our political beginnings our political beginningsedtechnology.com/gov/textbook/gov ch 2 origins...

Objectives You may wish to callstudents’ attention to the objectivesin the Section Preview. The objectivesare reflected in the main headings ofthe section.Bellringer Have students name somebasic human rights and freedoms.Then ask them where they got theirideas about what their rights andfreedoms are. Explain that in thissection, they will learn where colo-nial Americans got their ideas aboutpeople’s political rights and freedoms.Vocabulary Builder Have studentsexamine each term in the PoliticalDictionary for any word parts thatmight be helpful in remembering theterm’s meaning. Ask them to write a possible meaning and then checktheir results in a dictionary.

Point-of-Use Resources

Block Scheduling with LessonStrategies Activities for Chapter 2 arepresented on p. 20.

Our PoliticalBeginnings1

Lesson Plan

Teaching the Main IdeasH–SS 12.3.31. Focus Tell students that everynation’s government can trace its rootsto influential political ideas, traditions,and documents. Ask students to discuss what they know about theroots of American government.

2. Instruct Ask students to namethe historical English documents that embody the basic concepts ofAmerican government. Then lead adiscussion on those documents andhow well the ideas they containedwere applied in the three types ofAmerican colonies. How did religionhelp shape our political beginnings?3. Close/Reteach Remind students ofthe three basic ideas of governmentand the three types of colonies. Thenhave them list the types and describehow well each one exemplified thethree basic ideas of government.

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Customize forMore Advanced StudentsHave students conduct research to investigate thechanging role of the Speaker of the House. (Youmay wish to assign each student a specific speaker.)Ask students to summarize their research in briefreports and then lead a discussion on the changingrole.

Consider these suggestions to manage extendedclass time:■ Organize the class into three groups, assigningeach group one of the following documents: theMagna Carta, the Petition of Right, or theEnglish Bill of Rights. Have each group researchits assigned document to determine how ithelped shape the ideas of ordered government,limited government, and representative govern-

ment. Finally, have groups present their infor-mation to the class.■ Have students create maps of colonial Americaidentifying each colony as royal, proprietary, orcharter. Then ask students to create summaries ofthe types of colonies, identifying the similaritiesand differences between them. Have volunteersshare their summaries with the class. Afterwards,lead a discussion on the three types of colonies.

Block Scheduling Strategies

Our Political Beginnings

Objectives

1. Identify the three basic concepts ofgovernment that influenced governmentin the English colonies.

2. Explain the significance of the followinglandmark English documents: the MagnaCarta, the Petition of Right, the EnglishBill of Rights.

3. Describe the three types of colonies thatthe English established in North America.

Why It Matters

Our system of government has itsorigins in the concepts and politicalideas that English colonists broughtwith them when they settled NorthAmerica. The colonies served as aschool for learning about government.

PoliticalDictionary

★ limited government★ representative government★ Magna Carta★ Petition of Right★ English Bill of Rights★ charter★ bicameral★ proprietary★ unicameral

Basic Concepts of GovernmentThe earliest English settlers brought with themknowledge of a political system—establishedlaws, customs, practices, and institutions—thathad been developing for centuries.

The political system they knew was that ofEngland, of course. But some aspects of thatstructure had come to England from othertimes and places. For example, the concept ofthe rule of law that influenced English politicalideas had roots in the early river civilizationsof Africa and Asia.1 More directly, the ancientRomans who occupied much of England fromA.D. 43 to 410 left behind a legacy of law, reli-gion, and custom to the people. From this richpolitical history, the English colonists broughtto North America three ideas that were toloom large in the shaping of government in theUnited States.

TThe American system of government did notsuddenly spring into being with the signing

of the Declaration of Independence in 1776.Nor was it suddenly created by the Framers ofthe Constitution in 1787.

The beginnings of what was to become theUnited States can be found in the mid-sixteenthcentury when explorers, traders, and settlersfirst made their way to North America. TheFrench, Dutch, Spanish, Swedes, and otherscontributed to the European domination of thiscontinent—and to the domination of thoseNative Americans who were here for centuriesbefore the first Europeans arrived. It was theEnglish, however, who came in the largest

numbers. And it wasthe English whosoon controlled the13 colonies thatstretched for some1,300 miles alongthe Atlantic coast.

1For example, King Hammurabi of Babylonia developed a codifiedsystem of laws known as Hammurabi’s Code around 1750 B.C. Its 282laws covered real estate, trade, and business transactions, as well ascriminal law. The code distinguished between major and minoroffenses, established the state as the authority that would enforce thelaw, and tried to guarantee social justice. Because of the Babylonians’close contact with the Hebrews, many of their laws became part ofthe Hebrew law and thus later a part of the Old Testament of theBible—for example, “An eye for an eye.” The English and the Englishcolonists were familiar with and devoutly attracted to this Biblicalconcept of the rule of law.

� English settlers broughtto North America a politicalsystem as well as the skillsneeded to create householditems, such as this carvedHadley chest.

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Chapter 2 • Section 1

Reading StrategyGetting the Main IdeaDiscuss with students whether ancientideas can still be valid in the modernworld. Ask them how far back inhistory we might go and still findpolitical ideas that are basic to oursystem of government today. Havestudents look for answers to thisquestion as they read.


Guided Reading and Review Unit 1booklet, p. 8 provides students withpractice identifying the main ideasand key terms of this section.

Lesson Planner For completelesson planning suggestions, see theLesson Planner booklet, section 1.

Political Cartoons See p. 7 of the Political Cartoons booklet for acartoon relevant to this section.

Background NoteCommon MisconceptionsKing John’s signing of the Magna Cartaat the meadow Runnymede in 1215ranks as one of the most famous eventsin the history of government. But KingJohn never really did sign the document.The reason? He didn’t know how towrite his own name. Instead, themonarch signaled his acceptance of theMagna Carta by placing his seal on it.

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To make sure students understand the mainpoints of this section, you may wish to use theflowchart graphic organizer to the right.

Tell students that a flowchart shows a sequenceof events. Ask students to use the flowchart torecord the sequence of English and colonialpolitical ideas that shaped early American government.

Teaching Tip A template for this graphic organizercan be found in the Section SupportTransparencies, Transparency 4.

Organizing Information Answers to . . .Interpreting Charts Possible answer:Through petitioning, people wouldalways have the ability to questionthe monarch’s actions.Critical Thinking Answers will vary;students might suggest that withoutthe basic rights established by theMagna Carta, the idea of restrictedgovernment could not evolve.

Ordered GovernmentThose first English colonists saw the need for anorderly regulation of their relationships with oneanother—that is, for government. They createdlocal governments, based on those they hadknown in England. Many of the offices andunits of government they established are stillwith us today: the offices of sheriff, coroner,assessor, and justice of the peace, the grand jury,counties, townships, and several others.

Limited GovernmentThe colonists also brought with them the ideathat government is not all-powerful. That is,government is restricted in what it may do, andeach individual has certain rights that govern-ment cannot take away.

This concept is called limited government, andit was deeply rooted in English belief and prac-tice by the time the first English ships reachedthe Americas. It had been planted in Englandcenturies earlier, and it had been developingthere for nearly 400 years before Jamestownwas settled in 1607.

Representative GovernmentThe early English settlers also carried anotherimportant concept to America: representativegovernment. This idea that government should

serve the will of the people had also been devel-oping in England for centuries. With it had comea growing insistence that the people should havea voice in deciding what government should andshould not do. As with the concept of limitedgovernment, this notion of “government of, by,and for the people” found fertile soil in America,and it flourished here.

Landmark English DocumentsThese basic notions of ordered government, oflimited government, and of representative government can be traced to several landmarkdocuments in English history.

The Magna CartaA group of determined barons forcedKing John to sign the Magna Carta—the Great Charter—at Runnymedein 1215. Weary of John’s militarycampaigns and heavy taxes, the

1 2 4 5 6 7

1689English Bill of Rights

1 2 3

1215Magna Carta

5 8 9 10 11

1776Virginia Bill of Rights

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11

1791Bill of Rights

Foundations of American Rights

1200 1400 1600 1800

Trial by jury

Due process

Private property

1

2

3

No cruel punishment

No excessive bail or fines

Right to bear arms

Right to petition

4

5

6

7

Freedom of speech

Freedom of the press

Freedom of religion

8

9

10

11

RIGHTS

No unreasonablesearches and seizures

Interpreting Charts The rights established in these landmark documents were revolution-ary in their day. They did not, however, extend to all people when first granted. Over theyears, these rights have influenced systems of government in many countries. How mightthe right to petition, first granted in the English Bill of Rights, prevent abuse ofpower by a monarch? H-SS 12.1.1

� King John’s conflicts with English noblesled to the signing of the Magna Carta.Critical Thinking Could the basic notions of ordered, limited, and representative government have developed without the signing of the Magna Carta? Explain your answer.H-SS 12.1.1

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Have students create crossword puz-zles using the vocabulary terms ofthis section. Using definitions fromthe text, students will create a puzzlethat they can exchange with a class-mate. Students should complete apuzzle and return it to the originalcreator for grading.ELL


Close Up on Primary SourcesEnglish Petition of Right (1628), p. 55

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Have students read the Primary Sources passages from the English Bill ofRights on this page and then answer the question below.

What was Parliament’s primary concern in writing the English Bill of Rights?

A To limit the power of the monarchy.

B To keep the king from pretending things.

C To transfer all power from the monarchy to Parliament.

D To make petitioning illegal.

Preparing for Standardized Tests


Make It Relevant

Stanford Pugsley discoveredthat it pays to know the wayyour government works. The16-year-old student from SaltLake City, Utah, found a littleknown 1986 law and used it tobecome a member of his localboard of education.

Stan wanted to get involved.He thought that “once kids startgetting interested and not justworrying about their own lives,they’ll get the whole view andmake a difference in the world.”

To get his start on making adifference, Stan collected 500signatures of his peers, andrequested appointment to theboard as a nonvoting member.That’s what the law required—and that’s how Stanford Pugsleybecame the first student on theSalt Lake City Board ofEducation.

Students Make a Difference

a list of provisions to which William and Maryhad to agree.

This document, the English Bill of Rights, pro-hibited a standing army in peacetime, exceptwith the consent of Parliament, and required thatall parliamentary elections be free. In addition,the document declared

“ that the pretended power ofsuspending the laws, or the

execution of laws, by regal authority, withoutconsent of Parliament is illegal . . . .

that levying money for or to the use of theCrown . . . without grant of Parliament . . .is illegal . . .

that it is the right of the subjects topetition the king . . . and that prosecutionsfor such petitioning are illegal . . .”

—English Bill of Rights

The English Bill of Rights also included suchguarantees as the right to a fair trial, and freedomfrom excessive bail and from cruel and unusualpunishment.

Our nation has built on, changed, and addedto those ideas and institutions that settlersbrought here from England. Still, much inAmerican government and politics today isbased on these early English ideas.

The English ColoniesEngland’s colonies in North America have beendescribed as “13 schools of government.” Thecolonies were the settings in which Americansfirst began to learn the difficult art of government.2

The 13 colonies were established separately,over a span of some 125 years. During thatlong period, outlying trading posts and isolat-ed farm settlements developed into organized

barons who developed the Magna Carta wereseeking protection against heavy-handed and arbitrary acts by the king.

The Magna Carta included such fundamentalrights as trial by jury and due process of law—protection against the arbitrary taking of life, liberty, or property. These protectionsagainst the absolute power of the king wereoriginally intended only for the privilegedclasses. Over time, they became the rights of allEnglish people and were incorporated intoother documents. The Magna Carta estab-lished the principle that the power of themonarchy was not absolute.

The Petition of RightThe Magna Carta was respected by some mon-archs and ignored by others for 400 years. Duringthis time, England’s Parliament, a representativebody with the power to make laws, slowly grewin influence. In 1628, when Charles I askedParliament for more money in taxes, Parliamentrefused until he signed the Petition of Right.

The Petition of Right limited the king’s powerin several ways. Most importantly, the documentdemanded that the king no longer imprison orotherwise punish any person but by the lawfuljudgment of his peers, or by the law of the land.It also insisted that the king not impose martiallaw (rule by the military) in time of peace, orrequire homeowners to shelter the king’s troopswithout their consent. In addition, the Petitionstated that no man should be:

“ compelled to make or yieldany gift, loan, benevolence,

tax, or such like charge, without commonconsent by act of parliament.”

—X, Petition of Right

The Petition challenged the idea of the divineright of kings, declaring that even a monarchmust obey the law of the land.

The Bill of RightsIn 1688, after years of revolt and turmoil,Parliament offered the crown to William andMary of Orange. The events surrounding theirascent to the throne are known in English his-tory as the Glorious Revolution. To preventabuse of power by William and Mary and allfuture monarchs, Parliament, in 1689, drew up

2The Europeans who came to the Americas brought with themtheir own views of government, but this does not mean that theybrought the idea of government to the Americas. Native Americanshad governments. They had political institutions that worked toaccomplish the goals of the state; they had political leaders; and theyhad policies toward other states.

Some Native American political organizations were very complex.For example, five Native American tribes in present-day New YorkState—the Seneca, Cayuga, Oneida, Onondaga, and Mohawk—formed a confederation known as the Iroquois League. The Leaguewas set up to end conflicts among the tribes, but it was so success-ful as a form of government that it lasted for over 200 years.

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MAG05_CA_TE_CH02_01 1/7/06 8:09 AM 0


Have students review the first sectionby creating an outline representingthe important ideas in the section.You may want to provide them withthe beginning of the outline:Our Political Beginnings

I. Basic concepts of governmentA. Ordered governmentB. Limited governmentC. Representative government

LPR


Close Up on Primary SourcesMaryland Toleration Act (1649), p. 28; English Bill of Rights (1689),p. 56

Section Support TransparenciesTransparency 10, Visual Learning;Transparency 109, Political Cartoon

31

Background NoteA Diverse NationIn 1619, a year before the Mayflowerreached Plymouth, the first Africans inEnglish North America reachedJamestown. They were indentured ser-vants, not slaves, and they numberedabout twenty. At the time, African slav-ery was common in the Americancolonies settled by Portugal and Spain,but the practice did not become wide-spread in the English colonies until afterthe establishment of the Royal AfricanCompany in 1672. After that, the num-ber of Africans who were brought to thecolonies—now as slaves, not indenturedservants—rose sharply.

Answer to . . .Interpreting Maps By a governorappointed by the king; a bicamerallegislature made the laws, but thegovernor and Crown had toapprove them.

communities. The first colony,Virginia, was founded with the firstpermanent English settlement inNorth America at Jamestown in1607.3 Georgia was the last to beformed, with the settlement ofSavannah in 1733.

Each of the colonies was born outof a particular set of circumstances,and so each had its own character.Virginia was originally organized as acommercial venture. Its first colonistswere employees of the VirginiaCompany, a private trading corpora-tion. Massachusetts was first settled bypeople who came to North America insearch of greater personal and religiousfreedom. Georgia was founded largelyas a haven for debtors, a refuge for thevictims of England’s harsh poor laws.

But the differences between andamong the colonies are really of littleimportance. Of much greater signifi-cance is the fact that all of them wereshaped by their English origins. Themany similarities among all 13 coloniesfar outweighed the differences.

Each colony was established on thebasis of a charter, a written grant ofauthority from the king. Over time,these instruments of government led tothe development of three differentkinds of colonies: royal, proprietary, and charter.

Royal ColoniesThe royal colonies were subject to the directcontrol of the Crown. On the eve of theAmerican Revolution in 1775, there were eight:New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York,New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, SouthCarolina, and Georgia.

The Virginia colony did not enjoy the quicksuccess its sponsors had promised. So, in 1624,the king revoked the London Company’s char-ter, and Virginia became the first royal colony.Later, as the original charters of other colonies

were canceled or withdrawn for a variety of reasons, they became royal colonies.

A pattern of government gradually emergedfor each of the royal colonies. The king named agovernor to serve as the colony’s chief executive.A council, also named by the king, served as anadvisory body to the royal governor. In time, thegovernor’s council became the upper house ofthe colonial legislature. It also became the high-est court in the colony. The lower house of abicameral (two-house) legislature was elected bythose property owners qualified to vote.4 It

3St. Augustine, Florida, is the oldest continuously populatedEuropean settlement in what is now the United States. St. Augustinewas founded by Pedro Menéndez in 1565 to establish Spanishauthority in the region.

Royal colonies

Proprietary colonies

Charter colonies

NorthNEW JERSEY

MASSACHUSETTS

RHODEISLAND

CONNECTICUT

DELAWARE

MARYLAND

NEWHAMPSHIRE

PENNSYLVANIA

VIRGINIA

NORTHCAROLINA

SOUTHCAROLINA

GEORGIA

NEWYORK

PortsmouthBoston

Albany

New YorkPhiladelphia

New CastleBaltimore

Richmond

Wilmington

Charles Town

Savannahmiles

0 100 200 300

A t l a

n t ic

Oc

ea

n

The Thirteen Colonies, 1775

Interpreting Maps Despite the different circumstances surroundingthe settlement of each colony, they all shared a common Englishbackground. How were royal colonies governed?

4The Virginia legislature held its first meeting in the church atJamestown on July 30, 1619, and was the first representative bodyto meet in the North American English colonies. It was made up ofburgesses—that is, representatives—elected from each settlementin the colony. Virginia called the lower house of its colonial legislaturethe House of Burgesses; South Carolina, the House of Commons;Massachusetts, the House of Representatives.

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Guide to the Essentials Chapter 2,Section 1, p. 18 provides sup-

port for students who need additionalreview of section content. Spanishsupport is available in the Spanishedition of the Guide on p. 11.

Quiz Unit 1 booklet, p. 9includes matching and multiple-choice questions to check students’understanding of Section 1 content.

Presentation Pro CD-ROM Quizzesand multiple-choice questions

check students’ understanding ofSection 1 content.

Answers to . . .

Section 1 Assessment1. Refer to the explanations ofordered government, limited govern-ment, and representative governmenton p. 29.2. The Magna Carta introduced therights of trial by jury and due processof law—protection against the arbi-trary taking of life, liberty, or property.The Petition of Right limited theking’s powers and declared that mon-archs must obey laws. The EnglishBill of Rights prohibited standingarmies in peacetime, required thatparliamentary elections be free, andguaranteed fair trails and freedomfrom excessive punishment. 3. Royal colonies: under direct con-trol of Crown; Proprietary colonies:governed by the owner; Chartercolonies: enjoyed large degree ofself-government.4. A bicameral legislative body hastwo houses, while a unicameral leg-islative body has just one.5. Students should recognize thathad the other colonists been allowedreasonable control over their localaffairs, they would have had muchless cause for discontent and rebellion.6. Similar: all started with chartersand were based on English govern-ment. Different: all had varyingdegrees of self-government.


32

legislature. As in the royal colonies, appealsfrom the decisions of the proprietary coloniescould be carried to the king in London.

The Charter ColoniesConnecticut and Rhode Island were chartercolonies. They were based on charters granted in 1662 and 1663, respectively, to the coloniststhemselves.6 They were largely self-governing.

The governors of Connecticut and RhodeIsland were elected each year by the white, maleproperty owners in each colony. Although theking’s approval was required before the gover-nor could take office, it was not often asked.Laws made by their bicameral legislatures werenot subject to the governor’s veto nor was theCrown’s approval needed. Judges in chartercolonies were appointed by the legislature, butappeals could be taken from the colonial courtsto the king.

The Connecticut and the Rhode Island char-ters were so liberal for their time that, with inde-pendence, they were kept with only minorchanges as State constitutions—until 1818 and1843, respectively. In fact, many historians saythat had Britain allowed the other colonies thesame freedoms and self-government, theRevolution might never have occurred.

owed much of its influence to the fact that itshared with the governor and his council thepower of the purse—that is, the power to taxand spend. The governor, advised by the coun-cil, appointed the judges for the colony’s courts.

The laws passed by the legislature had to beapproved by the governor and the Crown. Royalgovernors often ruled with a stern hand, follow-ing instructions from London. Much of theresentment that finally flared into revolution wasfanned by their actions.

The Proprietary ColoniesBy 1775, there were three proprietary colonies:Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware.5 Thesecolonies were organized by a proprietor, a per-son to whom the king had made a grant of land.By charter, that land could be settled and gov-erned much as the proprietor (owner) chose. In1632 the king had granted Maryland to LordBaltimore and in 1681, Pennsylvania to WilliamPenn. In 1682 Penn also acquired Delaware.

The governments of these three colonies weremuch like those in the royal colonies. The gov-ernor, however, was appointed by the proprietor.In Maryland and Delaware, the legislatures werebicameral. In Pennsylvania, the legislature was aunicameral (one-house) body. There, the gover-nor’s council did not act as one house of the

6The Massachusetts Bay Colony was established as the first char-ter colony in 1629. Its charter was later revoked and Massachusettsbecame a royal colony in 1691. Religious dissidents fromMassachusetts founded Connecticut in 1633 and Rhode Island in 1636.

5New York, New Jersey, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgiaalso began as proprietary colonies. Each later became a royal colony.

Key Terms and Main Ideas1. Explain the concepts of ordered government, limited

government, and representative government.2. What were some of the fundamental rights and principles

established in the Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, andthe English Bill of Rights?

3. Identify and describe the three types of government in theEnglish colonies.

4. Explain the difference between a bicameral and a unicameral legislative body.

Critical Thinking5. Testing Conclusions “Had Britain given each colony the

degree of self-government found in Connecticut and Rhode

Island, the Revolution might never have occurred.” Do youagree or disagree? Explain.

6. Making Comparisons In what ways were the colonial governments similar? How did they differ?

PHSchool.com

For: An activity on colonialcharters

Web Code: mqd-1021

PHSchool.com

Standards Monitoring OnlineFor: Self-Quiz and vocabulary practiceWeb Code: mqa-1021

Typing in the Web Code whenprompted will bring students directly to detailedinstructions for this activity.

PHSchool.com

Standards Monitoring OnlineFor additional assessment, have students access Standards Monitoring Online at Web Code: mqa-1021


Objectives You may wish to callstudents’ attention to the objectivesin the Section Preview. The objec-tives are reflected in the main head-ings of the section.Bellringer Ask students what prob-lems a basketball team with five starplayers might have. Elicit that indi-vidual brilliance without teamworkdoes not win championships. Explainthat in this section, they will learnhow 13 individual colonies learnedto work together.Vocabulary Builder Have studentsstudy the terms in the PoliticalDictionary to find three terms thatare directly related to the idea ofcolonies working together. As stu-dents read the section, have themuse the text to tie all of the terms to the development of a unifiedAmerican government.

The Coming ofIndependence2

Lesson Plan

Teaching the Main IdeasH–SS 12.1.3

1. Focus Tell students that a spirit ofcooperation developed slowly amongthe American colonies as theyresponded to increasingly harshBritish actions. Ask students to discuss what they know about earlyattempts at cooperation.

2. Instruct Tell students that theunity reflected in the Declaration ofIndependence did not come easily.Lead a discussion of how unitydeveloped over time and whatpushed the colonies to join together.Conclude by asking whether Stateconstitutions added to that unity.3. Close/Reteach Remind studentsthat colonial unity developed overtime in response to specific events.Have students make a chart showingeach colonial attempt at promotingcooperation and the reason behind it.

34


Consider these suggestions to manage extendedclass time:■ Ask students to assume the roles of membersof the Second Continental Congress who arewriting their memoirs. Have each student writea description based on how Britain’s colonialpolicies contributed to self-government in thecolonies as well as what caused feelings of colo-nial unity to grow. Have students read theirmemoirs to a partner or share with the class.

■ To extend the Constitutional Principles activityon page 38, ask students to continue examiningthe Declaration of Independence to determine ifviolations of any other constitutional principleswere used as justification for independence.Have students identify any references to theseprinciples and explain how they were used tojustify independence.


“W“We must all hang together, or assuredlywe shall all hang separately.” Benjamin

Franklin is said to have spoken these words onJuly 4, 1776, as he and the other members of theSecond Continental Congress approved theDeclaration of Independence. Those who heardhim may have chuckled. But they also may havefelt a shiver, for Franklin’s humor carried a deadly

serious message.In this section, you

will follow the eventsthat led to the momen-tous decision to breakwith Great Britain.7 Youwill also consider thenew State governmentsthat were establishedwith the coming ofIndependence.

Britain’s Colonial PoliciesThe 13 colonies, which had been separatelyestablished, were separately controlled underthe king, largely through the Privy Counciland the Board of Trade in London. Parliamenttook little part in the management of the

The Coming of Independence

Objectives

1. Explain how Britain’s colonial policies contributedto the growth of self-government in the colonies.

2. Identify some of the steps that led to growingfeelings of colonial unity.

3. Compare the outcomes of the First and SecondContinental Congresses.

4. Analyze the ideas in the Declaration ofIndependence.

5. Describe the drafting of the first State constitutionsand summarize the constitutions’ common features.

Why It Matters

Changes in British colonial policiesled to resentment in the coloniesand eventually to the AmericanRevolution. Ideas expressed in theearly State constitutions influ-enced the development of thegovernmental system under whichwe live today.

PoliticalDictionary

★ confederation★ Albany Plan of Union★ delegate★ boycott★ repeal★ popular sovereignty

colonies. Although it did become more andmore interested in matters of trade, it left mat-ters of colonial administration almost entirelyto the Crown.8

Over the century and a half that followedthe first settlement at Jamestown, the coloniesdeveloped within that framework of royal control. In theory, they were governed in allimportant matters from London. But Londonwas more than 3,000 miles away, and it took nearly two months to sail that distance across a peril-filled Atlantic. So, in practice, thecolonists became used to a large measure ofself-government.

Each colonial legislature began to assumebroad lawmaking powers. Many found thepower of the purse to be very effective. Theyoften bent a royal governor to their will bynot voting the money for his salary until hecame to terms with them. As one member ofNew Jersey’s Assembly put it: “Let us keepthe dogges poore, and we’ll make them do aswe please.”

7England became Great Britain by the Act of Union with Scotlandin 1707.

8Much of English political history can be told in terms of the centuries-long struggle for supremacy between monarch andParliament. That conflict was largely settled by England’s GloriousRevolution of 1688, but it did continue through the American colo-nial period and into the nineteenth century. However, Parliamentpaid little attention to the American colonies until very late in thecolonial period.

� Colonists who made their tea in this pot voiced their opposition to the Stamp Act.

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Reading StrategyPredicting ContentBefore they read the section, havestudents read all the headings. Askthem to use those headings to writea prediction about the content of thesection in one or two sentences. Tellstudents to read the section to testtheir predictions.


Guided Reading and Review Unit 1booklet, p. 10 provides students withpractice identifying the main ideas andkey terms of this section.




35

To make sure students understand the mainpoints of this section, you may wish to use theflowchart graphic organizer to the right.

Tell students that a flowchart shows a sequenceof events. Ask students to use the flowchart torecord the sequence of events that led to theforming of the first State constitutions.


Organizing Information


Answer to . . .Evaluating the Quotation Franklinthought the ultimate result was theWar for Independence. Students’answers will vary on the reason-ableness of that conclusion; somemay suggest that since the differ-ences between the colonies andEngland were so great, war wasinevitable.

By the mid-1700s, the relationship betweenBritain and the colonies had become, in fact ifnot in form, federal. This meant that the centralgovernment in London was responsible for colo-nial defense and for foreign affairs. It also pro-vided a uniform system of money and credit anda common market for colonial trade. Beyondthat, the colonies were allowed a fairly wideamount of self-rule. Little was taken from themin direct taxes to pay for the central government.The few regulations set by Parliament, mostlyabout trade, were largely ignored.

This was soon to change. Shortly afterGeorge III came to the throne in 1760, Britainbegan to deal more firmly with the colonies.Restrictive trading acts were expanded andenforced. New taxes were imposed, mostly tosupport British troops in North America.

Many colonists took strong exception tothese moves. They objected to taxes imposed onthem from afar. This arrangement, they claimed,was “taxation without representation.” Theysaw little need for the costly presence of Britishtroops on North American soil, since the Frenchhad been defeated and their power broken in theFrench and Indian War (1754–1763).

The colonists considered themselves Britishsubjects loyal to the Crown. They refused, how-ever, to accept Parliament’s claim that it had aright to control their local affairs.

The king’s ministers were poorly informedand stubborn. They pushed ahead with theirpolicies, despite the resentments they stirred inAmerica. Within a few years, the colonists faceda fateful choice: to submit or to revolt.

Growing Colonial UnityA decision to revolt was not one to be takenlightly—or alone. The colonies would need tolearn to work together if they wanted to succeed.Indeed long before the 1770s, several attemptshad been made to promote cooperation amongthe colonies.

Early AttemptsIn 1643 the Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, NewHaven, and Connecticut settlements formed theNew England Confederation. A confederation isa joining of several groups for a common pur-pose. In the New England Confederation, the

Benjamin Franklin dedicated years to public service, includingtime as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress, acommissioner to France during the War for Indepen-dence, and a member of the ConstitutionalConvention. Franklin proposed the Albany Planof Union to provide for the defense of theAmerican colonies. In his autobiography, hespoke of its defeat and defended his plan:

“ The different and contrary Reasonsof dislike to my Plan, makes mesuspect that it was really the trueMedium; and I am still of Opinion itwould have been happy for both Sides theWater if it had been adopted. The Colonies sounited would have been sufficiently strong tohave defended themselves; there would thenhave been no need of Troops from England; ofcourse the subsequent Pretence for TaxingAmerica, and the bloody Contest it occasioned,would have been avoided.”

Evaluating the QuotationWhat did Franklin see as the ultimate result of the failure to adoptthe Albany Plan of Union? Do you think this was a reasonable conclusion?

Voices on GovernmentVoices on Government

settlements formed a “league of friendship” fordefense against the Native Americans. As the dan-ger from Native Americans passed and frictionamong the settlements grew, the confederationlost importance and finally dissolved in 1684.

In 1696 William Penn offered an elaborateplan for intercolonial cooperation, largely intrade, defense, and criminal matters. It receivedlittle attention and was soon forgotten.

The Albany PlanIn 1754 the British Board of Trade called a meet-ing of seven of the northern colonies at Albany:Connecticut, Maryland, Massachusetts, NewHampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, and RhodeIsland. The main purpose of the meeting was todiscuss the problems of colonial trade and thedanger of attacks by the French and their NativeAmerican allies. Here, Benjamin Franklinoffered what came to be known as the AlbanyPlan of Union.


Remind students of key historicalevents that led to the colonies’ deci-sion to break away from Britain.Based on this discussion and whatthey have learned in class, have stu-dents write their own Declaration ofRights and Grievances to the king.Encourage them to include in theletter of protest those acts and poli-cies the colonists strongly denounced.


Close Up on Primary SourcesPatrick Henry, Speech to the VirginiaProvincial Convention (1775), p. 29;Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776),p. 57


Background NotePolitical TalkWhile angry colonists did indeed boy-cott British goods in the 1760s and’70s, that is not what they would havecalled it—the word boycott had notbeen invented yet. The term comesfrom the name of Captain C. C. Boycott,an unfortunate English landlord. Boycottwas the first among a number ofabsentee landlords against whom theIrish Land League protested in the1870s. The word boycott, originallywritten with a capital “B,” gained widepopularity in the United Kingdom in the1880s, and was subsequently adoptedinto American usage.

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Answer to . . .Critical Thinking They wanted todemonstrate their resolve to pre-vent the sale of British goods in thecolonies.

Have students read the passages under Growing Colonial Unity on pp. 35–36and then answer the following question.

What is the best explanation for why early attempts at colonial cooperationfailed?

A No one put forth a formal plan.

B The British Board of Trade prevented colonists from proposing plans.

C Colonists were content with the government as it was.

D Colonists still considered themselves British subjects, and did not feelparticular loyalty to the other colonies.


Parliament repealed the Stamp Act, but fric-tions mounted. New laws were passed and newpolicies were made to tie the colonies moreclosely to London. Colonists showed theirresentment and anger in wholesale evasion ofthe laws. Mob violence erupted at severalports, and many colonists supported a boycottof English goods. A boycott is a refusal to buyor sell certain products or services. On March 5,1770, British troops in Boston fired on a jeeringcrowd, killing five, in what came to be known asthe Boston Massacre.

Organized resistance was carried on throughCommittees of Correspondence, which hadgrown out of a group formed by Samuel Adamsin Boston in 1772. These committees soonspread throughout the colonies, providing a net-work for cooperation and the exchange of infor-mation among the patriots.

Protests multiplied. The famous Boston TeaParty took place on December 16, 1773. Agroup of men, disguised as Native Americans,boarded three tea ships in Boston harbor anddumped the cargo into the sea to protest Britishcontrol of the tea trade.

The First Continental CongressIn the spring of 1774, Parliament passed yetanother set of laws, this time to punish thecolonists for the troubles in Boston and elsewhere. These new laws, denounced inAmerica as the Intolerable Acts, prompted

widespread calls for a meeting ofall the colonies.

Delegates from every colonyexcept Georgia met in Philadelphiaon September 5, 1774. Many of the ablest men of the day werethere: Samuel Adams and JohnAdams of Massachusetts; RogerSherman of Connecticut; StephenHopkins of Rhode Island; JohnDickinson and Joseph Galloway ofPennsylvania; John Jay and PhilipLivingston of New York; GeorgeWashington, Richard Henry Lee,and Patrick Henry of Virginia; andJohn Rutledge of South Carolina.

For nearly two months the mem-bers of that First Continental

In his plan, Franklin proposed the formationof an annual congress of delegates (representa-tives) from each of the 13 colonies. That bodywould have the power to raise military andnaval forces, make war and peace with theNative Americans, regulate trade with them,tax, and collect customs duties.

Franklin’s plan was ahead of its time. It wasagreed to by the representatives attending theAlbany meeting, but it was turned down by thecolonies and by the Crown. Franklin’s plan wasto be remembered later.

The Stamp Act CongressBritain’s harsh tax and trade policies of the 1760sfanned resentment in the colonies. Parliamenthad passed a number of new laws, among themthe Stamp Act of 1765. That law required theuse of tax stamps on all legal documents, on cer-tain business agreements, and on newspapers.

The new taxes were widely denounced, inpart because the rates were perceived as severe,but largely because they amounted to “taxationwithout representation.” In October of 1765,nine colonies—all except Georgia, NewHampshire, North Carolina, and Virginia—sentdelegates to the Stamp Act Congress in NewYork. They prepared a strong protest, called theDeclaration of Rights and Grievances, againstthe new British policies and sent it to the king.These actions marked the first time a significantnumber of the colonies had joined to oppose theBritish government.

� This colored engraving, printed in 1793, is the earliest known American depiction of the Boston Tea Party. Critical Thinking What did the colonists hope to accomplish by destroying the cargo of tea? H-SS 12.10

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Background NoteEconomicsThe Second Continental Congress hadnot only to invent a new system ofgovernment during a war, but it alsohad to cope with the worst period ofinflation in U.S. history. Between 1775and 1779, the value of the $191 millionin Continental bills the Congress printedto finance the war sank dramatically.In 1777, it took $3 in bills to purchasegoods worth $1 in gold or silver. By1779, the ratio had shot up to 42 to 1,skyrocketed to 100 to 1 in 1780, andthen to 146 to 1 in 1781. In 1781, theCongress offered to buy back the billsat a rate of 40 to 1—an inglorious endfor the first national currency.

Answer to . . .Critical Thinking Sample answer:Washington is at the center of theengraving, and the other people areclearly paying deference to him.


Congress discussed the worsening situation anddebated plans for action. They sent a Declarationof Rights, protesting Britain’s colonial policies,to King George III. The delegates urged each ofthe colonies to refuse all trade with Englanduntil the hated taxes and trade regulations wererepealed (withdrawn, cancelled). The delegatesalso called for the creation of local committeesto enforce that boycott.

The meeting adjourned on October 26, witha call for a second congress to be convened thefollowing May. Over the next several months,all the colonial legislatures, including Georgia’s,gave their support to the actions of the FirstContinental Congress.

The Second Continental CongressDuring the fall and winter of 1774–1775, theBritish government continued to refuse to com-promise, let alone reverse, its colonial policies. Itreacted to the Declaration of Rights as it had toother expressions of colonial discontent—witheven stricter and more repressive measures.

The Second Continental Congress met inPhiladelphia on May 10, 1775. By then, theRevolution had begun. The “shot heard ’roundthe world” had been fired. The battles ofLexington and Concord had been fought threeweeks earlier, on April 19.

RepresentativesEach of the 13 colonies sent representatives to theCongress. Most of those who had attended theFirst Continental Congress were again present.Most notable among the newcomers wereBenjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania and JohnHancock of Massachusetts.

Hancock was chosen president of the Con-gress.9 Almost at once, a continental army wascreated,andGeorge Washington was appointed itscommander in chief. Thomas Jefferson then tookWashington’s place in the Virginia delegation.

Our First National GovernmentThe Second Continental Congress became, byforce of circumstance, the nation’s first nationalgovernment. However, it rested on no constitu-tional base. It was condemned by the British asan unlawful assembly and a den of traitors. Butit was supported by the force of public opinionand practical necessity.

The Second Continental Congress served asthe first government of the United States for fivefateful years, from the formal adoption of the

9Peyton Randolph, who had also served as president of the FirstContinental Congress, was originally chosen for the office. Heresigned on May 24, however, because the Virginia House ofBurgesses, of which he was the speaker, had been called into ses-sion. Hancock was then elected to succeed him.

� Washington once complained that his soldiers were forced to “eat every kind of horse food but hay.”He won the respect of the men who served under his command when he demanded that Congress provide better treatment for the army. Critical Thinking How does this nineteenth-century engraving of Washington and his troops welcoming a train of supplies reinforce Washington’s image as a strong leader?


Time 90 minutes. Purpose Paraphrase the first paragraphof the Declaration of Independence.Grouping Three to four students.Activity Have group members discussthe meaning of the opening paragraphof the Declaration. Then have studentswork together to rewrite the para-graph to express their understandingof its meaning.Roles Discussion leader, recorder,and spokesperson.Close When the recorder has preparedthe final draft, ask the spokespersonto read the group’s paragraph to theclass. Then have the class discuss thegroup’s interpretation. LPRH–SS 12.1.3


Government Assessment RubricsAnalyzing a Primary Source, p. 14

Block Scheduling with LessonStrategies Additional activities forChapter 2 appear on p. 20.

The Enduring Constitution PopularSovereignty, p. 3

Close Up on Primary SourcesAdam Smith, The Wealth of Nations(1776), p. 30; Thomas Paine,Common Sense (1776), p. 31

Basic Principles of the ConstitutionTransparencies Transparencies 9–15,Popular Sovereignty

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Popular SovereigntyThe Declaration of Independence clearly pointsto Great Britain’s failure to honor the popularsovereignty of the colonies as a reason for theirdeclaring independence. Much of the declarationis spent listing specific grievances that highlightways that King George III failed to honor thecolonies’ popular sovereignty.

ActivityHave students view excerpts from the Declarationof Independence on this page or the entire docu-ment found on pages 40–43 to find specific exam-ples of how it uses popular sovereignty as a basisfor declaring independence. Have students sharetheir examples with the class, then lead a discus-sion on the significance of popular sovereignty tothe Declaration of Independence.

Constitutional Principles


“ We hold these truths to beself-evident, that all men are

created equal, that they are endowed by theirCreator with certain unalienable Rights, thatamong these are Life, Liberty and the pursuitof Happiness. That to secure these rights,Governments are instituted among Men,deriving their just powers from the consentof the governed; That whenever any Form ofGovernment becomes destructive of theseends it is the Right of the People to alter orto abolish it, and to institute newGovernment, laying its foundations on suchprinciples and organizing its powers in suchform, as to them shall seem most likely toeffect their Safety and Happiness.”

—The Unanimous Declaration of the

Thirteen United States of America

With these brave words, the United States ofAmerica was born. The 13 colonies became freeand independent States. The 56 men who signedthe Declaration sealed it with this final sentence:

“ And for the support of this Declaration,with a firm reliance on the protection ofDivine Providence, we mutually pledge toeach other, our lives, our Fortunes, and oursacred Honor.”

The First State ConstitutionsIn January 1776, New Hampshire adopted aconstitution to replace its royal charter. Lessthan three months later, South Carolina fol-lowed suit. Then, on May 10, nearly twomonths before the adoption of the Declarationof Independence, the Congress urged each of thecolonies to adopt: “such governments as shall,in the opinion of the representatives of the peo-ple, best conduce to the happiness and safety oftheir constituents.”

Drafting State ConstitutionsIn 1776 and 1777, most of the States adoptedwritten constitutions—bodies of fundamentallaws setting out the principles, structures, andprocesses of their governments. Assemblies orconventions were commonly used to draft andthen adopt these new documents.

Massachusetts set a lasting example in theconstitution-making process. There, a convention

Declaration of Independence in July 1776 untilthe Articles of Confederation went into effecton March 1, 1781. During that time theSecond Continental Congress fought a war,raised armies and a navy, borrowed funds,bought supplies, created a money system, madetreaties with foreign powers, and did thoseother things that any government would havehad to do in the circumstances.

The unicameral Congress exercised bothlegislative and executive powers. In legislativematters, each colony—later, State—had one vote.Executive functions were handled by commit-tees of delegates.

The Declaration of IndependenceSlightly more than a year after the Revolutionbegan, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia proposedto the Congress:

“ Resolved, That these UnitedColonies are, and of right

ought to be, free and independent States,that they are absolved from all allegiance tothe British Crown, and that all politicalconnection between them and the State ofGreat Britain is, and ought to be, totallydissolved.”

—Resolution of June 7, 1776

Congress named a committee of five—Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, RogerSherman, Robert Livingston, and ThomasJefferson—to prepare a proclamation of inde-pendence. Their momentous product, theDeclaration of Independence, was very largelythe work of Jefferson.

On July 2, the final break came. The dele-gates agreed to Lee’s resolution—but only afterspirited debate, for many of the delegates hadserious doubts about the wisdom of a completeseparation from England. Two days later, onJuly 4, 1776, they adopted the Declaration ofIndependence, proclaiming the existence of thenew nation.

The Declaration announces the independenceof the United States in its first paragraph. Muchof the balance of the document—nearly twothirds of it—speaks of “the repeated injuries andusurpations” that led the colonists to revolt. Atits heart, the Declaration proclaims:

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Answers to . . .

Section 2 Assessment1. Many colonists supported a boy-cott of English goods as an act ofprotest against Britain’s taxes.2. The Albany Plan of Union was aplan for the 13 colonies to form acongress which would have thepower to raise armies, make warand peace, establish trade, andimpose taxes. The colonies and theCrown rejected the plan.3. Popular sovereignty is the ideathat a government can only exist if ithas the consent of those it governs.4. The First Continental Congressresulted in all colonial legislaturesgiving their support to several plansof action, including formalized boy-cotts. The Congress also produced adocument of protest—the Declarationof Rights—which was sent to the king.5. The Second Continental Congressdirected the war effort, borrowedmoney to finance the war, coinedmoney, bought supplies, and madetreaties with other governments.

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Answer to . . .Interpreting Tables They were allbased on the ideals that had united the States in their fight forindependence.

6. Some students might suggest thatas the Framers’ wrote the docu-ment, it was an opinion; others maysay that as our government is basedon this statement, it is now com-monly held to be fact.7. Answers will vary, but shouldreflect an understanding that the newpolicies made colonists re-evaluatetheir relationship to Britain andeventually led to war.

submitted its work to the voters for ratifica-tion. The Massachusetts constitution of 1780 isthe oldest of the present-day State constitutions.In fact, it is the oldest written constitution inforce anywhere in the world today.10

Common FeaturesThe first State constitutions differed, sometimeswidely, in detail. Yet they shared many similarfeatures. The most common features were theprinciples of popular sovereignty (governmentcan exist only with the consent of the governed),limited government, civil rights and liberties,and separation of powers and checks and bal-ances. These principles are outlined in detail inthe table at right.

The new State constitutions were ratherbrief documents. For the most part, they weredeclarations of principle and statements of lim-itation on governmental power. Memories ofthe royal governors were fresh, and the newState governors were given little real power.Most of the authority that was granted to Stategovernment was placed in the legislature.Elective terms of office were made purposelyshort, seldom more than one or two years. Theright to vote was limited to those adult whitemales who could meet rigid qualifications,including property ownership.

Common Features of State Constitutions

PopularSovereignty

LimitedGovernment

Civil Rights and

Liberties

Separationof Powers

and Checks and

Balances

The principle of popular sovereignty was the basis for every new State constitution. That principle saysthat government can exist and function only with the consent of the governed. The people hold power and the people are sovereign.

The concept of limited government was a major feature of each State constitution. The powers delegated to government were granted reluctantly and hedged with many restrictions.

In every State it was made clear that the sovereign people held certain rights that the government must respect at all times. Seven of the new constitutions contained a bill of rights, setting out the “unalienable rights” held by the people.

The powers granted to the new State governments were purposely divided among three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. Each branch was given powers with which to check (restrain the actions of) the other branches of the government.

Interpreting Tables Most of the newly created States adopted writtenconstitutions in the two years following the Declaration of Independence.Why did the first State constitutions share several common features?H-SS 12.10

10From independence until that constitution became effective in1780, Massachusetts relied on its colonial charter, in force prior to1691, as its fundamental law.

We shall return to the subject of State consti-tutions later, in Chapter 24. For now, note thisvery important point: The earliest of these docu-ments were, within a very few years, to have amarked impact on the drafting of theConstitution of the United States.

Key Terms and Main Ideas1. Why did some colonists support a boycott of English goods?2. What was the Albany Plan of Union and how was it

received by the colonies and by the Crown?3. Explain the concept of popular sovereignty.4. What was the outcome of the First Continental Congress?5. In what ways did the Second Continental Congress serve as

the first national government?

Critical Thinking6. Distinguishing Fact from Opinion The Declaration of

Independence states that all men are endowed “with

certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life,Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” Is this statement a fact or opinion? Explain your answer.

7. Expressing Problems Clearly What problems arose fromchanges in British policy toward the colonies in the 1760s?

PHSchool.com

For: An activity on the Albany Plan

Web Code: mqd-1022

PHSchool.com



PHSchool.com



Objectives You may wish to callstudents’ attention to the objectivesin the Section Preview. The objectivesare reflected in the main headings ofthe section.Bellringer Ask students whetherthey would expect a revolutionarynew computer software program torun free of glitches. Lead them to seethat the first version of nearly any-thing is likely to have problems.Explain that in this section, they willlearn about problems within the first government of the United States.Vocabulary Builder Have studentscreate a sentence that uses all threeterms in the Political Dictionary. As students read the section, havethem determine how sensible theirsentences are, based on the actualdefinition of each term.

The Critical Period3

Lesson Plan

H–SS 12.7.1, 12.101. Focus Tell students that for anational government to work properly, itmust have certain powers. Ask studentsto discuss the kinds of powers thatmake a national government strong.

2. Instruct Ask students to list themain weaknesses of the Articles ofConfederation, focusing on the distri-bution of power between Congressand the States. Then lead a discussionon how the States undermined thelimited powers given to Congress.3. Close/Reteach Remind studentsthat the weakness of the Articles led toa critical period in which States beganto recognize the need for a strongercentral government. Have students, asthey read, list events that particularlypointed out this need.

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Consider these suggestions to manage extendedclass time:■ Ask students to suppose that they are livingduring the critical period of the 1780s. They haverealized that the weaknesses of the Articles ofConfederation are creating difficult times for thegovernment. Have each student write an editorialto a local newspaper identifying the problems ofthe Articles, explaining how these problems areaffecting the nation’s government, and offeringsuggestions for change.

■ Explain to students that Shays’ Rebellion wasan event that sharply divided American opinionson government. Have students research the rebel-lion to answer these questions: Which groupsupported the rebels? Did this group embrace orfear a strong national government? What werethe long-term effects of the rebellion? How didit shape the Framers’ debate on revising theArticles? Students may present their findings ingraphic organizers or time lines.


The Critical Period

Objectives

1. Describe the structure of the governmentset up under the Articles of Confederation.

2. Explain why the weaknesses of the Articlesled to a critical period for the government inthe 1780s.

3. Describe how a growing need for astronger national government led to plans for a Constitutional Convention.

Why It Matters

The Articles of Confederation established afairly weak central government, which led to conflicts among the States. The turmoil ofthe Critical Period of the 1780s led to thecreation of a stronger National Government.

PoliticalDictionary

★ Articles ofConfederation

★ ratification★ presiding officer

of confederation” to the States. Off and on, for17 months, Congress considered the problem ofuniting the former colonies. Finally, onNovember 15, 1777, the Articles of Confederationwere approved.

The Articles of Confederation established“a firm league of friendship” among the States.Each State kept “its sovereignty, freedom, andindependence, and every Power, Jurisdiction,and right . . . not . . . expressly delegated to theUnited States, in Congress assembled.” TheStates came together “for their commondefense, the security of their Liberties, and theirmutual and general welfare. . . .”

The Articles did not go into effect immediate-ly, however. The ratification, or formal approval,of each of the 13 States was needed first.Eleven States agreed to the document within ayear. Delaware added its approval in February1779. But Maryland did not ratify until March 1,1781, and the Second Continental Congressdeclared the Articles effective on that date.

Governmental StructureThe government set up by the Articles was simpleindeed. A Congress was the sole body created.It was unicameral, made up of delegates chosenyearly by the States in whatever way their legis-latures might direct. Each State had one vote inthe Congress, whatever its population or wealth.

The Articles established no executive or judi-cial branch. These functions were to be handledby committees of the Congress. Each year the

TThe First and Second Continental Congressesrested on no legal base. They were called in

haste to meet an emergency, and they wereintended to be temporary. Something more reg-ular and permanent was clearly needed. In thissection, you will look at the first attempt toestablish a lasting government for the new nation.

The Articles of ConfederationRichard Henry Lee’s resolution leading to theDeclaration of Independence also called on theSecond Continental Congress to propose “a plan

� Articles ofConfederation

Teaching the Main Ideas L3


Reading StrategyQuestioningAsk students to read the section’smain headings and subheadings andwrite a question about each. Havethem look for answers to their ques-tions as they read.

Have students create a time line ofthe events discussed in Section 3 thatled to the Constitutional Conventionin 1787. If you wish, you may dis-tribute cards on which each event iswritten, and have students put themin order. SN H–SS 12.7.1


Guided Reading and Review Unit 1booklet, p. 12 provides students withpractice identifying the key terms andmain ideas of this section.




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To make sure students understand the main pointsof this section, you may wish to use the tree mapgraphic organizer to the right.

Tell students that a tree map shows a topic, itsmain ideas and its supporting details. Ask stu-dents to use the tree map to outline the strengths,weaknesses, and consequences of the Articles ofConfederation.




Answer to . . .Interpreting Tables The Articles donot provide for any elements of astrong central government, includ-ing an executive, a national courtsystem, or the power to tax or reg-ulate commerce.

Congress would choose one of its members as itspresident. That person would be its presidingofficer (chair), but not the president of theUnited States. Civil officers such as postmasterswere to be appointed by the Congress.

Powers of CongressSeveral important powers were given to theCongress. It could make war and peace; sendand receive ambassadors; make treaties; borrowmoney; set up a money system; establish postoffices; build a navy; raise an army by askingthe States for troops; fix uniform standards ofweights and measures; and settle disputesamong the States.

State ObligationsBy agreeing to the Articles, the States pledged toobey the Articles and acts of the Congress. Theywould provide the funds and troops requestedby the Congress; treat citizens of other Statesfairly and equally with their own; and give fullfaith and credit to the public acts, records, andjudicial proceedings of every other State. Inaddition, the States agreed to surrender fugitivesfrom justice to one another; submit their dis-putes to Congress for settlement; and allow opentravel and trade between and among the States.

Beyond these few obligations, the Statesretained those powers not explicitly given to theCongress. They, not the Congress, were primarilyresponsible for protecting life and property. Stateswere also accountable for promoting the generalwelfare of the people.

WeaknessesThe powers of the Congress appear, at first glance,to have been considerable. Several importantpowers were missing, however. Their omission,together with other weaknesses, soon proved theArticles inadequate to the needs of the time.

The Congress did not have the power to tax.It could raise money only by borrowing and byasking the States for funds. Borrowing was, atbest, a poor source. The Second ContinentalCongress had borrowed heavily to support thecosts of fighting the Revolution, and many ofthose debts had not been paid. And, while theArticles remained in force, not one State cameclose to meeting the financial requests made bythe Congress.

Nor did the Congress have the power to reg-ulate trade between the States. This lack of acentral mechanism to regulate the youngnation’s commerce was one of the major factorsthat led to the adoption of the Constitution.

The Congress was further limited by a lackof power to make the States obey the Articlesof Confederation or the laws it made. Congresscould exercise the powers it did have only withthe consent of 9 of the 13 State delegations.Finally, the Articles themselves could bechanged only with the consent of all 13 of theState legislatures. This procedure proved animpossible task; not one amendment was everadded to the Articles of Confederation.

The Critical Period, the 1780sThe long Revolutionary War finally ended onOctober 19, 1781. America’s victory was con-firmed by the signing of the Treaty of Paris in1783. Peace, however, brought the new nation’seconomic and political problems into sharpfocus. Problems, caused by the weaknesses ofthe Articles of Confederation, soon surfaced.

With a central government unable to act, theStates bickered among themselves and grew in-creasingly jealous and suspicious of one another.They often refused to support the new centralgovernment, financially and in almost every otherway. Several of them made agreements withforeign governments without the approval of the

◆ One vote for each State, regardless of size.

◆ Congress powerless to lay and collect taxes or duties.

◆ Congress powerless to regulate foreign and interstate commerce.

◆ No executive to enforce acts of Congress.

◆ No national court system.

◆ Amendment only with consent of all States.

◆ A 9/13 majority required to pass laws.

◆ Articles only a “firm league of friendship.”

Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

Interpreting Tables The thirst for independence made the newStates wary of strong central government. How is this cautionreflected in the weaknesses built into the Articles ofConfederation?

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Have students create a graphic orga-nizer of the information they havereceived about American governmentin the late 1770s and 1780s. Askthem to use the following as subjectheadings or categories: Articles ofConfederation, Critical Period, andCalls for a Stronger Government.Encourage students to list provisionsin the Articles of Confederation,problems that arose during theCritical Period, and related reasonswhy States took the first stepstoward change. H–SS 12.10

46

Chapter 2 • Section 3unsuccessful attack on the federal arsenal atSpringfield. State forces finally moved to quietthe rebellion and Shays fled to Vermont. Inresponse to the violence, the Massachusetts leg-islature eventually passed laws to ease the bur-den of debtors.

A Need for Stronger GovernmentThe Articles had created a government unable todeal with the nation’s troubles. Inevitably,demand grew for a stronger, more effectivenational government. Those who were mostthreatened by economic and political instability—large property owners, merchants, traders,and other creditors—soon took the lead inefforts to that end. The movement for changebegan to take concrete form in 1785.

Mount VernonMaryland and Virginia, plagued by bitter tradedisputes, took the first step in the movementfor change. Ignoring the Congress, the twoStates agreed to a conference on their tradeproblems. Representatives from the two Statesmet at Alexandria, Virginia, in March 1785. AtGeorge Washington’s invitation, they movedtheir sessions to his home at nearby MountVernon.

Their negotiations proved so successful thaton January 21, 1786, the Virginia GeneralAssembly called for “a joint meeting of [all of]the States to recommend a federal plan for regu-lating commerce.”

AnnapolisThat joint meeting opened at Annapolis,Maryland, on September 11, 1786. Turnout waspoor, with representatives from only five of the13 States attending.11 Disappointed, but stillhopeful, the convention called for yet anothermeeting of the States

“ at Philadelphia on the secondMonday in May next, to take

into consideration the situation of the UnitedStates, to devise such further provisions as

11New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Virginia.Although New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and NorthCarolina had appointed delegates, none attended the Annapolismeeting.

� Shays’ Rebellion Following the series of incidents known as Shays’Rebellion, the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts condemnedDaniel Shays and about a dozen others to death. Shays petitioned forand received a pardon in 1788. H-SS 12.10

Congress, even though that was forbidden bythe Articles. Most even organized their ownmilitary forces. George Washington com-plained, “We are one nation today and 13 tomor-row. Who will treat with us on such terms?”

The States taxed one another’s goods and evenbanned some trade. They printed their ownmoney, often with little backing. Economic chaosspread throughout the colonies as prices soaredand sound credit vanished. Debts, public and pri-vate, went unpaid. Violence broke out in a num-ber of places as a result of the economic chaos.

The most spectacular of these events playedout in western Massachusetts in a series of inci-dents that came to be known as Shays’ Rebellion.As economic conditions worsened, propertyholders, many of them small farmers, began tolose their land and possessions for lack of pay-ment on taxes and other debts. In the fall of1786, Daniel Shays, who had served as an officerin the War for Independence, led an armed upris-ing that forced several State judges to close theircourts. Early the next year, Shays mounted an

Use this complete suite of powerfulteaching tools to make planninglessons and administering testsquicker and easier.

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Answers to . . .

Section 3 Assessment1. The Articles of Confederationwere plans for government devel-oped by the delegates to the SecondContinental Congress. They gaveCongress the power to: make warand peace; send and receive ambas-sadors; make treaties; borrow money;set up a money system; establishpost offices; build a navy and raisearmies; fix standards of weights andmeasures; and settle disputes amongthe States.2. All thirteen States were needed forratification.3. Congress could not tax or regulatetrade; had no power to make theStates cooperate; near-unanimousconsent was required to pass laws;unanimous consent was required toamend Articles.4. As a result of the Mount Vernonand Annapolis meetings, a movementfor change began which led to theConstitutional Convention.5. Possible answer: Having just foughta war against a central governmentthat Americans saw as tyrannical,the States were reluctant to give toomuch power to their own centralgovernment.6. After the Revolution the newnation had to focus on its problems,but the existing government was notup to the task. The new nationseemed to be on the verge of break-ing apart.

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� Mount Vernon George Washington’s graceful home overlooking the Potomac River served as thelocation for trade talks between Maryland and Virginia. The success of that meeting caused some tomove for further steps toward a stronger federal government.

Key Terms and Main Ideas1. What were the Articles of Confederation and what powers

did they grant to Congress?2. Before the Articles of Confederation could go into effect,

how many States were needed for ratification?3. Identify at least three weaknesses of the government under

the Articles of Confederation.4. What was the result of the meetings at Mount Vernon and

Annapolis in 1785 and 1786?

Critical Thinking5. Identifying Central Issues The Articles of Confederation

contained several weaknesses. Why would the Statespurposefully create a weak government under the Articles?

6. Drawing Conclusions For what reasons is the period during which the Articles were in force called the CriticalPeriod in American history?

“ for the sole and expresspurpose of revising the Articles

of Confederation and reporting to Congressand the several legislatures such alterationsand provisions therein as shall when agreed toin Congress and confirmed by the States renderthe [Articles] adequate to the exigencies of Gov-ernment and the preservation of the Union.”

—The United States in Congress

Assembled, February 21, 1787

That Philadelphia meeting became theConstitutional Convention.

shall appear to them necessary to render theconstitution of the Federal Governmentadequate to the exigencies of the Union.”

—Call of the Annapolis Convention

By mid-February of 1787, seven of theStates had named delegates to the Philadelphiameeting. These were Delaware, Georgia, NewHampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina,Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Then on February21, the Congress, which had been hesitating,also called upon the States to send delegates toPhiladelphia

PHSchool.com

For: An activity on the originsof the U.S. government

Web Code: mqd-1023

PHSchool.com



PHSchool.com



Objectives You may wish to callstudents’ attention to the objectivesin the Section Preview. The objectivesare reflected in the main headings ofthe section.Bellringer Ask students to think of aconflict that they have read aboutrecently involving local or NationalGovernment. Have them brainstormpossible compromise solutions to theconflict. Explain that in this section,they will learn how compromisessaved the Constitution.Vocabulary Builder Have studentsread the terms in the PoliticalDictionary. Tell them that in 1787the Constitution was like a houseunder construction. Ask students todescribe the roles that a Framer, aPlan, and a Compromise might havetoday in the building of a house.Encourage them to recall thoseimages as they read the text.

Creating theConstitution4

Lesson Plan

H–SS 12.1.1, 12.4.11. Focus Tell students that theremarkable character of the delegateshad much to do with their success inframing a Constitution. Ask them todiscuss what they know about theFramers and their accomplishments at the Constitutional Convention.

2. Instruct Ask students why theConnecticut Compromise is oftencalled the Great Compromise. Lead a discussion of the two competingplans and how the Framers combinedtheir basic features.3. Close/Reteach Remind students ofthe hard work that went into framingthe Constitution. Have them create aflowchart of the process, beginningwith the Framers’ sources and endingwith the completed Constitution.

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Consider these suggestions to manage extendedclass time:■ To extend the Universal Access Activity from p. 49, have students use the materials they createdto simulate the debate over the Virginia and NewJersey Plans. Have students conclude the debate byidentifying and discussing the actual compromisesthat delegates made at the Convention.

■ Ask students to compare the chart of theFramers on p. 49 with the charts of the membersof Congress in Chapter 10 (p. 280). Ask studentsto identify similarities as well as differencesbetween the two groups. Have students explainhow congressional leadership has changed, andwhether they feel these changes have been bene-ficial or detrimental to the United States.


Creating the Constitution

Objectives

1. Identify the Framers of the Constitution anddiscuss how the delegates organized the pro-ceedings at the Philadelphia Convention.

2. Compare and contrast the Virginia Plan and theNew Jersey Plan for a new constitution.

3. Summarize the major compromises that thedelegates agreed to make and the effects ofthose compromises.

4. Identify some of the sources from which theFramers of the Constitution drew inspiration.

5. Describe the delegates’ reactions to theConstitution as they completed their work.

Why It Matters

The Framers of the Constitution createda document that addressed the majorconcerns of the States attending thePhiladelphia Convention. By reachingcompromise on items about which theydisagreed, the Framers created a newNational Government capable of han-dling the nation’s problems.

PoliticalDictionary

★ Framers★ Virginia Plan★ New Jersey Plan★ Connecticut

Compromise★ Three-Fifths

Compromise★ Commerce and Slave

Trade Compromise

The FramersTwelve of the 13 States, all but Rhode Island, sentdelegates to Philadelphia.13 In total, 74 delegateswere chosen by the legislatures in those 12states. For a number of reasons, however, only55 of them actually attended the convention.

Of that 55, this much can be said: Never,before or since, has so remarkable a group beenbrought together in this country. ThomasJefferson, who was not among them, later calledthe delegates “an assembly of demi-gods.”

The group of delegates who attended thePhiladelphia Convention, known as the Framersof the Constitution, included many outstandingindividuals. These were men of wide knowledgeand public experience, of wealth and prestige.Their collective record of public service wastruly impressive. Many of them had fought inthe Revolution; 39 had been members of theContinental Congress or the Congress of the

12Not enough States were represented on the date Congress hadset, Monday, May 14, to begin the meeting. The delegates who werepresent met and adjourned each day until Friday the 25th, when aquorum (in this case, a majority) of the States was on hand.

13The Rhode Island legislature was controlled by the soft-moneyforces, mostly debtors and small farmers who were helped by infla-tion and so were against a stronger central government. The NewHampshire delegation, delayed mostly by lack of funds, did not reachPhiladelphia until late July.

PP icture this scene. It’s hot—sweltering, in fact.Yet the windows are all closed to discourage

eavesdroppers. Outside, soldiers keep interestedonlookers at a distance. Inside, the atmosphereis tense as men exchange their views. Indeed,some become so angry that they threaten toleave the hall. A few carry out their threats.

This was the scene throughout much of thePhiladelphia meeting that began on Friday,May 25, 1787.12 Over the long summer months,the participants labored to build a new govern-ment that would best meet the needs of thenation. In this section, you will consider thatmeeting and its work.

� Delegates to the Constitutional Convention gathered in Independence Hall.



Reading StrategyOrganizing Information/Graphic OrganizerHave students create a web diagramwith Constitution in the center circle.Before they read, students shoulduse the main headings in the text tobegin their diagrams. As they read,they should complete the web.

Tell students to suppose that theyare delegates at the ConstitutionalConvention. Assign half of the classto hold the viewpoint of the smallerStates, backing the New Jersey Plan.The other half should support theVirginia Plan of the larger States.Ask each group to create a newspa-per editorial, billboard advertise-ment, or other item that will per-suade others to support their side.Encourage students to illustrate howtheir plan will benefit the people.GT H–SS 12.4.1




Political Cartoons See p. 10 ofthe Political Cartoons booklet for acartoon relevant to this section.


Answer to . . .Interpreting Tables Most had legaland/or political experience. Somestudents might see such a similarbackground as helpful in creatingan authoritative document; othersmight suggest that it could promoteself-interest.

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was failing, however, and he was not able toattend many of the meetings. GeorgeWashington, at 55, was one of the few oldermembers who played a key role in the makingof the Constitution.

By and large, the Framers of theConstitution were of a new generation inAmerican politics. Several of the better-knownleaders of the Revolutionary period were not inPhiladelphia. Patrick Henry said he “smelt arat” and refused to attend. Samuel Adams,John Hancock, and Richard Henry Lee werenot selected as delegates by their States.Thomas Paine was in Paris. So, too, wasThomas Jefferson, as American minister toFrance. John Adams was our envoy to Englandand Holland at the time.

Organization and ProcedureThe Framers met that summer in Philadelphia’sIndependence Hall, probably in the same roomin which the Declaration of Independence hadbeen signed 11 years earlier.

Selected Framers of the Constitution

Name State BackgroundGeorge WashingtonJames MadisonEdmund RandolphGeorge MasonBenjamin FranklinGouverneur MorrisRobert MorrisJames WilsonAlexander HamiltonWilliam PatersonElbridge GerryRufus KingLuther MartinOliver EllsworthRoger ShermanJohn DickinsonJohn RutledgeCharles Pinckney

VirginiaVirginiaVirginiaVirginiaPennsylvaniaPennsylvaniaPennsylvaniaPennsylvaniaNew YorkNew JerseyMassachusettsMassachusettsMarylandConnecticutConnecticutDelawareSouth CarolinaSouth Carolina

Planter, commander of the Continental ArmyLegislator, major figure in movement to replace ArticlesLawyer, governor of VirginiaPlanter, author of Virginia’s Declaration of RightsWriter, printer, inventor, legislator, diplomatLawyer, merchant, legislatorMerchant, major financier of the RevolutionLawyer, legislator, close student of politics, historyLawyer, legislator, champion of stronger central governmentLawyer, legislator, attorney general of New JerseyMerchant, legislator, major investor in land, government securitiesLegislator, opponent of extensive changes to ArticlesLawyer, legislator, attorney general of MarylandLawyer, legislator, judge, theologianMerchant, mayor of New Haven, legislator, judgeLawyer, historian, major advocate of independenceLawyer, legislator, principal author of South Carolina’s constitutionLawyer, legislator, leader in move to replace Articles

Interpreting Tables In reference to creating the Constitution, James Madison noted that considering“the natural diversity of human opinions on all new and complicated subjects, it is impossible to con-sider the degree of concord which ultimately prevailed as less than a miracle.” What similarities anddifferences can you see in the Framers’ backgrounds? Do you think their personal experienceshelped or hurt their ability to draft the Constitution? H-SS 12.1.4

Confederation, or both. Eight had served inconstitutional conventions in their own States,and seven had been State governors. Eight hadsigned the Declaration of Independence.Thirty-one of the delegates had attended col-lege in a day when there were but a few colleges in the land, and their number alsoincluded two college presidents and three pro-fessors. Two were to become Presidents of theUnited States, and one a Vice President.Seventeen later served in the Senate and elevenin the House of Representatives.

Is it any wonder that the product of such agathering was described by the English statesmanWilliam E. Gladstone, nearly a century later, as“the most wonderful work ever struck off at agiven time by the brain and purpose of man”?

Remarkably, the average age of the dele-gates was only 42, and nearly half were only in their 30s. Indeed, most of the real leaderswere in that age group—James Madison was36, Gouverneur Morris 35, Edmund Randolph34, and Alexander Hamilton 32. At 81,Benjamin Franklin was the oldest. His health

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1. Have students write each of thefollowing on one side of an indexcard: Magna Carta, Petition ofRight, Bill of Rights, Albany Plan of Union, Stamp Act Congress, First Continental Congress, SecondContinental Congress, Declarationof Independence, Articles ofConfederation, the Virginia Plan,and the New Jersey Plan. 2. Then have students write datesand important facts about each itemon the reverse side of each card.Encourage students to organize thecards chronologically, thus creating atime line of key events in the creationof American government. Suggestthat students use the cards to reviewthe key points of the chapter.


The Enduring ConstitutionSeparation of Powers, p. 5

Basic Principles of the ConstitutionTransparencies Transparencies 23-29,Separation of Powers

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Separation of Powers Although the Virginia and New Jersey Planswere very different from each other, both plansproposed a government that separated powersamong various government branches. Each planincluded legislative, judicial, and executive ele-ments for the National Government, yet had dif-ferent ideas about how each of these elementswould function.

ActivityHave students review material about the Virginiaand New Jersey Plans found in this section. Thenask each student to create a Venn diagram high-lighting similarities of and differences betweeneach plan’s proposed role for its legislative, judicial,and executive elements. Have students includedifferences in the outer circles and similarities inthe overlapping circle.

Constitutional Principles


Answer to . . .Critical Thinking Possible answer:that it was an orderly, solemnoccasion.

Background NoteCommon MisconceptionsThe delegates to the ConstitutionalConvention weren’t “delegates” at all—at least, that’s not what they calledthemselves. At the convention, theyused the term deputies instead. (Infact, George Washington wrote thephrase “deputy from Virginia” after hissignature on the Constitution.) Moreover,the states gave the men they sent tothe convention different titles, including“representatives” and “commissioners.”It was historians who first applied theterm delegates, and the name stuck.

They organized immediately on May 25,unanimously electing George Washington pres-ident of the convention.14 Then, and at the secondsession on Monday, May 28, they adopted several rules of procedure. A majority of theStates would be needed to conduct business.Each State delegation was to have one vote onall matters, and a majority of the votes castwould carry any proposal.

Working in SecrecyThe delegates also decided to keep their delibera-tions secret. The convention had drawn muchpublic attention and speculation. So, to protectthemselves from outside pressures, the delegatesadopted a rule of secrecy. On the whole, the rulewas well kept.

A secretary, William Jackson, and otherminor, nonmember officials were appointed.Jackson kept the convention’s Journal. Thatofficial record, however, was quite sketchy. Itwas mostly a listing of members present,motions put forth, and votes taken; and it wasnot always accurate at that.

Fortunately, several delegates kept their ownaccounts of the proceedings. Most of what isknown of the work of the convention comesfrom James Madison’s voluminous Notes.His brilliance and depth of knowledge led his

� This nineteenth-centuryengraving shows GeorgeWashington presiding overthe Constitutional Conven-tion in 1787. CriticalThinking What impres-sions did the artist try to convey about this historic gathering?H-SS 12.1.4

colleagues to hold him in great respect. Quickly,he became the convention’s floor leader.Madison contributed more to the Constitutionthan did any of the others, and still he was ableto keep a close record of its work. Certainly, hedeserves the title “Father of the Constitution.”

The Framers met on 89 of the 116 days fromMay 25 through their final meeting onSeptember 17. They did most of their work onthe floor of the convention. They handled somematters in committees, but the full body ulti-mately settled all questions.

A Momentous DecisionThe Philadelphia Convention was called to recom-mend revisions in the Articles of Confederation.However, almost at once the delegates agreedthat they were, in fact, meeting to create a newgovernment for the United States. On May 30they adopted this proposal:

“ Resolved, . . . that a nationalGovernment ought to be

established consisting of a supremeLegislative, Executive and Judiciary.”

–Edmund Randolph, Delegate from Virginia

With this momentous decision, the Framersredefined the purpose of the convention. Fromthat point on, they set about the writing of a newconstitution. This new constitution was intendedto replace the Articles of Confederation. Theirdebates were spirited, even bitter. At times theconvention seemed near collapse. Once they hadpassed Randolph’s resolution, however, the goalof a majority of the convention never changed.

14Twenty-nine delegates from seven States were present on thatfirst day. The full number of 55 was not reached until August 6, whenJohn Francis Mercer of Maryland arrived. In the meantime, some dele-gates had departed, and others were absent from time to time. Some40 members attended most of the daily sessions of the convention.

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Enrichment Tell students to supposethat they have boarded a time capsuleand traveled back to the year 1787.Assign students the role of a journalistcovering the story of the PhiladelphiaConvention. Encourage them tofocus on the grueling task of the dele-gates to develop a new, workableConstitution. Encourage students toreport about this historic meeting ina way that they feel will best capturethe event. H–SS 12.1.4

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Background NoteRecent ScholarshipA subject of serious debate in politicstoday is whether current interpretationsof the Constitution should be based onthe Framers’ original intent. Originalistsargue that the best way to interpret theConstitution is to determine how theFramers intended it to be interpreted.In Original Arguments: ConstitutionalInterpretation, Textual Meaning, OriginalIntent and Judicial Review, Keith E.Whittington buttresses the originalists’argument by making the case thatoriginalism, or original intent, should bethe preferred method of constitutionalinterpretation, as it is the method bestsuited for a democratic government.On the opposite side of the spectrum, inOriginal Meanings: Politics and Ideas inthe Making of the Constitution, JackRakove argues that there was no single“original intent” among the Framers.Rakove analyzes the sharply differentperspectives of the Framers and pointsto how those differences led to dynamicdebate and compromise.

Have students read the passages under The Virginia Plan and then answerthe question below.

From the passages, you can infer that smaller States might have found theVirginia Plan too radical because

A it thoroughly rejected the Articles.

B by basing representation in the houses on population or monetary sup-port, it favored the larger States.

C it did not call for an executive branch.

D it did not provide for a national judiciary.


The Virginia PlanNo State had more to do with the calling of theconvention than Virginia did. It was not surpris-ing, then, that its delegates should offer the firstplan for a new constitution. On May 29 theVirginia Plan, largely the work of Madison, waspresented by Randolph.

The Virginia Plan called for a new govern-ment with three separate branches: legislative,executive, and judicial. The legislature—Congress—would be bicameral. Representationin each house was to be based either upon eachState’s population or upon the amount of moneyit gave for the support of the central government.The members of the lower house, the House ofRepresentatives, were to be popularly elected ineach State. Those of the upper house, the Senate,were to be chosen by the House from lists of per-sons nominated by the State legislatures.

Congress was to be given all of the powers itheld under the Articles. In addition, it was tohave the power “to legislate in all cases to whichthe separate States are incompetent” to act, toveto any State law in conflict with national law,and to use force if necessary to make a State obeynational law.

Under the proposed Virginia Plan, Congresswould choose a “National Executive” and a“National Judiciary.” Together, these twobranches would form a “Council of revision.”They could veto acts passed by Congress, but aveto could be overridden by the two houses. Theexecutive would have “a general authority toexecute the National laws.” The judiciary would“consist of one or more supreme tribunals[courts], and of inferior tribunals.”

The Virginia Plan also provided that all Stateofficers should take an oath to support theUnion, and that each State be guaranteed arepublican form of government. Under the plan,Congress would have the exclusive power toadmit new States to the Union.

The Virginia Plan, then, would create a newconstitution by thoroughly revising the Articles.Its goal was the creation of a truly national gov-ernment with greatly expanded powers and,importantly, the power to enforce its decisions.

The Virginia Plan set the agenda for muchof the convention’s work. But some delegates—especially those from the smaller States of

15The Virginia Plan’s major support came from the three largestStates: Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts. New York wasthen only the fifth largest State. Alexander Hamilton, the convention’smost outspoken champion of a stronger central government, was reg-ularly outvoted by his fellow delegates from New York.

Delaware, Maryland, and New Jersey, andfrom New York—found it too radical.15 Soonthey developed their counterproposals. OnJune 15 William Paterson of New Jersey pre-sented the position of the small States.

The New Jersey PlanPaterson and his colleagues offered several amendments to the Articles, but not nearly sothorough a revision as that proposed by theVirginia Plan. The New Jersey Plan retained theunicameral Congress of the Confederation,with each of the States equally represented. Tothose powers Congress already had, would beadded closely limited powers to tax and to reg-ulate trade between the States.

The New Jersey Plan also called for a “feder-al executive” of more than one person. This plur-al executive would be chosen by Congress andcould be removed by it at the request of a major-ity of the States’ governors. The “federal judicia-ry” would be composed of a single “supremeTribunal,” appointed by the executive.

Among their several differences, the majorpoint of disagreement between the two planscentered on this question: How should the Statesbe represented in Congress? Would it be on thebasis of their populations or financial contribu-tions, as in the Virginia Plan? Or would it be onthe basis of State equality, as in the Articles andthe New Jersey Plan?

For weeks the delegates returned to this con-flict, debating the matter again and again. Thelines were sharply drawn. Several delegates, onboth sides of the issue, threatened to withdraw.Finally, the dispute was settled by one of the keycompromises the Framers were to make as theybuilt the Constitution.

CompromisesThe disagreement over representation in Con-gress was critical. The large States expected todominate the new government. The small

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Share the following quotation withstudents:

You see, the men that laid outour Constitution in the firstplace looked far enough aheadto see, in fact they must havehad a premonition that at sometime in the distant future therewould be a bunch of men inthere that didn’t know any moreabout Government than I knowabout Einstein’s theory.

Well, those old fellows inthose days almost made it fool-proof, so due to their farsighted-ness no one we put in can do usa whole lot of damage.

The old founders of theConstitution made it so it didn’tmatter who was in office, thingswould drag along about thesame.

—Will Rogers

Discussion Ask students to describeRogers’s attitude toward the Framers,toward the Constitution, and towardmodern politicians. H–SS 12.1.4


Simulations and Data GraphingCD-ROM offers data graphing

tools that give students practice withcreating and interpreting graphs.

52

Answer to . . .Interpreting Tables If representationwere based on population, thencounting slaves would give thesouthern States greater politicalpower.


Make It Relevant

The original Constitution is displayed in theNational Archives Building in Washington, D.C.,where thousands of people from around theworld view it each year. Its excellent condition isowed to the work of preservationists, so-namedbecause they preserve historical documents. Manypreservationists work in American government, atsuch places as the National Archives and Records

Administration, the Library of Congress, and theSmithsonian Institution.Skills Activity Direct pairs of students to conductresearch on how an old book could be repaired.Then have individual students write paragraphsexplaining why they would or would not beinterested in a career as a preservationist.

Careers in Government—Preservationist

arose: Should slaves be counted in the popula-tions of the southern States?

Again debate was fierce. Most delegates fromthe southern States argued that slaves should becounted. Most of the northerners took theopposing view. The table on this page shows thesignificant percentage of slaves among the pop-ulations of the southern States.

Finally, the Framers agreed to the Three-Fifths Compromise. It provided that all “free per-sons” should be counted, and so, too, should“three-fifths of all other persons.” (Article I,Section 2, Clause 3. For “all other persons”read “slaves.”) For the three-fifths won by thesoutherners, the northerners exacted a price.That formula was also to be used in fixing theamount of money to be raised in each State byany direct tax levied by Congress. In short, thesoutherners could count their slaves, but theywould have to pay for them.

This odd compromise disappeared from theConstitution with the adoption of the 13thAmendment, which abolished slavery, in 1865.For 140 years now, there have been no “all otherpersons” in this country.

The Commerce and Slave Trade CompromiseThe convention agreed that Congress had tohave the power to regulate foreign and interstate

States feared that they would not be able toprotect their interests. Tempers flared on bothsides. The debate became so intense thatBenjamin Franklin suggested that “henceforthprayers imploring the assistance of Heaven . . .be held in this Assembly every morning beforewe proceed to business.”

The Connecticut CompromiseThe conflict was finally settled by a compro-mise suggested by the Connecticut delegation.Under the Connecticut Compromise, it wasagreed that Congress should be composed oftwo houses. In the smaller Senate, the Stateswould be represented equally. In the House, therepresentation of each State would be basedupon its population.

Thus, by combining basic features of therival Virginia and New Jersey Plans, the con-vention’s most serious dispute was resolved.The agreement satisfied the smaller States in par-ticular, and it made it possible for them to supportthe creation of a strong central government.

The Connecticut Compromise was so pivotalto the writing of the Constitution that it hasoften been called the Great Compromise.

The Three-Fifths CompromiseOnce it had been agreed to base the seats in theHouse on each State’s population, this question

Slavery in the United States, 1790

State Total Population

SlavePopulation

Percent Slave

Population

SOURCES: Historical Statistics of Black America; Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970

ConnecticutDelawareGeorgiaMarylandMassachusettsNew HampshireNew JerseyNew YorkNorth CarolinaPennsylvaniaRhode IslandSouth CarolinaVirginia

238,00059,00083,000

320,000476,000142,000184,000340,000394,000434,00069,000

249,000692,000

2,6488,887

29,264103,036

0157

11,42321,193

100,7833,707

958107,094292,627

1.1115.0635.2632.20

0.00.116.216.23

25.580.851.39

43.0142.29

Interpreting Tables Theagricultural economy of thesouthern States relied onslave labor to producecotton, tobacco, and othercrops. Why did the south-ern States want slavescounted in their States’total population?

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Have students research and write a2–3 page biography on a Framer ofthe Constitution whom they choose.Encourage students to focus on theirsubject’s contributions to the creationof the Constitution before and duringthe Convention. They may also pro-vide important background informa-tion, such as education and politicalexperiences.GT H–SS 12.1.4

For career-related links and activities, visitthe Magruder’s American Governmentcompanion Web site in the Social Studiesarea at the Prentice Hall School Web site.PHSchool.com

53

Background NoteGlobal AwarenessOver half of the nations of the worldhave bicameral legislatures, but only ahandful base membership in the upperhouse on the principle of equal repre-sentation for each State, as described in the Connecticut Compromise.Switzerland’s Council of States—likethe U.S. Senate—provides for two seatsfrom each of the country’s 23 cantons(or states). The Argentine Senate, theFrench Senate, and the GermanBundesrat are also set up this way. Inother nations with bicameral legislatures,including Italy, India, Canada, and Japan,the number of seats in both houses isbased upon population, as prescribed by the Virginia Plan.


Magruder’s American Government Video Collection

The Magruder’s Video Collection explores keyissues and debates in American government. Eachsegment examines an issue central to chaptercontent through use of historical and contempo-rary footage. Commentary from civic leaders inacademics, government, and the media followeach segment. Critical-thinking questions focusstudents’ attention on key issues, and may beused to stimulate discussion.

Use the Chapter 2 video segment to explore theissue of school prayer with your class. (time:about 5 minutes) This segment sets the scenewith the 1962 Engel v. Vitale Supreme Court caseon school prayer, then examines current debateon the issue: specifically, student-led prayer atschool-sponsored events.

Box HeadSpotlight on TechnologySpotlight on Technology

have the powers necessary to deal with thenation’s grave social and economic problems. TheFramers were also dedicated to the concepts ofpopular sovereignty and of limited government.None questioned for a moment the wisdom of representative government. The principles of separation of powers and of checks and balanceswere accepted almost as a matter of course.

Many disputes did occur, and the compro-mises by which they were resolved came onlyafter hours and days and even weeks of heateddebate. The point here, however, is that the dif-ferences were not over the most fundamental ofquestions. They involved, instead, such vital butlesser points as these: the details of the structureof Congress, the method by which the Presidentwas to be chosen, and the practical limits thatshould be put on the several powers to be givento the new central government.

Sources of the ConstitutionThe Framers were well educated and widelyread. They were familiar with the governmentsof ancient Greece and Rome and those of contemporary Great Britain and Europe. Theyknew the political writings of their time, of such works as William Blackstone’sCommentaries on the Laws of England, theBaron de Montesquieu’s The Spirit of theLaws, Jean Jacques Rousseau’s SocialContract, John Locke’s Two Treatises ofGovernment, and many others.

More immediately, the Framers drew on theirown experiences. Remember, they were familiarwith the Second Continental Congress, the Art-icles of Confederation, and their own State gov-ernments. Much that went into the Constitutioncame directly, sometimes word for word, fromthe Articles. A number of provisions were drawnfrom the several State constitutions, as well.

The Convention Completes Its WorkFor several weeks, through the hot Philadelphiasummer, the delegates took up resolution afterresolution. Finally, on September 8, a committeewas named “to revise the stile of and arrange the articles which had been agreed to” by the

16Article I, Section 9, Clause 1. Congress promptly banned theimportation of slaves in 1808, and in 1820 it declared the slave tradeto be piracy. The smuggling of the enslaved into this country contin-ued until the outbreak of the Civil War, however.

trade. To many southerners that power carrieda real danger, however. They worried thatCongress, likely to be controlled by northerncommercial interests, would act against theinterests of the agricultural South.

They were particularly fearful that Congresswould try to pay for the new government outof export duties, and southern tobacco was themajor American export of the time. They alsofeared that Congress would interfere with theslave trade.

Before they would agree to the commercepower, the southerners insisted on certain pro-tections. So, according to the Commerce andSlave Trade Compromise, Congress was forbiddenthe power to tax the export of goods from anyState. It was also forbidden the power to act onthe slave trade for a period of at least 20 years. Itcould not interfere with “the migration or impor-tation of such persons as any State now existingshall think proper to admit,” except for a smallhead tax, at least until the year 1808.16

A “Bundle of Compromises”The convention spent much of its time, saidFranklin, “sawing boards to make them fit.” TheConstitution drafted at Philadelphia has oftenbeen called a “bundle of compromises.” These de-scriptions are apt, if they are properly understood.

There were differences of opinion among thedelegates, certainly. After all, the delegates camefrom 12 different States that were widely sepa-rated in geographic and economic terms. Thedelegates often reflected the interests of theirStates. Bringing these interests together didrequire compromise. Indeed, final decisions onissues such as selection of the President, thetreaty-making process, the structure of thenational court system, and the amendmentprocess were reached as a result of compromise.

But by no means did all, or even most, of whatshaped the document come from compromises.The Framers agreed on many of the basic issuesthey faced. Thus, nearly all the delegates wereconvinced that a new national government, a fed-eral government, had to be created, and had to

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Answers to . . .

Section 4 Assessment1. The Framers were the delegates tothe Philadelphia Convention; mostcame from wealthy backgrounds,were well educated, and had publicexperience.2. To create an entirely new constitu-tion.3. The Virginia Plan called for repre-sentation to be based on a State’spopulation or the amount of moneyit gave to support the central gov-ernment. Smaller States would notbe given as much representation aslarger States in this plan and thusopposed it.4. That Congress would be composedof two houses—including a Senatewith equal representation and aHouse with representation based onpopulation.5. Writings by European thinkers, theFramers’ own experiences, ideas fromthe Articles, and State constitutions.6. The Virginia Plan called for repre-sentation based on a State’s popula-tion or monetary contributions. Italso called for one federal executive.The New Jersey Plan called for equalrepresentation, and provided forplural federal executives.7. Possible answer: Southern Statesfelt that these items were vital to theprotection of their commercial inter-ests. In exchange for these conces-sions, the southern States had to payextra taxes on slaves.

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8. Possible answer: Yes; it representsa consensus of opinion, which wasachieved through numerous compro-mises.

convention. That group,the Committee of Stileand Arrangement headedby Gouverneur Morris,put the Constitution inits final form.

Then, on September 17,the convention approvedits work and 39 nameswere placed on the fin-ished document.17 Perhapsnone of the Framers were

completely satisfied with their work.Nevertheless, wise old Benjamin Franklin putinto words what many of the Framers musthave thought on that final day:

“ Sir, I agree with thisConstitution to all its faults, if

they are such; because I think a generalGovernment necessary for us . . . I doubt . . .whether any other Convention we canobtain, may be able to make a betterConstitution. For when you assemble anumber of men to have the advantage oftheir joint wisdom, you inevitably assemblewith those men, all their prejudices, theirpassions, their errors of opinion, their localinterests, and their selfish views. From suchan assembly can a perfect production be

17Three of the 41 delegates present on that last day refused tosign the proposed Constitution: Edmund Randolph of Virginia, wholater did support ratification and served as Attorney General and thenSecretary of State under President Washington; Elbridge Gerry ofMassachusetts, who later became Vice President under Madison; andGeorge Mason of Virginia, who continued to oppose the Constitutionuntil his death in 1792. George Read of Delaware signed both forhimself and for his absent colleague John Dickinson.

expected? It therefore astonishes me, Sir, tofind this system approaching so near toperfection as it does . . . ”

—Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention

of 1787, James Madison

On Franklin’s motion, the Constitution wassigned. Madison tells us that

“ . . . Doctor Franklin, lookingtoward the President’s chair, at

the back of which a rising sun happened tobe painted, observed to a few members nearhim, that Painters had found it difficult todistinguish in their art a rising from a settingsun. I have, said he, often and often in thecourse of the Session . . . looked at thatbehind the President without being able totell whether it was rising or setting. But nowat length I have the happiness to know that itis a rising and not a setting sun.”

—Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of

1787, James Madison

� Detail from Washington’s chair atthe Constitutional Convention.

Key Terms and Main Ideas1. Identify the Framers of the Constitution and describe, in

general, their backgrounds and experiences.2. What momentous decision did the Framers make at the

beginning of the Philadelphia Convention?3. Why did the delegates from the smaller States object to the

Virginia Plan?4. What was agreed to under the Connecticut Compromise?5. What sources influenced the Framers in writing the

Constitution?

Critical Thinking6. Making Comparisons Compare and contrast the Virginia

Plan and the New Jersey Plan.7. Determining Relevance The Three-Fifths Compromise and

the Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise were included

in the Constitution at the insistence of the southern States.Why did States in the South think these items were impor-tant and what price, if any, did southern States pay for theirinclusion?

8. Drawing Conclusions The Constitution has been called a“bundle of compromises.” Is this an accurate description ofthe document? Explain your answer.

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Objectives You may wish to callstudents’ attention to the objectivesin the Section Preview. The objectivesare reflected in the main headings ofthe section.Bellringer Ask students to think of atime when they have had a heateddebate with others over an issueimportant to both sides. Encouragestudents to discuss the emotions thatcan arise in such a situation. Explainthat in this section, they will readabout a clash of ideas over ratifyingthe Constitution.Vocabulary Builder Have studentsfind the two terms in the PoliticalDictionary that are opposites. Askthem to propose the meanings of bothterms, based on their understandingof the word federal.

Ratifying theConstitution5

Lesson Plan

H–SS 12.1.41. Focus Tell students that eventhough the Framers had eliminatedthe weaknesses of the Articles ofConfederation, many people opposedthe new Constitution. Ask students todiscuss what they know about thatopposition.

2. Instruct Ask students whether theythink the Anti-Federalists would havepreferred the Articles of Confederationto the proposed Constitution. Havethem identify the Anti-Federalists’main criticisms. Then lead a discus-sion of the fight for ratification.3. Close/Reteach Remind studentsthat the fight for ratification of theConstitution was long and hard. Havethem summarize that fight by answer-ing three questions: Who were thecombatants? What did each side want?How did the fight end?

56


Consider these suggestions to manage extendedclass time:■ Have students review the Revolutions Aroundthe World map on p. 57 of the Student Edition.Assign one or two of the revolutions to smallgroups of students. For each, have studentsresearch the causes, ideals, and outcomes of the revolution. Use students’ research results toconduct a discussion comparing the AmericanRevolution to other revolutions around the world.

■ Using the graphic organizers students havemade for the Organizing Information activity as well as the materials prepared for theUniversal Access activity on p. 57, organize adebate in which half the class supports theFederalist position and half the Anti-Federalistposition.


Answer to . . .Interpreting Political Cartoons That the future of the nation depends onthe ratification of the Constitution.

Ratifying the Constitution

Objectives

1. Identify the opposing sides in the fight forratification and describe the major argu-ments for and against the Constitution.

2. Describe the inauguration of the new gov-ernment of the United States of America.

Why It Matters

The Constitution could not take effectuntil it had been ratified by nineStates. The battle between those whosupported and those who opposedthe Constitution was hard fought in allthe States.

PoliticalDictionary

★ Federalists★ Anti-Federalists★ quorum

“ The ratification of the con-ventions of nine States shall be

sufficient for the establishment of this Cons-titution between the States so ratifying thesame.” —Article VII

The Congress of the Confederation agreed tothis irregular procedure. After a short debate, itsent copies of the new document to the States onSeptember 28, 1787.

Federalists and Anti-FederalistsThe Constitution was printed, circulated, anddebated vigorously. Two groups quicklyemerged in each of the States: the Federalists,who favored ratification, and the Anti-Federalists,who opposed it.

The Federalists were led by many of those whohad attended the Philadelphia Convention.Among them, the most active and the most effec-tive were James Madison and AlexanderHamilton. Their opposition was headed by suchwell-known Revolutionary War figures as PatrickHenry, Richard Henry Lee, John Hancock, andSamuel Adams.

The Federalists stressed the weaknesses ofthe Articles. They argued that the many diffi-culties facing the Republic could be overcomeonly by a new government based on the pro-posed Constitution.

The Anti-Federalists attacked nearly everypart of the new document. Many objected tothe ratification process, to the absence of anymention of God, to the denial to the States of

TT oday, the Constitution of the United States isthe object of extraordinary respect and

admiration, both here and abroad. But in 1787and 1788, it was widely criticized, and in everyState there were many who opposed its adop-tion. The battle over the ratification of theConstitution was not easily decided.

The Fight for RatificationRemember, the Articles of Confederation pro-vided that changes could be made to them onlyif all of the State legislatures agreed. But the newConstitution was intended to replace, notamend, the Articles. The Framers had seen howcrippling the unanimity requirement could be.So, the new Constitution provided that

� Interpreting Political Cartoons This cartoon, printed in theNew Hampshire Gazette on June 26, 1788, shows the Statesas pillars, with nine upright and a tenth being raised. What isthe message of the words in the cartoon?



Reading StrategyOrganizing Information/OutlineAsk students to copy down the mainheadings and subheadings in outlineform, leaving space for details. Havethem fill in the details as they readthe section.

Time 90 minutes.Purpose Interpret historical writings. Grouping Groups of three to fourstudents.Activity Using copies of severalessays from The Federalist broughtin by the teacher, groups will sum-marize and interpret the essay theyhave been assigned and present theirwork to the class. Roles Discussion leader, recorder,timekeeper, spokesperson.Close The teacher will place a copyof each essay on an overhead trans-parency for the class to view. Aftergroups have recorded their interpreta-tion of the essay, have the spokesper-sons read the summary to the class,highlighting the most importantpoints of the documents.H–SS 12.1.4




Political Cartoons See p. 11 ofthe Political Cartoons booklet for acartoon relevant to this section.

57

To make sure students understand the mainpoints of this section, you may wish to use thedouble web graphic organizer to the right.

Tell students that a double web compares andcontrasts information about two ideas. Ask students to use the double web to compare theFederalists and the Anti-Federalists.



Answers to . . .Interpreting Maps Answers will vary,but should be supported with rele-vant examples.Interpreting Tables New Hampshire,New York, and Rhode Island.

Chapter 2 • Section 5a power to print money, and to manyother features of the Framers’ proposals.

Two major features of the proposedConstitution drew the heaviest fire: (1) the greatly increased powers of thecentral government and (2) the lack of abill of rights. The proposed documentdid not provide for such basic liberties asfreedom of speech, press, and religion,nor for the rights of fair trial. AtVirginia’s ratifying convention, PatrickHenry said of the proposed Constit-ution, “I look upon that paper as themost fatal plan that could possibly beconceived to enslave a free people.”

Nine States RatifyThe contest for ratification was close inseveral States, but the Federalists finallywon in all of them. Delaware was thefirst State to ratify. On June 21, 1788,New Hampshire brought the number ofratifying States to nine.

Under Article VII, New Hampshire’sratification should have brought theConstitution into effect, but it did not.Neither Virginia nor New York had yetratified, and without either of these keyStates the new government could nothope to succeed.

Virginia’s RatificationVirginia’s vote for ratification followed NewHampshire’s by just four days. The brilliantdebates in its convention were followed closelythroughout the State. The Federalists were ledby Madison, the young John Marshall, andGovernor Edmund Randolph (even though hehad refused to sign the Constitution atPhiladelphia). Patrick Henry, leading the oppo-sition, was joined by such outstandingVirginians as James Monroe, Richard HenryLee, and George Mason (another of the non-signers).

Although George Washington was not one ofthe delegates to Virginia’s convention, his strongsupport for ratification proved vital. WithMadison, he was able to get a reluctant Jeffersonto support the document. Had Jefferson foughtas did other Anti-Federalists, Virginia mightnever have ratified the Constitution.

State Date Vote

Second vote; ratification was originally defeated on August 4, 1788, by a vote of 184–84.

DelawarePennsylvaniaNew JerseyGeorgiaConnecticutMassachusettsMarylandSouth CarolinaNew HampshireVirginiaNew YorkNorth CarolinaRhode Island

December 7, 1787December 12, 1787December 18, 1787

January 2, 1788January 9, 1788February 6, 1788

April 28, 1788May 23, 1788June 21, 1788June 25, 1788July 26, 1788

November 21, 1789May 29, 1790

30–046–2338–026–0

128–40187–168

63–11149–7357–4689–7930–27

195–7734–32

Ratification of the Constitution

*

*

Interpreting Tables Virginia’s ratification came only after along struggle. In what other States was ratification won byonly a narrow margin?

An Era of Revolutions

1775 AmericanRevolution begins

1811 Paraguay proclaimsindependence from Spain

1791 Haitian revoltagainst France begins

1818 Chile declaresindependence from Spain

1819 Colombia achievesindependence from Spain

1821 Mexico gainsindependence from Spain

1821 Peru declaresindependence from Spain

1822 Brazil proclaimsindependence fromPortugal

1825 Bolivia achievesindependence from Spain

1789 FrenchRevolution begins

Interpreting Maps The American Revolution was one of many struggles for independence that took place around the world between 1775 and 1825.Do you think this global turmoil was coincidence, or were the events in various countries somehow connected?

L3









ABC News Civics andGovernment Videotape Library

The Blessings of Liberty, Introductionand the 1789–1803 segment (time:about 40 minutes)

Answers to . . .

Section 5 Assessment1. The Federalists believed that theConstitution should be ratified,because the many problems facingthe new Republic could not besolved within the framework of theweak Articles.2. The Anti-Federalists were well-known Revolutionary War figureswho opposed the Constitution. Theywere particularly opposed to theincreased power of the central govern-ment and the lack of a bill of rights.3. The ratification process wasunusual because unanimity was notrequired to ratify. However, the gov-ernment needed more than ninestates to ratify to ensure its survival.4. They were among the leadingStates in terms of economics andpolitical leadership.5. Possible answer: The Anti-Federalists wanted in particular toensure that the government couldnot be tyrannical. With a strong central government and no outlineof basic rights, they felt individualfreedom was threatened.

58

Chapter 2 • Section 5Inaugurating the GovernmentOn September 13, 1788, with 11 of the 13 States“under the federal roof,” the Congress of theConfederation paved the way for its successor.19

It chose New York as the temporary capital.20 Itset the first Wednesday in January as the date onwhich the States would choose presidential elec-tors. The first Wednesday in February was set asthe date on which those electors would vote, andthe first Wednesday in March as the date for theinauguration of the new government.

The new Congress convened on March 4,1789. It met in Federal Hall, on Wall Street inNew York City. But because it lacked a quorum(majority), it could not count the electoral votesuntil April 6. Finally, on that day, it found thatGeorge Washington had been elected Presidentby a unanimous vote. John Adams was electedVice President with a substantial majority.

On April 30, after an historic trip from MountVernon to New York, Washington took the oathof office as the first President of the United States.

New York, The Last Key StateA narrow vote in the New York conventionbrought the number of States to 11, on July 26.New York ratified only after a long battle. TheAnti-Federalists were led by Governor GeorgeClinton and by two of the State’s three delegatesto the Philadelphia Convention.18

The contest in New York gave rise to aremarkable campaign document: The Federalist.It was a collection of 85 essays supporting theConstitution written by Alexander Hamilton,James Madison, and John Jay. Those essayswere first published as letters to the people invarious newspapers of the State and soon werecollected in book form. Though written in haste,they remain an excellent commentary on theConstitution, and are among the best politicalwritings in the English language.

18Robert Yates and John Lansing had quit Philadelphia in July,arguing that the convention had gone beyond its authority. Likemany other Anti-Federalist leaders, Governor Clinton later supportedthe Constitution.

19Neither North Carolina nor Rhode Island had ratified the newConstitution before it became effective. As you can see in the table onpage 57, the Constitution failed in a first convention in North Carolinaand was finally approved by a second one in late November of 1789.Rhode Island did not hold a ratifying convention until May of 1790,more than a year after Washington’s inauguration.

20The District of Columbia did not become the nation’s capital until1800. Congress moved its sessions from New York to Philadelphia inDecember 1790. It held its first meeting in the new “federal city,”Washington, D.C., on November 17, 1800.

� Defending the Constitution All the essays in TheFederalist were signed with the pen name Publius. Modernscholars attribute fifty-one to Hamilton (right), five to Jay(left), and twenty-nine to Madison. H-SS 12.1.4

Key Terms and Main Ideas1. What was the Federalist position on the adoption of the

Constitution? Why did they feel that way?2. Who were the Anti-Federalists?3. What was “irregular” about the ratification of the

Constitution?

Critical Thinking4. Expressing Problems Clearly Why might the failure of

New York and Virginia to ratify have doomed theConstitution?

5. Understanding Point of View The Anti-Federalists weregreatly concerned that the proposed Constitution increased

the powers of the central government and lacked a bill ofrights. Why would these specific issues have been impor-tant to them?

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