ottoman army ppoint-v2
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Doing a bit - The Ottoman Army 1908 - 1918TRANSCRIPT
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The Ottoman Army
1908 – 1918
A Decade of Turmoil
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The Ottoman Empire (circa 1912)Regime Change 1908 and 1913The Three PashasStrategic Objectives 1914The Ottoman Army & its SoldiersFifth Army and III Corps at GallipoliThe Ottoman NavyThe Ottoman Air ForceOttoman Women in the ServicesOttoman Victories in WW1Propaganda – power of the Press
Topics:
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Which is Correct???
Ottomanor
Turkish …
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Strictly speaking, the term should be “Ottoman”.
The Sultan ruled an Empire which had existed for more than 600 years and encompassed parts of three continents.
The reigning Sultan & Caliph was Mehmed Rashad V who came to power in 19o9.
Unfortunately, the Empire known widely as “the sick man of Europe” as various parts of the empire fell apart, or sought independence.
The terms “Turk” and “Turkish” are now used interchangeably with “Ottoman”.
The Ottoman Empire
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Essentially a Muslim state controlled by a hereditary emperor, both Sultan (head of state) and Caliph (head of religion).
Many ethnic & religious groupings (as at 1908):TurksArabsArmeniansGreeksAlbaniansBulgariansSerbiansJewsKurds
The Ottoman Empire
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Dates: Nov 1844 – July 1918
(age 73). Dynasty: House of
Osman. Reign: April 1909 – July
1918
Came to throne in 1909, but
was largely a figurehead in the
political machinations of the
day.
Rarely left Topkapi or Yildiz
Palaces in Constantinople
throughout his life. Had five
wives & two children.
Declared a jihad against the
Allies in November 1914, but
did not agree with siding with
Central Powers.
Appointed
Generalfeldmarschal by
Kaiser Wilhelm in 1917.
MEHMED V Sultan of the Ottoman Empire
Caliph of Islam
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The Shrinking Empire
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The Ottoman Empire - 1912
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Modern Turkey founded 1923
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Honorifics were used as a common courtesy for groupings of military (and civilian) ranks:
Efendi – Subaltern officer ranks – 2Lt, Lt, Captain
Bey – Field officer ranks – Major, Lt Colonel, Colonel
Pasha – General officer ranks from Brigadier to General and Field Marshal
Ataturk – Mustafa Kemal “Father of the Turks”
Honorific is placed after the name, e.g. Zeki Bey
Ottoman Army Ranks / Honorifics
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April 1908: Young Turk Revolution. Reversed 1878 suspension of the General Assembly (Parliament).
An unlikely union of reformists – nationalists, pro-Westerners or anyone who blamed the then Sultan Hamid II for the collapse of the once great Empire.
Installing new Constitution was neither simple nor bloodless – a counter-coup of 1909 led by Islamists & monarchists was defeated: the ‘31 March Incident’ in Constantinople – Hamid dethroned and Mehmed V installed to reign under Constitutional law
New power behind the throne – Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) with huge military backing
Regime Change 1908 - 1913
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January 1913 Coup d’état. The CUP had fallen out of favour with Parliament, which was also under pressure from European countries to hand over city of Edirne (Adrianople) to Bulgaria – a sore point.
On 23 Jan, a group of CUP officers entered a Cabinet meeting and shot the Minister of War, Nazim Pasha and forced the Grand Vizier, Kamil Pasha to resign.
Action reinforced the reform movements of 1908.
Installed the “Three Pashas” as de facto rulers of the Empire until late 1918. Enver Pasha was new Minister of War and Commander-in-Chief.
Regime Change 1908 - 1913
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Three senior members of the Committee for Progress & Unity (CUP). This triumvirate essentially controlled the Empire’s strategic and internal affairs from January 1913 to October 1918.
They were known as “The Three Pashas” –
Ismail Enver Pasha
Ahmed Djemal Pasha
Mehmed Taalat Pasha
The Three Pashas
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Dates: Nov 1881 – August 1922 (Age 40)
Commenced service about 1900; a
member of the Committee for Union and
Progress (CUP); a key leader in the
Young Turk Revolution of 1908.
Exchange posting to Germany; very pro-
German and now seen as the main
architect of Ottomans joining Central
Powers in 1914.
Not a successful field commander;
married Sultan’s daughter; loved medals
& uniforms; ambitious, vain and
arrogant.
Fled to Germany in Oct 1918 then
Russia. KIA with counter-rev troops in
Tajikistan by Red Army cavalry in 1922.
Ismail Enver PashaOttoman Minister for
War 1913 - 1918
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Dates: may 1872 – July 1922 (Age
50).
Commenced military service
1893. Member of the Committee
for Union and Progress (CUP).
Favoured an alliance with the
French
Military commander of
Constantinople until 1915 when
he went to Damascus to lead
attacks on Suez Canal and put
down Arab revolts. Not a
successful field commander.
Fled to Germany in October
1918.
Assassinated in Tbilisi, Russia in
1922 by survivors of Armenian
Massacres.
Ahmed Djemal PashaOttoman Minister of the
Navy 1913 - 1918
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Dates: 1874 – March 1921 (age 47).
Civilian politician and member of
the Committee of Union and
Progress (CUP).
Minister of both Finance and
Interior 1913 -1917
Became Grand Vizier (PM) in 1917.
Named as prime motivator in
p0grom against Armenians.
Fled to Germany in Oct 1918
Assassinated in Berlin in 1921 by a
survivor of the Armenian
massacres.
Mehmed Taalat Pasha
Minister for the Interior 1913 - 1918
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After joining Central Powers, the Ottoman hierarchy appeared to have few & vague strategic objectives:
- Re-garrison & retain remaining pieces of the Empire?
- Possibly win back some lost possessions in Balkans?
- Construction of Berlin to Baghdad railway for supply of military materiel in exchange for oil products?
- Seize the Suez canal to control trade routes?- Share in Central Powers economic expansionism?- Always, for Ottomans an underlying motivator was
…
Strategic Objectives??
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After joining Central Powers, the Ottoman hierarchy appeared to have few & vague strategic objectives:
- Re-garrison & retain remaining pieces of the Empire- Possibly win back some lost possessions in Balkans- Construction of Berlin to Baghdad railway for supply of
military materiel in exchange for oil products- Seize the Suez Canal to control trade routes?- Share in Central Powers economic expansionism?- Always, for Ottomans an underlying motivator was …
fear of RUSSIA
Strategic Objectives??
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The Sultan’s Army
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The Sultan’s ArmyOttoman Army Battle Flag for 600 years until
1918.
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Officer Corps. General Staff surprised by sudden war option during re-organisation (Neutrality preferred).
Senior officers well-trained; war college; German training advisers and doctrine since 1887.
Need to boost numbers of junior officers & NCOs.
Army relied on serious augmentation by reserves to reach war strength.
The Ottoman Soldier in WW1
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Foot-soldier/Asker/ ‘Mehmet’. Conscription for Muslim citizens compulsory for 3 years from age 20 up to age 45 in one of three categories:
- Active force (Nizamiye) - Reserve force (Redif) - Territorial force (Mustahfiz)
Estimated 1 million men & 210,00 animals available, but in 1914 had 200,000 men and 8,000 officers under arms (5 armies = 13 corps and 33 understrength infantry divisions).
To meet war establishment, needed 500,000 men and 12,500 officers.
Vast amount of experience in Libya & Balkan Wars, but high casualties in junior officer and senior NCO ranks.
The Ottoman Soldier in WW1
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Foot-soldier/Asker/ ‘Mehmet’. A hardy, stolid and long-suffering soul, used to privation and operating with minimal logistic or medical support.
A variety of theatres of operation: Caucasus, Anatolia, Middle East, Egypt, Sinai, Mesopotamia, Balkans etc.
The Ottoman Soldier in WW1
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Infantry Weapons. At the outbreak of war, Ottoman Army had 1.5 million rifles, mostly of German origin. The ‘asker’ was lightly equipped, but his rifle was the superb Mauser, with sights graded to 2,000 metres.
Mauser Rifle. M1903 (or earlier variants) in 7.65mm.
Officer’s Pistol. Preferred weapon was the Mauser C96 “Broomhandle” in 9mm parabellum.
The Ottoman Soldier in WW1
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Marksmen. Ottomans placed great value on their battle-hardened veterans of the Balkan Wars; each unit had a selected group of marksmen who used the standard Mauser rifle for shots out to 500 – 600m.
There were NO SNIPERS on Gallipoli on either side!!! Fully trained snipers with telescopic-sighted rifles did not appear until 1916 on the Western Front…
The Ottoman Soldier in WW1
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Machine-Gunners. Used the 7.92mm Maxim MG-08 on Nordic tripod. Allocation: 4 guns per regiment.
NO MGs at the pre-dawn landing on 25 April!! Did not arrive until late morning on Walker’s Ridge. Under control of the 57th Regt commander.
The Ottoman Soldier in WW1
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Cavalry. A highly-trained and very effective corps, especially in Sinai and Palestine; worthy opponents of the Aust Light Horse and NZ Mounted Rifles .
Photo of an Ottoman cavalry regiment in M. East:
The Ottoman Soldier in WW1
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Field Artillery: Arty regiments used a variety of field guns, including pack howitzers in 75mm calibre. In 1914, they had a mix of French Schneider, German Krupp or Austro-Hungarian Skoda guns; 24 per Div.
Corps artillery: 12 x 105mm howitzers per corps.
The Ottoman Soldier in WW1
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Garrison Artillery. 120mm calibre guns used for coastal defence, usually in reinforced gun positions.
Dardanelles Forts. Defences included 115 guns in calibres: 355mm, 280mm, 240mm and 150mm mostly German Krupp, but dating from late 1800s – some ammo shortages during campaign to force Narrows.
The Ottoman Soldier in WW1
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Formed March 1915 to defend Gallipoli Peninsula and the Dardanelles Straits; HQ in Gelibolu
Commanded by Lt-Gen Liman von Sanders 1915-18
Strength in April 1915 – about 84,000 men; most were veterans of the Balkan Wars – key factor!
III Corps – Commander: Esat Pasha – (Gallipoli Peninsula)
VX Corps – Commander: Colonel Hans Kannengiesser (Canakkale area)
Dardanelles Fortified Command – heavy
artillery, fixed coastal artillery, engineers, signals, logistic troops
1st Aircraft Squadron, Ottoman Air Force
Ottoman Fifth Army (1915)
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III Corps – (Gallipoli Peninsula)5th Division7th Division9th Division (25th, 26th, 27th Regiments - on the coast)
19th Division (Corps Reserve) (Mustafa Kemal Bey (Lt Col)) 57th Regt, 72nd Regt, 77th Regt, 39th Artillery Regt
VX Corps –(Canakkale area)3rd Division11th Division
Dardanelles Fortified Command – commanded all forts and coastal artillery on both sides of the Dardanelles in the areas of Maidos (now Ecebat) and Chanakkale – 115 guns in 15 forts.
Ottoman Fifth Army (1915)
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General von Sanders believed Allied landing would occur north at Bulair to cut off the Peninsula.
Disposition near the Dardanelles in April 1915:
Ottoman Fifth Army
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Dates: Oct 1862 – Nov 1952 (age 90).
An outstanding soldier and commander.
Served in the Ottoman Army 1884 –
1919. Graduate of Prussian War
Academy 1894.
Commanded Yanya Corps in Greece
1913.
Commanded III Corps; the only Corps
which met the mobilisation schedule in
1914, as most units were Balkan Wars
veterans; the best trained corps.
He was the most senior Ottoman
commander in the field in the Gallipoli
campaign under von Sanders. Planned
the defence of the Peninsula.
Mehmet Esad Pasha
Commander III Corps at Gallipoli - 1915
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Disposition on Gallipoli Peninsula in April 1915:9th Div (Aker Bey) holding coast picquet
positions; one Bn of 27th Regt opposite Anzac Cove
19th Div (Kemal Bey)around Boghali as Corps reserve
Ottoman III Corps (Fifth Army)
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Military service: 1893 – 1920
1905 – 1911: War College & staff
positions. 1908 – key military member
of the Committee of Union and Progress
(CUP).
1911 -1912: Italo-Turkish War (Libya).
1912 – 1913: Balkan Wars.
1913-1914: Mil Attaché - Sofia, Bulgaria.
1914 – 1918: Gallipoli; Caucasus; Sinai
& Palestine Campaigns. (Favoured
neutrality)
1918 – 1920: Ministry of War; Inspector
General. Resigned July 1920.
War of Independence 1920- 1922.
Founder of Turkish State 1923.
“Ataturk”
Mustafa Kemal1881 - 1938
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Lt Col Kemal was commander of 19th Div (HQ at Boghali) on 25 April 1915. His decisive actions blocked the ANZAC advance towards the guns at the Narrows.
To withdrawing men: “I don’t order you to fight, I order you to die. In the time it takes us to die, other troops can come and take our places.”
Kemal at Gallipoli 1915
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The Ottomans were meticulous in their record keeping right across the Empire; military losses were no exception – statements that casualties for various campaigns are “unknown” are quite simply false.
Recently opened Turkish archives for the Canakkale (Gallipoli) Campaign show:
DEAD: 56,643WOUNDED: 107,007MIA & POW: 11,178TOTAL: 174,828SICK (estim): 64,000
Ottoman Casualties - Gallipoli
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Also known as Harp Madalyasi (Turkish) or the Eisener Halbmond (German) – ‘Gallipoli Star’ is incorrect!!
Approved by Sultan Mehmed Reshad on 1 March 1915 (1333 Mohammedan calendar)
Could be awarded for either gallantry in the field or military merit on operations
Could be awarded to all Ottoman troops regardless of rank, plus any deserving Central Powers troops
Awarded for several Ottoman campaigns in WW1
Ottoman War Medal
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Ottoman War Medal & Ribbon
• Approved by the Sultan
in 1915. Ribbon was
worn separately in
tunic buttonhole.
• NOT a Gallipoli Star!
• Awarded for bravery or
merit in several
Ottoman campaigns:
• CHANAK
• GAZA
• KANAL
• KUT-AL-AMARA
• SANATORIUM
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ANZAC soldier in the trenches
ANZAC vs ‘Johnny Turk’ - 1915
Ottoman “Mehmet” Private
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Who was the better soldier???Ottoman soldiers had several advantages:
Fighting on home soil – drive out the invaderSoldiers tough & battle-hardened from Balkan WarsLeadership was combat-ready and staff experiencedShorter lines of supply – fresh food & waterExercised on ground where the battle occurredAllied High Command underestimated the determination
and skill of Ottoman forces, many of whom were ‘locals’
ANZACs of 1915 described as “enthusiastic amateurs” with little combat experience or leadership skills!
ANZAC vs ‘Johnny Turk’ - 1915
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Ottoman Navy
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In 1908 the CUP decided to upgrade the existing Navy fleet which consisted of a number of ‘ancient’ vessels from the 1880s and 1890s bought from other countries.
Public subscriptions were taken up to purchase new vessels from the UK:2 x Dreadnoughts; 2 x Cruisers; 4 x Destroyers
Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, cancelled these deliveries in 1914 and enraged the Ottomans!
Key factor in tipping them to the German side in October 1914.
Who is the villain of the piece here??
Ottoman Navy – Upgrade 1908+
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Ottoman Navy strength in 1914-15 (includes 2 x loaned German ships under Admiral Souchon).
Majority were sadly outdated.
Battle Cruiser x 1 (GOEBEN)Battleships x 2 Coastal Defence Ship x 1Heavy Cruisers x 2Light Cruiser x 1 (BRESLAU)Destroyers x 8Minelayers (various, e.g. “Nusret”)1 x Captured French sub “Turquoise”
Ottoman Navy - Strength 1914-15
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Battle Cruiser SMS GOEBEN –
Yavus Sultan Selim
German ships join Ottoman Fleet
Light CruiserSMS BRESLAU –
Midilli
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Minelayer “Nusret”/ “Nusrat”Arguably the most famous ship in the Ottoman
Navy.Laid a string of mines on eastern side of the
Narrows on night of 17/18 March 1915 which caused chaos to attempted penetration by the Allied fleet.
Ships sunk: “Bouvet”, “Irresistible”, “Ocean”. Damaged: “Inflexible”, “Ocean” and “Gauloise” (by artillery shell below waterline).
Commemorated now in three forms:Original ship on display in port of Tarsus.Museum replica at CanakkaleTurkish Navy replica / tourist vessel
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Minelayer “Nusret”“The deadliest warship in the Ottoman Navy.”Built in Kiel, Germany in 1913; 360 tons as a
purpose-built minelayer. Commander: Lt. Tophaneli Hakki.
Laid 26 mines near Erin Keul Bay (Asiatic shore) in a line that was not cleared by British minesweepers.
Faced Allied fleet of 18 French and British battleships.
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Minelayer “Nusret”Map showing belts of mines laid across the
Narrows and the single belt laid by “Nusret” on 8 March 1915.
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Minelayer “Nusret” (1)Original “Nusret” – Decommissioned 1955;
then to merchant service. Sank at Mersin 1989. Salvaged & restored in 2008 and now on display in city of Tarsus.
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Minelayer “Nusret” (2)Museum Display – A full-sized replica on
display in the grounds of Canakkale Naval Museum and fortress, with an on-board museum theme.
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Replica Vessel “Nusret” (3)Turkish Navy (Museum Ship) N-16
“Nusret” – a full-sized working vessel in its 1915 configuration, commissioned into the Turkish Navy in 2011 and now used as a tourist vessel in the Dardanelles.
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Ottoman Air Force
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First Ottoman pilot Capt. Fesa, then 8 others trained by France in 1912.
17 planes of various types used during Balkan Wars
By 1914, air force consisted of 6 planes & 7 pilots
Photo (right) pilot Vecihi BeyPhoto (centre) Ottoman pilot’s wingsPhoto (left) decorated Ottoman pilot
Ottoman Air Force
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Total of 300 planes, mostly provided by Germany in WW1, including Albatros, Gotha, Fokker, Halberstadt, Pfalz, Rumpler, SPAD, Nieuport.
Planes shown with Ottoman 1914-15 markings:
Ottoman Air Force
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1st Ottoman Air Sqn at the Dardanelles, 1915
3 x recon aircraft and 1 x recon seaplaneCommanded by German Lt Ludwig Pruessner Lt Cemal bombs HMS “Majestic” on 1 March,
causing significant damage.
Ottoman Air Force
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Ottoman Women in the Services
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Ottoman Nursing Staff – both Muslim and Christian
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Canakkale Campaign. Naval victory in the Dardanelles in March 1915, followed by the withdrawal of the Allied land forces by January 1916.
Siege of Kut. Maj-Gen. Townsend’s 6th (Indian) Div besieged in Kut (100km south of Baghdad) Dec 1915 to April 1916. Several British relief efforts failed; 11,000 men taken into captivity.
Sinking of HMS “Ben my Chree”. A British seaplane carrier sunk off the island of Castellorizo on 11 Jan 1917 by Ottoman field artillery on the nearby mainland. Ship’s mission was to conduct aerial reconnaissance of suspicious Ottoman military movements!
Ottoman Victories in WW1
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Naval assault defeated 18 March
Map showing Allied naval assault against forts and belts of mines laid across the Narrows - 18 Mar 1915.
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Mesopotamia Campaign. Kut garrison surrendered in April 1916. Photo shows Gen. Townsend & staff with Khalil Pasha & staff. Townsend criticised for living in luxury villa while his men were in squalid POW camps.
Siege & Surrender of Al-Kut
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First ever carrier sinking in naval history – Jan 1917.
Sunk in shallow waters of Castellorizo Harbour; no casualties; mascot dog and cat saved!
Extremely embarrassing for Royal Navy… later salvaged.
Sinking of HMS Ben my Chree
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Propaganda was widely used by both the Allies and the Central Powers in the Press of the day - Newspapers, Magazines, Postcards and later silent movie films.
The aim was to enhance one’s own point of view and lambast the opposition to show how evil he was.
Common themes: Greatness of national leaders. Brothers-in-Arms against the foe. Strategic objectives.Small children in the nursery with their toys.
The Power of Propaganda
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Kaiser Wilhelm II visited Constantinople in 1917 to help prop up the crumbling Ottoman war effort.
These two photos show him wearing the full uniform and regalia of a Field Marshal of the Ottoman Empire.
The Power of Propaganda
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The Three Emperors of the Central Powers: Kaiser Wilhelm II - Germany, Mehmed V –
Ottoman Empire, Franz Joseph – Austria-Hungary.
Propaganda (1)
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The Four Kids at play: Germany, Austria, Hungary and the
Ottomans building the strategic Berlin to Baghdad Railway.
Propaganda (2)
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Three kids of the Central Powers stand together:
Propaganda (3)
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Soldiers of the Central Powers: German, Ottoman, Austrian, Hungarian.
Propaganda (4)
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The UK view from PUNCH magazine, 1916: Germans saddling themselves with an
unwilling (Ottoman) camel in the Middle East.
Propaganda (5)
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Canakkale Martyrs’ Memorial at Morto Bay, celebrating 253,000 Turks who participated in the campaign at Gallipoli. Officially opened in 1958; stands 41.7m/137ft high; includes museum & cemetery.
Monuments - Canakkale Campaign
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57th Regiment Memorial and cemetery on Second Ridge / “The Chessboard” at Gallipoli.
Focus of Turkish national military commemorations every Anzac Day.
Monuments – 57th Regiment
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Turkish asker or mehmet – 57th
Regiment
Monuments on GallipoliRescue of wounded
British soldier
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At the 57th Regiment Memorial Gallipoli
2009
Turkish Soldiers – a comparison
Turkish Conscript in 1915
tropical uniform
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National War Museum Istanbul
(Daily performances)
Centuries of Tradition – Janissary BandNational Monument –
Gallipoli Peninsula -18th March
YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kkHhLXmDox8
YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DZr1ibaFE_4
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Questions???
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Presentation © CopyrightDavid Wilson
AIF Research ServicesMay 2014