end up in different gametes

Thus, an egg or a sperm gets only one of the two alleles that are present in the organism.

Mendel’s segregation model accounts for the 3:1 ratio he observed in the F2 generation of his numerous crosses

The possible combinations of sperm and egg can be shown using a Punnett square, a diagram for predicting the results of a genetic cross between individuals of known genetic makeup

A capital letter represents a dominant allele, and a lowercase letter represents a recessive allele

This segregation of alleles corresponds to the distribution of homologous chromosomes to different gametes in meiosis

Segregation leads to variation in gametes. Ultimately giving variation to the offspring. Variation is one of the primary advantages of sexual reproduction. It is this variation that provides adaptability within the offspring.

How can we tell the genotype of an individual with the dominant phenotype?

Such an individual could be either homozygous dominant or heterozygous

The answer is to carry out a testcross: breeding the mystery individual with a homozygous recessive individual

If any offspring display the recessive phenotype, the mystery parent must be heterozygous

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Mendel identified his second law of inheritance by following two characters at the same time

Crossing two true-breeding parents differing in two characters produces dihybrids in the F1 generation, heterozygous for both characters

A dihybrid cross, a cross between F1 dihybrids, can determine whether two characters are transmitted to offspring as a package or independently

Using a dihybrid cross, Mendel developed the law of independent assortment

The law of independent assortment states that each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other pair of alleles during gamete formation

Strictly speaking, this law applies only to genes on different, nonhomologous chromosomes or those far apart on the same chromosome

Genes located near each other on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together

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The alleles for each trait, separate from one another during segregation and will end up in different gametes. Notice that in this diagram the R is never in the same cell with the r. The S is never in the same cell with the s.

Independent assortment refers to the manner in which traits will sort without regard to other traits provided they are carried on different chromosomes. The four cells are drawn to show the various combinations that can occur.

Answer: c

The purpose of this question is to help students figure out gamete types—a step they often rush past. Students need to realize that gametes are haploid and that each gamete contains one, and only one, allele for each of the traits being studied. The presence of the second pea in the question stem is a distracter. Answer a is wrong because it shows gametes with two alleles for flower color and no alleles for seed color. Answer b is wrong because it shows only two possible gamete types. Answer c is right because it shows all four possible gamete types. Answer d is wrong because it shows gametes that are diploid for one trait and containing an allele for only one locus.

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