ORPHAN BEAR CUBSRehabilitation And Release Guidelines

John Beecham, Ph.D.2006 Funded by The World Society for the Protection of Animals

ContentsPreface 4

Acknowledgements 5

Summary 6

RehabilitationandReleaseGuidelinesforOrphanBearCubs 9

I. Introduction 9

II. ConservationImplications 11

III. OptionsforthePlacementofOrphanedBearCubs 12

1) Leavingcubsinthewild 12

2) Placingcubsincaptivity 13

3) Raisingandreleasingcubs 13

4) Euthanizingcubs 14

IV. DecisionsabouttheSuitabilityofCubsforRehabilitationPrograms 14

V. RehabilitationFacilities 15

1) Licensing/Funding 15

2) NumberandSizeofEnclosures 15

2) ConstructionMaterials 17

4) EscapeDeterrents 17

5) VisualBarriers 18

6) HabitatEnrichment 19

7) Denning/ShadeStructures 20

VI. CharacteristicsofOrphanedBearCubs 21

VII. HandlingMethods 22

1) ContactwithCaretakers 22

2) HealthIssues 24

3) Feeding 25

4) Socializingcubs 29

5) Hibernation 29

VIII. ReleaseSiteConsiderations 31

1) ReleaseSiteApprovals 31

2) HabitatAssessment 31

3) LandUseIssues 32

4) TopographicConsiderations 33

5) Predation 34

6) Competition 34

7) Genetics 35

8) Disease/Parasites 36

9) EcologicalIssues 36

IX. ReleaseConsiderations 37

1) PublicRelations 37

2) AscertainingtheSuitabilityofaBearforRelease 39

3) ReleaseType 40

4) TimingoftheRelease 41

5) TranquilizingBears 43

6) Marking 46

7) Transportingcubs 47

8) Monitoring 48

9) Interventions 50

10) Evaluation 51

X. KeyElementsAssociatedwithSuccessfulReleases 52

APPENDIXA:DEFINITIONSUSEDINTHETEXT 54

APPENDIXB:SCIENTIFICNAMESOFREFERENCEDSPECIES 56

REFERENCES 57

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Preface

Thefollowinginformationwasdevelopedbasedontheexperienceoftheauthor

inraisingandreleasingAmericanblackbearsinIdahobetween1972andthe

present,frominformationderivedfromthescientificliteratureandfromthe

observationsandexperienceofmanybearrehabilitatorswhorespondedin

2005toasurveyofbearrehabilitationcentersaroundtheworld.TheWorld

SocietyfortheProtectionofAnimals(WSPA)fundedthesurvey.Itwassent

electronicallyto40individualswithexperienceraisingand/orreleasingorphan

bearcubs.Theywereaskedtoidentifycriticalcomponentsoftherehabilita-

tionprocessassociatedwithsuccessfulreleases.Twenty-threeindividuals

representingsevencountriesrespondedtothesurvey,providinginformationon

themethodstheyusedtoraise,releaseandmonitorthesurvivalofsixspecies

ofbears.Specifictopicsaddressedinthesurveyincludedthephysicalchar-

acteristicsoftherehabilitationfacility,handlingandcareofthecubs,funding

sourcesandreleaseandmonitoringprotocols.Ashortfollow-upsurveywas

senttoselectedindividualstogatheradditionalinformationaboutthefatesof

releasedbears.

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Acknowledgements

Severalpeoplemadesignificantcontributionstotheseguidelines.VictorWatkinswas

instrumentalindevelopingtheconceptforthedocumentandforbudgetingfundingthrough

TheWorldSocietyfortheProtectionofAnimals(WSPA).I.Souza(WSPA),O.E.Can(WSPA),

C.Isaacs,andS.Dolson(GetBearSmartSociety)providedusefulcommentsonearlydrafts

ofthedocument.Specialthanksgotoallofthewildliferehabilitatorswhowillinglyshared

theirknowledgeandexperiencewithrehabilitatingorphanedbearcubs.Theyare:

KayeBaxter SarveyWildlifeCareCenter,WA,USA

LeonardoBereczky VierPfotenRehabilitationProject,Romania

TobyCannon SantaMarthaRescueCenter,Ecuador

ArmandoCastellanos FundacionEspiritudelBosque,Ecuador

TimCochnauer WildAnimalRehabilitationofIdaho,ID,USA

SusanDieterich FriscoCreekWildlifeHospitalandRehabilitation,CO,USA

TonyGrant AspenValleyWildlifeSanctuary,Ont.,Canada

LeonaGreen HillspringWildlifeRehabilitation,BC,Canada

BrijKishorGupta CentralZooAuthority,Delhi,India

BenKilham KilhamWildlifeRehabilitation,NH,USA

AngelikaLangden NorthernLightsWildlifeRehabilitationCenter,BC,Canada

GailMartin CritterCareWildlifeSociety,BC,Canada

SallyMaughan IdahoBlackBearRehabilitation,ID,USA

MikeMcIntosh BearwithUs,Ont.,Canada

CherylMillham LakeTahoeWildlifeCare,Inc.,CA,USA

SergeyPazhetnov OrphanBearRehabilitationProject,Russia

ValentinPazhetnov OrphanBearRehabilitationProject,Russia

SvetlanaPazhetnov OrphanBearRehabilitationProject,Russia

CeciliaSanders WetMountainWildlifeRehabilitation,CO,USA

LindaSearles SouthwestWildlifeRehabilitationandEducation,AZ,USA

DanaSims KindredSpiritsWildlifeCenter,NC,USA

ClioSmeeton CochraneEcologicalInstitute,Alb.,Canada

JeanSoprano KindredKingdomsWildlifeRehabilitation,N.Y.,USA

LisaStewart AppalachiaBearCenter,TN,USA

GaryvanZuylen ThaiSocietyfortheConservationofWildAnimals,Thailand

DianeWilliams SanBernardinoMountainsWildlifeSociety,CA,USA

Theeffortsoftheseindividualshavelaidthefoundationforfuturebearreleasesthatwill

contributetothelong-termconservationpotentialforbearspeciesinmanypartsofthe

world.

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Summary

Rehabilitation and release of bear cubs—a viable option for many cubs

Rehabilitationandreleaseprogramsoriginallywereestablishedasanal-

ternativetoeuthanizingorphanedcubsormaintainingthemincaptivityfor

theremainderoftheirnaturallives.

Bearcubsareorphanedduetoavarietyofcauses.Someofthemore

commonreasonsincludecommerciallanduseactivities,regulatedand

non-regulatedhunting,weatherevents,road/trainaccidents,abandonmentasaresultoffoodshortages,andnuisancesituations.

Fouroptionsmostfrequentlyconsideredbywildlifeofficialstoaddress

orphanedcubsare:

1.toleavethecubsinthewildtofendforthemselves;

2.tocapturethemandplacethempermanentlyinazooorresearchfacility;

3.tocapturethemandplacethemtemporarilyinarehabilitationfacility;

4.toeuthanizethem.

However,everybearhasitsownpersonality(muchlikepeople),sodeci-

sionsregardingthesuitabilityofacubforrehabilitationareprobablybest

delayeduntilthebearisreadyforrelease.

Rehabilitation facilities

Largerenclosurescontainingnaturalvegetationandhabitatenrichment

maydecreasetheprobabilitythatbearswilldevelopstereotypicbehaviors

andincreasebears’chancesofsuccessfullyadaptingtolifeinthewild.

Bearstobereleasedintowinterdensshouldbeprovidedwithdenning

structuresintheenclosurethatpermiteasyaccessbythereleaseteam,so

theanimalscanbetranquilizedwithminimaldisturbancebeforetheyare

transportedtothereleasesite.

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Duringabear’shibernationperiod,itisimportanttominimizedisturbance

arounditsenclosure.

Caring for bear cubs during rehabilitation

Cubsdonotneedtolearnsurvivalskillsfromtheirmother(ortheirhuman

caretakers).Therefore,cubsshouldbeexposedtominimalcontactwith

humansduringtherehabilitationprocess.

Allowingcubstosocializewithothercubsmaybethesinglemostimpor-

tantfactorinreducingthelevelofhabituationofcubsraisedincaptivity.

Minimizingcontactbetweenacubanditscaretakers,post-weaning,ap-

pearstobeanimportantconsiderationwhenraisingsinglecubs.

Minimizingthenumberofcaretakersandlimitingtheirfeedingandcare

interactionswiththebearsappearstobeveryimportantincreatingand

maintainingthebears’avoidancebehaviorforpeopleotherthantheircare-

taker.

Researchhasshownthataformulacomposedof24%fat,12%protein,

andveryfewcarbohydratessimulatesthecaloricqualityofbearmilkand

resultsinfastergrowthratesthanadiethighincarbohydrates.

Releasing rehabilitated bear cubs—the technique

Thefirstconsiderationinchoosingareleasesiteisitshabitat:whetherthe

potentialsiteiswithinthespecies’historicrange,iscurrentlygoodbear

habitatandislargeenoughtosupportabearpopulation.

Observationssuggestthat bearsshouldbereleasedinareas(andattimes

oftheyear)whereitisunlikelythebearswillencounterpeopleduringthe

firsttwoweeksaftertheirrelease.

Itisadvisabletoavoidreleasingorphanedbearsduringactivehunting

seasonsforbearsorotherlargemammals.

Itisimperativethatbearreleasesoccurinareaswithadequatenatural

foodresourcesandthatthereleaseteamisawareofpotentialattractants

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intheareathatcouldresultinhighmortalityratesfromhuman-bearcon-

flicts.Stepsshouldbetakentoavoidreleasingbearswherethereisahigh

probabilitytheywillbecomeinvolvedinconflictsituations.

The release of rehabilitated bear cubs—other important con-siderations

Theissueofgenetic“pollution”isnotarelevantfactorforreleasesifthe

orphanedcub’sprovenance(capturelocation)isknownandtheproposed

releaselocationiswithinthegeographicalrangeoftheorphanedcub.In

situationswherethecub’sprovenanceisunknown,genetictestingofthe

cubandtherecipientbearpopulationistheonlysafe,ethicalapproachfor

releasingthecub.

Theriskofintroducingeitherdiseaseorparasitesintowildpopulations

isunacceptable.Allbearsmustbethoroughlyexaminedandtestedfor

diseaseexposureandparasiticinfestationbyalicensedveterinarianprior

torelease.

Theabilitytoconstructorusenaturalcavitiesfordenningappearstobe

aninnatebehaviorcommontobears,regardlessoftheiragewhenthey

enterarehabilitationfacility.Thissuggeststhatprovidingthemwith

naturalorartificialdensmaybeunnecessaryinsomeinstances.However,

bearsreleasedinareaswherethegroundisfrozenwouldbenefitfrombe-

ingplacedinadenatthetimeofrelease.

Inadvanceofreleasingbearsfromarehabilitationfacility,itisadvisableto

developaninterventionplanthataddressesanyconflictsthatmaydevelop

ifareleasedbearbecomesinvolvedinanuisancesituationoractsaggres-

sivelytowardspeople.

Releasingorphanedbearsbacktothewildhasthepotentialtocreatea

greatdealofcontroversyinnearbycommunitiesunlesspublicrelationsef-

fortsareplannedandcarriedoutpriortotherelease.

Tobetterunderstandthedynamicsbetweensuccessfulandfailedrelease

efforts,rehabilitatorsneedtocooperatemoreindocumentingmethodsof

raisingandreleasingbearsandmonitoringtheirfatesafterrelease.

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Rehabilitation and Release Guidelines for Orphan Bear Cubs

I. Introduction

Bearshaveplayedanimportantculturalroleinmanyhumansocietiesforcenturies.Much

oftheirmystiqueisdueto:

Lackofknowledgeabouttheecologyoftheseshyanimals,whichtendtoavoid

encounterswithpeople;

Theirappearanceandbehaviors,whicharesimilartohumans’;

Theperceptionthatbearsarelarge,potentiallydangerousthreatstopeopleliving,

workingandrecreatinginbearhabitat.

Themystiquetendstogenerateverystrongfeelingsinhumans,rangingfromastrongdesire

tobeclosetothemtoapalpablefearofharm.Fortunately,mostpeoplerecognizethatbears

poselittlethreattothemandtheyarestrongsupportersofeffortstomaintainviablebear

populationsinthewild.

Bearcubsweighfrom225-565g(8to20oz)atbirthanddependontheirmothersfor17

to29months.Duringthistime,theyaresubjecttorelativelyhighmortalityrates,especially

iftheirmothersarekilled.Occasionally,orphanedcubsarerescuedfromthewildand

placedinwildliferehabilitationfacilities.Initialattemptstorehabilitateorphanedbearcubs

demonstratedsomesuccessandencouragedotherrehabilitatorstoattemptreleasesof

cubsbacktothewild.Theseinitialrehabilitationeffortswereandcontinuetobeananimal

welfareissueformanypeople:Theydonotwanttoseeorphanedcubsdieofstarvationor

keptincaptivityunderinhumaneconditions.

Thesuccessfulreleaseoforphanedbearstothewildhasgeneratedinterestinstarting

rehabilitationprogramsinmanycountries.In2006,programswereinplaceforsevenofthe

eightspeciesofbears.Therationaleforreleaseeffortshasshiftedtoincludethepotential

conservationbenefitsofmaintainingsmall,isolatedbearpopulationsorre-introducingbears

intopreviouslyoccupiedhabitat.Thefirstattemptatreleasingcaptive-bredpandabears

backtothewildoccurredinChinaduring2006.

Formorethanthreedecades,biologistsandrehabilitatorsintheUnitedStatesandCanada

havebeeninvolvedinreleasingorphanedAmericanblackbearcubs(refertoAppendixB

10

forscientificnames)intooccupiedbearhabitat.1,2,3,4Duringthattime,severalhundred

orphanedblackbearcubswerereturnedtothewildusingavarietyoftechniques,ranging

fromfosteringthemtolactatingfemalebearsintheirwinterdenstopen-raisingthecubs

andreleasingthematabout5monthsofage,whentheywereconsideredself-sufficientand

capableofsurvivingontheirown.1,2

InonePennsylvaniastudy,fostermothersreadilyadoptedorphanedcubsplacedindens

priortomid-April.Afterthatdate,theywerefrequentlykilledorabandonedunlessthe

femalewasdruggedandVicksVapoRubwasplacedinhernostrils,orshewasseparated

fromhernaturalcubsformorethan2hoursandthenreunitedwithhercubsandthe

orphancubs.Anotherstudy,inTennessee,evaluatedtheshort-termsurvivalof11reha-

bilitatedAmericanblackbearcubsreleasedat11to18monthsofage.5Tworadiocollars

failed,butnomortalitiesweredocumentedfortheotherninecubsthrough180daysof

monitoring.IncentralOntario,Canada,thesurvivalandmovementsof60radio-collared,

orphanedAmericanblackbearyearlingsfromthreerehabilitationcentersweremonitoredfor

twoyears.6Thesebearsdispersedanaverageof34km(21mi)fromtheirreleasesite,with

amaximumdispersaldistanceofover400km(248mi).Survivalthroughtwoyearswas

comparabletosurvivalratesexperiencedbywildyearlingblackbears.

Inthepast15years,biologistshaveexperimentedwithreleasingbrownbearsintheU.S.,

CroatiaandRomania;AsiaticblackbearsintheRussianFarEast(RFE)andSouthKorea;

sunbearsinIndonesia;andAndeanbearsinEcuador.10,11,12,13,14

Verylittleinformationisavailableonthesuccess

ofthesereleases,buttheinformationthatdoes

existsuggeststhatsomereleasesweresuccess-

ful.Othersdidnotfareaswell,resultinginthe

animalsbeingrecapturedandreturnedtocaptiv-

ity.Itisunclearwhysomeofthesereleaseswere

notsuccessful,buthandlingmethodsmaynot

havebeenideal,includingtheexposureofthe

cubstoanunknownnumberofcaretakersand

thepublicwhilethecubswereincaptivity.

Thefirstorphanedbrownbearcubreleasein

theU.S.occurredinMontanain1975,when

afemalecubwasplacedinanartificialwinter

den.7Althoughthisbearremoveditscollarin

theden,itwasobservedinthereleaseareaFigure 1.Cubsrarelystarvewhen

releasedatmorethan7monthsofage.

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thefollowingspringandneverwasimplicatedinanynuisancesituationsafterrelease.Two

femalebrownbearcubswereear-taggedandreleasedinnorthcentralBritishColumbia

in1996.Oneofthesebrownbearcubswasobservedtwoyearsafterit’srelease,but

thesecondhasnotbeenobservedsinceitwasreleased8.Researchersinvolvedinthe

unsuccessfulreleaseofthreebrownbearcubsinCroatiaconcludedthatthemethodsused

toraisethecubs,notnutritionalfactors,causedthereleasestofail,sinceallthreecubs

wereingoodphysicalconditionwhentheywererecaptured.15Since1982,morethan130

orphanedEuropeanbrownbearshavebeenreleasedinwesternRussia.9Althoughattempts

todeterminethefatesofthesebearshavebeensporadic,noreleasedorphanswereinvolved

innuisanceactivitiesafterrelease,andfivebearswereknowntosurvive>4years.

II. Conservation Implications

Oftheeightrecognizedspeciesofbearsintheworld,sevenarethoughttobeindeclinein

allorpartsoftheirhistoricalrangeasaresultofhumanactivities.OnlytheAmericanblack

bearappearstobestable.Habitatfragmentationandlossisamajorfactorinthedecline

ofbearpopulationsthroughouttheworld.Otherhumanactivitiesthatseverelyimpact

bearsincludekillingbearstoprotectlifeandproperty,unregulatedhuntingandcommercial

exploitationforbodypartsorthepettrade.16Globalwarmingmaybeafactoraffectingpolar

bearhabitatintheArctic.

Manyhumanactivitiesresultintheorphaningofbearcubs.Rehabilitationandrelease

programsoriginallywereestablishedasanalternativetoeuthanizingthesecubsortomain-

tainingthemincaptivityfortheremainderoftheirnaturallives.Rehabilitationprograms

alsohaveprovidedpositiveeducationalandpublicrelationsvaluetogovernmentalentities

chargedwithmanagingwildbearpopulations.Rehabilitationprogramsalsoprovidewildlife

managerswithanopportunitytousereleasedanimals,assurrogatesforthreatenedbear

species,toevaluatelong-termstrategiesformanagingsmallbearpopulations,withnorisk

tothreatenedorendangeredbearpopulations.

However,releaseprogramsarenotwithoutsomecontroversywithintheconservation

community.Thesignificanceofthecontroversyrangesfromdisagreementsaboutwhatto

callattemptstoreleasebearstomoreimportantissuesregardingthesurvivalprobabilities

ofreleasedanimals,theriskofspreadingdiseaseandparasites,competitionwithresident

animalsandthepotentialforhybridizationwithintherecipientpopulation.17

TheInternationalUnionfortheConservationofNatureandNaturalResources(IUCN)

RedListincludesfourofthesixspeciesofbearsthatcurrentlyhaveactiverehabilitation

programsinplace.18Theconservationbenefitsofraisingandreleasingorphanedbearcubs

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backtothewildhavenotbeendemonstratedinthefield.However,preliminaryresults

suggestitmaybefeasibletouseorphanbearreleaseprogramstoaugmentsmall,isolated

populationsinareaswherehumanactivitieshavecausedbearnumberstodecline,orto

reintroducebearsintoformerlyoccupiedhabitatsfromwhichtheywereextirpated.

III. Options for the Placement of Orphaned Bear Cubs

Bearcubsareorphanedduetoavarietyofcauses.Someofthemorecommonreasons

includecommerciallanduseactivities,regulatedandnon-regulatedhunting,weather

events,road/trainaccidents,abandonmentasaresultoffoodshortages,andnuisance

situations.Regardlessofthereasoncubsareorphaned,wildlifeofficialsfacedifficultdeci-

sionsinattemptingtobalancethepublic’sconcernforthewelfareofthesecubsandtheir

obligationaswildlifestewardstoprotectthewellbeingofnativebearpopulations.Thefour

optionswildlifeofficialsmostfrequentlyconsiderareto1)leavethecubsinthewildtofend

forthemselves,2)capturethemandplacethempermanentlyinazooorresearchfacility,3)

capturethemandplacethemtemporarilyinarehabilitationfacility,or4)euthanizethem.

1) Leaving cubs in the wild

Leavingacubinthewildisaviableoptionformanycubsiftheyareoldenoughtosurvive

aloneandhaveadequatefatreserves.Althoughbrownbearcubsasyoungas6months

old19areknowntohavesurvivedinthewildafterbeingorphaned,andAmericanblackbear

cubs2,20asyoungas5to7monthsofagehavesurvived,informationfromstudyingreleased

bearssuggeststhatsurvivalratesarehigherforolder,largercubs.

Bearsareinherentlyshyanimalsthataresolitaryformostoftheyear,exceptforfamily

groups.21Bearcubsdependprimarilyontheirmothersforprotectionagainstpredatorsuntil

theyareself-sufficient.Theexperiencesofmanyrehabilitatorssuggestthatthebehaviors

andskillscubsneedtosurviveinthewildareinstinctiveanddonotneedtobetaughtto

thembytheirmothers.Asaresult,thelikelihoodofcubssurvivingwithoutinterventionby

humansprobablyincreasessubstantiallyastheygrowolder,largerandlessvulnerableto

predationbyadultbearsorothercarnivores.

Thecircumstancesthatledtotheorphaningofthecubsalsomayinfluencetheirchances

forsurvivalinthewild.Cubsorphanednearhumanhabitationorinhabitatsinfluencedby

humanactivitiesmaybeatgreaterriskofbecominghabituatedornuisanceanimalsinthe

future.

Theprimaryadvantageofchoosingthisoptionisthecubsremainapartofthenaturalfauna

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andliveatnocosttomanagementauthorities.Themaindisadvantageistheymaybeless

likelytosurvivethaniftheywereraisedinarehabilitationfacilityandreleasedwhenthey

wereolderandlargerinsize.

2) Placing cubs in captivity

Placingorphanedcubsinpermanentcaptivityistheoutcomeleastdesirabletomany

peopleinterestedinthewelfareoforphanedcubs.Bearsarelong-livedanimalsandrequire

relativelylargeenclosures.Consequently,thedemandforbearsasdisplayanimalsby

researchfacilitiesorzoologicalinstitutionsislow,sofewopportunitiesexistforplacingthem

inpermanentcaptivity.Whilethisoption,too,involveslittlecosttowildlifemanagement

authorities,thecubsarelosttothewildpopulation.

3) Raising and releasing cubs

Rehabilitationfacilitiesofferanotherviableoptionforwildlifemanagersinareaswherethey

areavailable.Thesefacilities,whenoperatedbyexperiencedpersons,havedemonstrated

thatbearscanbeexcellentcandidatesforreleasebacktothewild.Survivalratesforor-

phanedcubsdonotdiffersubstantiallyfromthoseofwildcubs,andfewanimals(lessthan

2%)becomeinvolvedinnuisancesituationswithinoneyearoftheirrelease.2,6,22

ReproductionhasbeendocumentedforAmericanblackbearsreleasedasyearlingsina

studyof19setsofcubsbyeightdifferentfemales—includingonesetofcubsproducedby

theoffspringofareleasedorphanbear.23Reproductionalsohasbeendocumentedfora

releasedAndeanbearinEcuador.12Thesedatasuggestthatconcernsaboutthesurvivability

ofreleasedcubsandtheirabilitytofunctionbehaviorallyaswildbearsarenotvalidwhen

goodrehabilitationtechniquesareusedtoraisethecubs.

Anobviousadvantageofplacinganorphanedcubinarehabilitationfacilityisthatthe

wildlifemanagerretainstheoptionofreleasingtheanimalbackintothebearpopulationifit

isdeemedasuitablecandidate.Opportunitiesforraisingandreleasingcommonbearspe-

cies(i.e.Americanblackbear)alsoallowrehabilitatorsandwildlifeauthoritiestodevelop

methodologiesthatmayproveusefulinthefuture,ifintensivemanagementofthreatenedor

endangeredbearpopulationsbecomesnecessary.

Anumberofdisadvantagesareassociatedwithplacingcubsinarehabilitationfacility,

however.Inmanycases,thecostofraisingandreleasingorphanedcubsissubstantial,

althoughfrequentlyitisbornebytherehabilitatorusingfundingfromprivatewelfare

organizations,personalfundsandgrants.Asignificantrisktowildbearpopulationsexistsif

careisnottakentoensurethatallbearsreleasedarefreefromdiseaseandparasites.Two

importantfactorsshouldbeconsideredbeforereleasingcubs:Thestatus(agestructure)of

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thewildbearpopulationinthereleasearea,andassurancethattheareadoesnotcontain

bearsofadifferent,distinctgenotype.

�) Euthanizing cubs

Euthanasiaisclearlyalesscostlyandsaferalternativeavailabletowildlifemanagers.

Euthanizinganorphanedcubeliminatesanyrisksassociatedwithgeneticorecological

issuesandis,bydefinition,ahumaneact.However,manypeopledonotviewthisoptionas

apositivechoice,anditcangeneratenegativepublicityforthegovernmentalentitycharged

withprotectingandmanagingbearpopulations.Choosingeuthanasiaasthepreferredalter-

nativedisregardstheabilityofwildlifemanagersandrehabilitatorstoappropriatelyaddress

disease,geneticandotherecologicalissuesduringtherehabilitationprocess.Anappropriate

protocolforraisingandreleasingbearcubsshouldtaketheseissuesintoaccountandresult

inminimalornorisktowildbearpopulations.

IV. Decisions about the Suitability of Cubs for Rehabilitation Programs

Orphanedcubsareheldincaptivityforvaryinglengthsoftimeandunderavarietyof

conditionsbeforetheyaredeliveredtoarehabilitationfacility.Thecircumstancesrangefrom

situationswherethecubsareveryyoungandexposedtoverylittlehumancontact,tocubs

heldincaptivityforseveralmonthsexperiencingdailycontactwithmanydifferentpeople.

Incaseswherethecubshavehadminimalcontactwithpeople,thedecisiontoplacethe

cubsinarehabilitationfacilityisnotdifficultforwildlifebiologistsorfortherehabilitators

whowillcareforthem.However,ifcubshavehadrelativelylong-termcontactwithpeople,

decisionscanbedifficultbecauseofconcernsabouthabituationorthepotentialforcubsto

injureorkillhumansafterrelease.

Veryyoungorbottle-fedcubswillbecomehabituatedtotheircaretakerunlessthecaretaker

makesaverydisciplinedefforttominimizeallinteractions(includingconversation)with

thecub.Itisunclear,however,whetherhabituationtoonlyoneortwohumansresultsin

alowerprobabilityofasuccessfulrelease,especiallywhencontactisreducedsignificantly

afterweaningandthecubshaveanopportunitytosocializewithothercubsduringrehabili-

tation.Experiencedrehabilitatorshavedemonstratedsuccessinreleasingcubsthathadcon-

siderablecontactwithpeoplepriortoweaningat5to6monthsold,buthadonlylimited

contactwiththeircaretakerduringpost-weaningcaptivity.Cubsthatenterarehabilitation

facilityolderthan5monthsofagealsowillreadilyhabituatetotheircaretaker,butthey

oftenremainwaryofstrangerswhenapproached,eveninthepresenceoftheircaretaker,

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andaregoodcandidatesforrelease.However,bearsexposedtomanydifferentindividuals

duringrehabilitation,especiallyafterweaning,maybemoredifficulttoreleasesuccessfully.

Every bear has its own personality, so decisions regarding the suitability of a cub for

rehabilitation are probably best delayed until the bear is ready for release.

Reportsofbearsattackingpeoplearerareformostbearspecies,butbearsnevertheless

haveareputationasbeingdangerous,particularlybrown/grizzly,Asiaticblackandsloth

bears.24,25,26,27Asaresult,wildlifeofficialsinseveralcountrieshaveexpressedconcerns

aboutraisingandreleasingsomespeciesofbears.Theseconcernscertainlyarevalid

andmustbeconsideredbeforereleasingcubsfromarehabilitationfacility.Nevertheless,

hundredsoforphanedbearcubs,includingmorethan130brownbearsinRussia,28have

beenreleasedfromrehabilitationfacilitiesinthelast30years,andtherearenoreportsof

releasedbearsinjuringorkillingaperson.Itisentirelypossiblethatareleasedbearcould

becomeaggressivetowardpeopleinaconflictsituation,butthesedatasuggestthattherisk

ofinjuryordeathtopeoplefromreleasedbearsislow.

V. Rehabilitation Facilities

Rehabilitationfacilitiesfocusedonraisingandreleasingbearsarelocatedinurban,rural

andwildenvironmentsthroughouttheworld.22Thelocationofthesefacilitiesdictates,in

manyways,thetypeofconstructionmaterialsthatcanbeused,thesizeandnumberof

enclosuresneededandtheappropriatetypesofescapedeterrents.

1) Licensing/Funding

Mostwildliferehabilitationfacilitiesareprivatelyownedandoperated,butallarerequired

tobelicensedbygovernmentalentitiesresponsibleformanagingwildlife.Veryfew(2out

of23)oftheindividualsrespondingtoasurveyofrehabilitationcentersreportedreceiving

fundingfromgovernmentalsources;themajorityreceivedmostoftheirfundingfromprivate

sources,includinganimalwelfareorganizationsandthegeneralpublic.22Themajorityof

rehabilitationcenteroperatorsalsoreportedusingpersonalfundstomaintainthefacilityand

careforthebears.

2) Number and Size of Enclosures

Bearsarebroughtintorehabilitationfacilitiesduringallmonthsoftheyear.Therefore,are-

habilitationfacilitythathasseveralenclosuresofvarioussizesavailableoffersconsiderably

moreflexibilityinthenumberofbearsthatcanbehousedatanygiventime.Althoughmost

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facilitiesdonotseparatebearsbysex,theydooccasionallyseparatethembysizewhen

suchdifferencesaredeemedimportant.Injuredorsickbearsalsoneedtobeseparated

fromotherbearstofacilitatehealingandtreatmentprotocols.Incaseswheresomebears

arebeingforcedtohibernate,itmaybenecessarytohouseunderweightorunderagebears

inaseparateenclosuresotheycancontinuetobefedthroughoutthewinter.TheNational

WildlifeRehabilitatorsAssociation(NWRA)recommendsthefollowingminimum enclosure

sizesformembersoftheUrsidfamily:29

Table 1. Minimum recommended sizes for Ursid enclosures by age groupings.1*

Age Infant Nursing/Pre-weaned

W x L x H

Juvenile/Adult

(Outside)

W x L x H

Injured Adult

(Inside)

W x L x H

Size

English1*

Metric

20gallons

76litres

3x6x3

0.9x1.8x0.9

20x36x16

6x11x5

8x12x8

2.4x3.6x2.4

Infantcubs(frombirthto8weeksofage)mustbehousedseparatelyfromoldercubs

(yearlings),andtheyrequirefrequentfeedingsandawarmenvironment.Infantsmustbe

housedinaheatedroominasmallcarryingkennelorboxlinedwithdrytowels.Cubs

between8and12weeksofagecanbemovedtoasomewhatlargerenclosuretogive

themmoreroomtomoveaboutandinteractwithothercubs.Thesecubsstillcannot

surviveexposuretorainandcoldtemperatures,sotheenclosuremustofferprotectionfrom

theelements.Cubsbeyond12weeksofagecanbehousedinanoutsideenclosurethat

providessufficientshadeduringsummermonthsandshelterfromextremeweatherevents.

IndividualsrespondingtotheWSPAsurveyreportedusingenclosuresaslargeas1.2to2.0

ha(3to5acres)forlargercubs/yearlings.22

Although the NWRA has published minimum standards (Table 1) for bear enclo-

sures, larger enclosures containing natural vegetation and habitat enrichment may

decrease the probability that bears will develop stereotypic behaviors and increase

their chances of successfully adapting to life in the

wild. 30, 31

1 *Dimensionalmeasurementsareinfeet(English)andmeters(metric).

1�

3) Construction Materials

Themostcommonmaterialsusedtoconstructenclosuresforbearsareheavy-gaugewoven

wire(chainlink)ornetwire.Enclosuresalsohavebeenconstructedfrombrick,concrete

orothersolid,durablematerials,includingheavy-gaugemetaltubingandmetalsheeting.

Manyfacilitiesuseacombinationofthesematerialsfortheirenclosures.Theprimaryfactor

affectingthesuitabilityofanenclosureforbearcubsisdurability.Bearsareinquisitive

animals,andtheycanbeverydestructiveastheyexploreandtestthelimitationsoftheir

enclosure.Theflooringforallenclosuresshouldbeanaturalmaterial,suchasgrassor

dirt.29

�) Escape Deterrents

Facilitieslocatedinbearhabitatandfarfromhumanneighborsmaynotbeconcerned

aboutaccidentalreleases(escapes),whilethoseinurbanareasneedtotakespecial

precautionstoavoidaccidentallyreleasingbearsfromthefacility.Smallenclosures

typicallyarecoveredwithchainlinkornetwiretopreventbearsfromescaping.Larger

enclosuresusuallyhaveelectricfencingalongtheirverticalwallsapproximatelyone

meterabovetheground,plusseveralstrandslocatedalongthetopoftheenclosure.

Figure 2.Heavygaugeverticalmetalbars. Figure 3.Netwirewithelectricfencingaroundperimeter.

1�

Allfacilitiesuseburiedwire(wovenornetwire)orburiedconcretealongtheinsideperim-

eteroftheenclosuretopreventbearsfromdiggingholesundertheperimeterfencing.Afew

facilitiesemployadouble-entrydoorsystemtoreducetheriskofanimalsescapingviaan

entrance.Allentrancesshouldbesecuredwithcombinationorkeyedlockstopreventthe

bearsfromopeningthedoorsandtopreventunauthorizedhumanentryintotheenclosure.

�) Visual Barriers

Mostfacilitiesusenaturalorartificialmaterialstoscreenenclosures.Thisprevents

bearsfromseeinghumanactivityadjacenttotheenclosureorseeingtheircaretakers

duringfeeding.

Figure �. Heavygaugemetalsheetingmountedabovechainlink.

Figure �. Fullyenclosedandcoveredchainlinkenclosure.

Minimizingvisualcontact

betweenbearsandtheircare-

takersbyusingartificialbarriers

hassomeappealtowildlife

managersandrehabilitators.

However,becausebearsdepend

primarilyontheirsensesofsmell

andhearingtoavoidpredators

andotherdangeroussituations,

itisunlikelythatsimplevisual

barriersareeffectiveinpreventingFigure 6. Opaqueplasticsheetingusedasavisualbarrier.

1�

thebearsfromrecognizingthatpeopleareclosebyorareinvolvedinfeedingthem.Visual

barriersandsmall,darkstructures(shelters)withintheenclosuredoservethesecurity

needsofshybearsandbearsnewtotheenclosure,however,andbarriersmayprovidesome

levelofstressreliefforthoseindividuals.

Nodifferencesbetweensuccessratesforreleaseshavebeenreportedforfacilitiesusing

artificialvisualbarriersandthosethatsimplyrestrictthenumberofindividualsinvolvedin

caringforthebearsandlimittheirinteractionswiththebears.

Minimizing the number of caretakers and their interactions with bears while they

feed and care for them appears to be very important in creating and maintaining the

bears’ avoidance behavior toward people other than caretakers.

6) Habitat Enrichment

Manywildanimalsarepronetodevelopingstereotypicbehaviors(pacingorbawling)when

incaptivity,andbearsarenoexception.31,32,33,34Inanefforttominimizetheopportunity

forthesetypesofbehaviorstodevelop,rehabilitationfacilitiestypicallyplaceobjectsmeant

tostimulatethecubs(habitatenrichment)intheenclosures.Inmanycases,theseitems

simulatenaturalobjectsfoundinbearhabitat.Severalrehabilitationfacilitiesalsoprovide

human-madeobjectsforthebearstoamusethemselveswithduringcaptivity.Objects

commonlyplacedinbearenclosurestoprovideenrichmentincludewaterfeatures(streams,

poolsorlargetubs),climbingstructures,trees,logs,stumpsandtoys(balls,boxes,etc.).

Figure �.Climbingstructures. Figure �. WaterFeature

20

�) Denning/Shade Structures

Intemperateclimates, itoccasionallybecomesnecessarytoover-winterbearcubsina

rehabilitationfacilityinpreparationforalatewinterorspringrelease.Placingsmall,well-in-

sulatedstructures(boxesordens)intheenclosureprovidesthebearswithasecureenviron-

mentforhibernatingandresting.Mostdensusedbywildbearsarejustlargeenoughtohold

anadultmalebearoranadultfemaleaccompaniedbyyoung.However,inrehabilitation

facilities,onlythesizeofthedenlimitsthenumberofcubsthatwilluseit:

Figure �. Artificialdenstructurebeingusedforshade.

Largerstructuresthatcanaccommodatemorecubsareasreadilyusedassmallerstruc-

tures.Structuresplacedintheenclosurefordenningpurposescanbepartiallyorcompletely

buriedorfilledwithstrawtoincreasetheirinsulation.Buriedstructuresalsocanbeused

duringthesummertomoderatehightemperaturesinanenclosurewhereambienttempera-

turesexceed30°C(86F)forextendedperiodsoftime.

Bears that will be released into winter dens should be provided with denning structures

in the enclosure that permit easy access by the release team, so the animals can be

tranquilized with minimal disturbance before being transported to the release site.

21

VI. Characteristics of Orphaned Bear Cubs

Orphanedbearcubsarebroughtintorehabilitationfacilitiesthroughouttheyear.Eachbear

mayrequireslightlydifferenthandling,dependingonitsstageofdevelopment,habituation

historyandindividualpersonality;typeofenclosureavailable;timeofyear;andpresenceof

othercubsinthefacility.Imprintingonhumancaretakersisoftencitedasamajorconcern

forrehabilitatedbears,particularlyanimalsthatenterrehabilitationfacilitieswhenthey

areveryyoung.However,theexperienceofmanyrehabilitatorssuggeststhatimprintingis

notafactorinraisingbears.Veryearlyintheirlifecyclebears,willimprintonmovement

orrespondtospecificsounds,buttheyarenotagregariousspecies,soimprintingisnot

asdevelopedasitisinmanymoresocialspecies.Asaresult,imprintingisalessserious

considerationtorehabilitatorsthanhabituation.

Bearsquicklyhabituatetotheirhumansandoftendisplaybehaviordemonstratingacloserelationshipwiththeircaretaker.Normally,thisbehaviorevolvesasthecubsbecomeolder.Withtime,theybeginshowingmoreindependence,especiallyifothercubsareintheenclosure.Youngbearsareveryplayfulanimalsandwillreadilyminglewithothercubsintheenclosure,givingthemanopportunitytodevelopappropriatesocialskillsforinteractionswithotherbearsaftertheyhavebeenreleased.Occasionally,singlecubsreadilyinteractwiththeircaretakerthroughtheirfirstyear,butthatbehaviorusuallydiminishesaftertheyhavehiber-nated.Insituationswhereonlyonecubispresentintherehabilitationfacility,itmaybenecessarytoholditincaptivityforalongerperiodoftimebeforerelease,

toallowthenaturalseparationbetweenthecaretakerandthecubtodevelop.

Figure 10.Americanblackbearandabrownbearhousedinthesameenclosure.

Bearsaregeneticallypredisposedto

leavetheirnatalhomerange(emigrate)

withinayearoffamilybreak-up;they

donotmaintainalong-termrelationship

withtheirmotherorsiblings.

Observations of cubs’ behavior

toward their caretakers suggest

that their genetic predisposition

to emigrate and lead a relatively

solitary life likely limits the ef-

fects of habituation to humans

during the rehabilitation process.

22

Regardlessoftheiragewhentheyarriveatarehabilitationfacility,cubsdemonstratedif-

ferentpersonalities.Manyareveryshyandalwaysavoidcontactwithcaretakers;others

arenotshyandactivelyinteractwiththeircaretaker.Insomefacilities,caretakersdirectly

discourageanyinteractionfromthetimethecubentersthefacilityuntilitisreleased;others

donot.Oneindividualusesasmallsticktodiscouragecubsfromapproachingtheircare-

takerduringfeedingbytappingthecub’sfeet.Anotherpersonusesbehavioraldominance

techniquestodiscourageinteractionsbythecubswiththeircaretaker.35

Althoughcubsshowlessinterestintheircaretakersandavoidinteractionstosomeextent

astheyage,aconservativeapproachthatdiscouragesinteractionswiththecaretakermay

increasetheprobabilityofsuccessfullyreleasingmostbearstothewild.Cubsthatenter

therehabilitationfacilitywhentheyaremorethan6monthsofagewillhabituatetotheir

caretakeranddemonstratenoevidenceofexcessivestresswhilethecaretakerispresent

intheenclosure.However,theyrarelytoleratebeingapproachedbythecaretakerandwill

moveawayifgiventheopportunity.

Occasionallycubsenterarehabilitationfacilityaftertheirmotherhasbeenkilledinanui-

sancesituation.Inthesecases,itisnotunusualforwildlifeauthoritiestoexpressconcerns

aboutthelevelofhumanhabituationthecubshavebeenexposedtobeforearrivingatthe

rehabilitationfacility.However,iftherehabilitationfacilityusesprovenmethodstoraisethe

cub,thelevelofhumanhabituationofanorphancub’smotherisnotagoodpredictorof

howthatcubwillrespondtohumanswhenitisreleasedbackintothewild.

VII. Handling Methods

1) Contact with Caretakers

Rehabilitationfacilitiessurveyedin2005usedsimilarmethodsforhandlingbottle-fedcubs;

however,whenthecubswereolder(feedingfromabowl)somedifferenceswerenotedin

theamountofhumancontactwiththecubs.Forbrownbears,caretakersinonefacility

attemptedtoeliminateallconversationbyusinghandsignalstocommunicate.Theywore

cottongloveswhilefeedingveryyoungcubstopreventthecubsfrombecomingaccustomed

tohumanvoicesandpresence.Atotherfacilities,conversation(sometimeswiththebear

cubs)wasnotuncommon.Althoughitisdifficulttoargueagainsttakingaveryconserva-

tiveapproachwithregardtothepotentialnegativeeffectsofhumanconversationoncub

development,itisnotclearhowimportantthatapproachistominimizingtheattachment

betweenthecaretakersandthecubs.

23

Taking steps to minimize conversation in the presence of cubs is a more conservative

approach and worth serious consideration.

Themostdifficultsituationforcaretakersinvolvedraisingasinglecub.Muchofthedifficulty

resultedfromtheinabilityofasinglecubtosocializewithotherconspecifics,leadingthe

cubtoplacemorefocusonthecaretakerthandesirable.Onefacilityallowedsinglecubs

tointeractwithadogtodivertthecub’sattentionfromthecaretaker22.Itreportedthatthe

behavioraldevelopmentofcubsexposedtothedogevolvedinmuchthesamemanneras

thebehaviorofcubsthatonlyinteractedwithothercubsintherehabilitationprocess.Very

youngcubsraisedintheabsenceofothercubstendtoshowlonger-terminterestininteract-

ingwithcaretakers.However,thesecubswilldevelopmoreindependenceastheynearthe

timefornormalfamilybreak-upinawildbearpopulation.

Forthemostpart,minordifferencesinthewaycubsarehandledseemtomakelittledif-

ferenceintheabilityofcubstoadapttotheirwildsurroundingsafterrelease.Allfacilities

contactedinWSPA’ssurveyofrehabilitationcentersrestrictedpublicaccesstothefacility

andtothecubsinthefacility22.Mostrespondentsalsoreportedthattheyminimizedthe

numberofcaretakersinvolvedinhandlingthecubsinanefforttoreducethepotentialfor

cubstobecomehabituatedtothepresenceofhumans.However,theeffortrequiredtofeed

cubsandcleantheirenclosuresdailyresultsinfrequentcub/humancontact.

Minimizing the number of individuals the cubs are exposed to during captivity and

reducing interactions between caretakers and cubs during feeding and enclosure

cleaning may reduce the level of habituation that occurs.

Bottle-feedingveryyoungcubsrequiresfrequent,dailycub/humancontact,suggestingthat

theseanimalsmaybecomeverydependentonhumancaretakersandthereforepoorcan-

didatesforrelease.Suchcubsdoshowconsiderabledependenceontheircaretakerswhile

beingbottle-fedandforaperiodoftimeafterweaning.However,astheygrowolderthey

appeartobecomemoreindependentandshowlessinterestintheircaretakers,especially

iftheyhaveothercubstointeractwithinthefacility.Afterweaning,cubsprefertointeract

withothercubsandoftenwillignoreafamiliarcaretakerintheenclosure.Allowingcontact

betweencubsandlargenumbersofhumansdidappeartobeacommonfactorassociated

withunsuccessfulreleaseattemptsforbrownbears,however.14,36

2�

2) Health Issues

Orphanbearsoftenenterrehabilitationfacilitiessufferingfrommildmalnutritionorstarva-

tion,superficialwounds,parasiticinfections,internalinjuriesordisease.However,bearsare

particularlyresilientanimalsandwillrecoverfrommanyoftheseailmentswithappropriate

treatmentprotocols.

Thepotentialforspreadingdiseaseorparasitesshouldbeamajorconcernforindividuals

engagedinbearrehabilitationprograms.Bearsareknowntoshowexposuretoavariety

ofdiseasepathogens.Althoughactivecasesofdiseasearerareinthewild,37thepotential

existsforreleasedcubstoinfectwildbearswithdiseasepathogensorparasitestheyhave

beenexposedtopriortoorduringtherehabilitationprocess.Manyindividualsrespondingto

WSPA’ssurveyreportedthathealthissueswerenotimportantintherehabilitationprocess

becausetheytookappropriateactiontoensurethatallcubsreleasedwerehealthy.Onlyfour

individualsrespondingtotheWSPAsurveydidnotrequireaveterinariantoexaminecubs

priortorelease;13didrequireaveterinarian’sexamination;andsixreportedtheypersonally

testedallcubsfordiseasebeforerelease.22Withoutthoroughpre-releasetesting,itisimpos-

sibletoensurethatreleasedanimalsarehealthyandfreeofdisease.

Parasiticinfestationsarenotuncommoninrehabilitationfacilities.Manyorphancubsare

broughtintothefacilityinpoorphysicalconditionasaresultofinadequatecareincaptivity,

orasaresultofdehydrationormalnutrition.

Minimizing post-weaning contact between the cub and caretakers appears to be an

important consideration when raising single cubs.

Figure 11. UrsicopticmiteinfestationonanAmeri-canblackbear.

Thesecubsareverysusceptibletointer-

nalandexternalparasiticinfestations.

Internalparasitesthatmaybefoundin

orphanedbearcubsincluderound,tape

andtrichinellaworms.Orphanbearcubs

inpoorconditionalsocanbevulnerable

toexternalparasitessuchasticks,lice

andUrsicopticmites,bothinthewild

andincaptivity.Periodicandroutine

treatmentwithIvermectin,eitherorally

orbyinjection,isaneffectivemeansof

controllingmanyecto-parasitesfoundon

cubsincaptivity.

2�

Maintainingcleananddryenclosurescontributessignificantlytokeepingbearshealthy

andcontrollingthepresenceofdiseaseandparasitesinthefacility.Tominimizethetime

caretakersareindirectcontactwithcubsintheenclosure,itmaybehelpfultocoordinate

feedingandcleaningactivities.Thesizeandnumberofcubsineachenclosurewilldictate

thefrequencyandlengthofcleaningtime.Othermeasuresthatmayberequiredtoprevent

thespreadofdiseaseorparasiteswithintherehabilitationcenterincludequarantiningsick

ornewlyarrivedbearsbeforeintegratingthemintothemainenclosure,takingsanitary

precautionspreparingthecubs’food,andoccasionallydisinfectingitemsintheenclosure,

especiallyinsmallenclosureswithnon-porousflooring.

3) Feeding

a. Infants (Birth to 8 weeks)Intemperateregionsoftheworld,bearcubsusuallyareborninJanuaryorFebruarywhile

themotherbearishibernating.Thecubsarequitesmall(0.2-0.5kg;0.5-1.0lb.)and

helplesswhentheyareborn.Theyareverydependentontheirmotherstoprovideadequate

nutritionforgrowthbeforeleavingthedeninthespring.Motherbearsnursetheircubsfor

9to28months,dependingonspecies.Bearmilkhasaveryhighcaloricvalue,andthe

cubsgrowveryfastforthefirstfewmonths.38Bythetimebearcubsleavetheirnataldens

inAprilorMay,theireyeshaveopened,theyaresomewhatmobile,andtheirfurcoathas

developedtothepointthattheyhavesomeprotectionfrominclementweather.

Figure 12. Bottle-feedingEuropeanbrownbearcubsinTurkey.

Bearcubsthatrequirebottle-feedinghavespecialneedsintherehabilitationprocess.In

manyrespects,theyareverysimilartowhatahumanbabyrequires:security,sleepand

food.Theyoungestcubsneedsmallamountsofformula(15%to25%oftheirbodyweight)

26

everytwotothreehoursaroundtheclock.By30daysofage,cubsneedonlyfivetoseven

feedingsperday.After90days,thedailyquantityoffoodcanbetaperedoffto10%to20%

ofbodyweight.39

Atanearlyage,cubswillbenefitfromorderandroutineinthefeedingprocess.Theymay

showpreferencesforcertainnippletypes,thecolorofthebottlecaporthepositioninwhich

theyareheldwhilefeeding.Avarietyofhumaninfantbottlesandnippleshavebeenusedto

hand-raisepolarbearcubsinzoos.39Developingaroutineforhandlingandfeedingthecubs

providesthemwiththesenseofsecuritytheyneed,andwillcontributetotheirdevelopment

aswildbears.Veryyoungcubsthathavereceivedinadequateattentionoftentendtoshow

moredependenceontheircaretakers,andtheyhaveamoredifficulttimewithseparation,

astheygetolder.

Inearlyattemptstoraiseorphanedcubs,peopleusedevaporatedmilkandlightcream

dilutedwithwaterforbottle-feedingsmallcubs,40orsimplyusedvariousdilutionsof

evaporatedmilkandwater.41Occasionally,eggyolkswereaddedtofortifytheformula.

Whenresearchersexperimentedwithvariousformulaswhileraisingbrownbearcubsfrom

threeseparatelitters,theyconcludedthataformulacomposedof24%fat,12%proteinand

veryfewcarbohydratessimulatedthecaloricqualityofbearmilk.Itresultedinfastercub

growthratesthanartificialdietshighincarbohydrates.15Theyalsoreportedthatcubsraised

incaptivityconsumedalmosttwicetheamountoffood(asapercentoftotalbodyweight)

aswildcubsandwere1.3to2.7timesaslargeaswildcubsofanequivalentage,atmost

stagesofgrowth.42

Mostrehabilitationfacilitiesuseacommercialformulatofeednursingcubs,butsome

havedevelopedtheirowncustomrecipe.Onecommonpowderedcommercialformulaisa

combinationofEsbilacandMulti-Milkinthefollowingmixture:43

Commercial Formula: ��% Multi-Milk2*

2�% Esbilac

Mix one part powder with two parts water

One Canadian rehabilitator uses a slightly different formula consisting of: �

Powdered puppy formula mixed with warm water

1 table spoon of plain Yogurt

1 tea spoon Multi-vitamins

1 tea spoon of vegetable oil

2 *Availablefrom:UPCOP.O.Box969,St.Joseph,MO64502U.S.A. www.upco.com

2�

TheSanFranciscozoosuccessfullyraisedapolarbearcubfromtheageofonedayby

startingthecubonadilutedformulaofEsbilacandboiledwater(1:3ratio)forthefirst5

days,thengraduallyincreasingtheamountofEsbilactoa1:1ratiowithwaterbythetime

thecubwas30daysold.Theyalsoaddedpediatricvitamins(0.5ml/100gms)andKaro

syrup(4ml/100gms)totheformula.39

Tomakebasicformulamorepalatabletocubsandreducethenumberoffeedingseachday,

ingredientssuchasKarosyrup,honey,Gerber’sstrainedfruit,babycerealorGerber’sbaby

ricecerealcommonlyareadded.Techniquesforencouragingyoungcubstofeedfroma

bottlearedescribedintheIdahoBlackBearRehabilitationHandbook.43Whenanutrition-

allycompletemilkreplacerisused,itmightnotbenecessarytoaddpediatricvitaminsto

theformula.39Plainyogurthasbeenusedtoaddressproblemswithupsetstomachsand

diarrheainsmallcubs8.

InwesternRussia,thePazhetnovsbottle-feedorphanbrownbearcubsaslightlydifferent

combinationofingredients.44

Custom formula: 3 liters fresh milk 2 large spoons of dried milk

1 liter water 2 tablespoons of sugar

200 ml semolina (similac) dash salt

Asthecubsgetolderandarereadytoeatfromabowl,thePazhetnovsaddacookedbarley

mixture(1partbarleyto5partswater)totheirdiet.Oncethecubsbegintakingtheirfood

fromabowl,thePazhetnovsgivethemformulaatthemorningfeedingplusthefollowing

twiceduringtheday;inthemorningandagainintheafternoon.

Afternoon Feeding: Liquid formula listed above � tablespoons vegetable oil

� eggs Cooked barley

2 teaspoons multi-vitamins

Somecubswillbegintakingformulaofferedinabowlatanearlyage(70+days).15,42

Twoimportantfactsareassociatedwithweaningveryyoungcubsfromabottle.First,

hungrycubstendtobecomefranticorexcitedatfeedingtimeandwillturnthefeeding

bowlover,wastingfood,unlessitissecurelyanchoredinplace.Also,suckingbehavioris

geneticallydriven.Whencubsarenotallowedtosuckle,theyoftenattempttonurseontheir

footpadsortheearsofothercubs(ortheircaretaker).Bottle-fedcubsoftenexpressthis

alternativesucklingbehavior,particularlyiftheholeinthebottlenippleislargeandformula

flowsoutofthebottleveryquickly.Althoughthecubhasafullstomach,itstillneedsto

2�

suckleforaperiodoftimetosatisfythenaturalurgetosuckle.Topreventcubsfromat-

temptingtosuckletheirfootpadsortheearsofothercubs,thecaretakermayneedtouse

anipplewithasmallerholeorallowthecubtosuckleonhis/herarmafterfeeding.Using

anipplewithasmallholealsoreducestheriskofthecubaspiratingformulabecauseitis

flowingtoofast.

b. Pre-weaned cubs (9 to 20 weeks)Althoughbearcubsnurseformorethanninemonthsinthewild,theybeginfeedingon

smallamountsofsolidfoodssoonaftertheyleavethedeninthespring.Theagethat

nursingshiftsfromanutritionalfunctiontooneofsocialbondingwiththemotherbearis

notclear.Incaptivity,cubsmaycontinuetakingformulafromabottleorbowluntiltheyare

severalmonthsold,buttheycanbeintroducedtosolidfoods(cannedfruit,oatmealordry

cerealsoakedinformula)atabout9weeksofage.Cubsgenerallyweanthemselvesfrom

thebottleat5to6monthsofage,buttheycanbeforciblyweanedatamuchearlierage.

Figure 13.Troughusedtostabilizefeedingbowls.

Atweaning,theirdietconsistsprimarilyoffruits,drydogfood(fornutritionalbalance),

nuts(acorns),somevegetables,andoccasionallyfishorthecarcassesofungulatesdo-

natedbylocalhunters.Individualbearswillshowpreferencesforcertainfoodsandrefuse

toeatotherfoodsthatarereadilyacceptedbyotherbears.Solidfoodscanbepresentedto

bearsinavarietyofways(scattered,hidden,chunks,etc.)toincreasebehavioralenrich-

mentintheenclosureandencouragethebearstosearchfortheirfoodastheydointhe

wild.Supplementalfoods(i.e.grapes,raisins,peanutbutterandhoney)canbeprovided

tothebears,butshouldbevariedandshouldnotexceed3%,byweight,ofthetotaldiet

providedeachday.39

2�

�) Socializing cubs

Orphancubsraisedassinglecubstendtoremainattachedtotheircaretakersforlonger

periodsthancubsthathaveanopportunitytosocializewithothercubs.Whenhuman

contactwiththecubsisseverelyrestrictedafterweaning,cubswillshowlessinterestin

interactionswiththeircaretakers,regardlessofwhethertheyareraisedassinglesorin

thepresenceofothercubs.Thetendencyforallcubstobecomelessdependentontheir

Figure 1�. Allowingcubstosocializewithothercubsisimportanttotheirdevelopment.

humancaretakersastheyapproachdispersalagemayberelatedtogeneticpredisposition

toemigratefromtheirnatalrangeshortlyafterfamilybreakup.Allbutoneoftheindividuals

respondingtoWSPA’ssurveyindicatedthattheyallowedcubstosocializewithoneanother

intherehabilitationcenter22.However,severalindividualsalsoreportedseparatingcubs

bysizeand/oragewhentheybelievedthosedifferenceswereimportanttothesafetyofthe

smallercubs.

Allowing cubs raised in captivity to socialize with other cubs may be the

single most important factor in reducing the degree of their habituation.

�) Hibernation

Intemperateclimates,twoofthemorecommonreleasestrategiesaretoplaceorphaned

cubsintonaturalorartificialdensinwinter,ortoreleasetheminthespringwhengreen

vegetationisreadilyavailabletothem.Bothrequireholdingthecubsincaptivityforpartor

allofthewinterdenningperiodwhenwildbearsnormallywouldbehibernating.

30

Onetothreecubsinarehabilitationfacilitywillusealmostanysmall,darkshelterfor

hibernating.Insituationswithfourormorecubs,cubsoftendentogetherinarelatively

largehibernaculum(den).Mostfacilitiesprovidegrass,hayorstrawforinsulationwithinthe

denandletthecubsarrangeitastheychoose.

Cubs’physicalconditionandhealthstatusshouldbeevaluatedpriortoforcingtheminto

hibernation.Whencubshavesufficientfatreservesandarehealthy,theirfoodsupplycan

bereducedgraduallyforacoupleofweeksandthencompletelywithdrawn.Typically,cubs

willbegintoshowlethargicbehaviorinthelatefall(mid-tolateOctober)andwillnaturally

reducetheirfoodintake;however,theywillcontinuetofeedandresisthibernatingaslong

asfoodisavailable.

Figure 1�. Brownbearcubemergingfromanatu-raldendugintheenclosure.

Inmoderateclimates,bearsgenerallydenforshorterperiodsoftimeinthewinter,soreha-

bilitatorsmustusetheirjudgmentorconsultwithlocalwildlifebiologiststodeterminethe

appropriatetimetobeginwithdrawingfoodfromthecubs.Localweatherconditionsplay

animportantroleinthehibernationprocess:Mildconditionsdelaytheonsetofhibernation,

whileseverecoldmaycausethebearstodenearlier.

Regardlessofweatherconditions,itisimportanttorecognizethatbearsenterandemerge

fromadormantstategradually.Itisnotuncommonfororphancubstoremainactivefor

severalweeksaftertheirfoodhasbeencompletelywithdrawnortooccasionallyemerge

fromtheirdenforshortperiodsoftimewhenweatherconditionsmoderateforafewdays.

During the hibernation period, it is important to minimize disturbance around the

bear’s enclosure.

31

VIII. Release Site Considerations

Rehabilitationfacilitiesoftenhavelittlecontrolorinputintodecisionsaboutwheretore-

leasebears;typically,thatistheprovinceofthegovernmentalwildlifeauthorityresponsible

formanagingwildbearpopulations.Releasesitedecisionscaninfluencethesuccessof

rehabilitationefforts,however,makingitimperativethatbearrehabilitatorsestablishasolid

workingrelationshipwithwildlifebiologiststoensurethatconditionsintheproposedrelease

areaarefavorableforarelease.Severalfactorsshouldbeconsideredwhenchoosinga

releasesite.

1) Release Site Approvals

Manypotentialreleasesitesarelocatedonpubliclandorlandadministeredbygovern-

mentalauthorities,andtheirpermissionmustbeobtainedbeforecaptiveanimalscanbe

releasedbacktothewild.Insomecases,locallawsmayprohibitindividualsfromreleasing

captiveanimalstothewild,regardlessoflandownership.Alloftherehabilitatorsrespond-

ingtoWSPA’ssurveyindicatedtheyeitherworkedcloselywithgovernmentalwildlifeperson-

nelintheirreleaseefforts,ortheappropriatewildlifeauthoritiestookfullresponsibilityfor

choosingreleasetimesandlocationsandcarriedoutthereleases.22

2) Habitat Assessment

Thefirstconsiderationsinchoosingareleasesitearewhetherthepotentialsiteiswithinthe

historicrangeofthespecies,iscurrentlygoodbearhabitatandislargeenoughtosupport

abearpopulation.Dependingonthetypeofrelease(re-introduction,supplementation,

etc.),determiningthesuitabilityofanareaforsupportingaviablebearpopulationcanbe

assimpleasdocumentingthepresenceofbearsinaprescribedgeographicallocation,oras

difficultasconductinghabitatsuitabilitystudiesinthearea.45

Atthispointintime,withtheexceptionofattemptedreleasesofAsiaticblackbearsin

SouthKorea,allreleasesoforphanbearsfromrehabilitationcentersarebestdescribedas

supplementaloraugmentationreleases(seeAppendixA,IUCNdefinitions).46However,

asrehabilitationandreleasemethodologiesareperfected,morebearreleasesmayoccur

withtheintentofre-establishingpopulationsinunoccupied,butsuitable,habitat,orof

augmentingthegeneticvariabilityinsmall,isolatedpopulations.Inthemeantime,itmaybe

advisableforreleasepersonneltoestablishthatagivenareahasthehabitatcharacteristics

necessarytosupportreleasedbears.

32

Ataminimum,releaseareasshouldhaveadequatefoodandwaterresourcesforthebears

touseduringtheiractiveseason,potentialdensites(intemperateclimates),relativelylow

humandensities,andenoughsizetosupportaviablebearpopulation.Otherlanduseissues

tobeconsideredinchoosingareleasesiteincludedistancetonearesthumansettlements,

historyofhuman/bearinteractionsinthearea,presenceandtimingofhuntingseasonsfor

bearsandotheranimals,presenceandtypeoflivestockusingthearea,predominantland

useactivity(agriculture,forestry,Wilderness,etc.),andpublicattitudestowardbearsinthe

area.

3) Land Use Issues

Inmostrehabilitationfacilities,itisalmostimpossibletopreventbearcubsfrombecoming

somewhathabituatedtotheircaretakers,especiallycubsthatcomeintothefacilityatavery

youngageandarebottle-fedforsomeperiodoftime.Althoughbearcubsgraduallybecome

moreindependentoftheircaretakersduringtherehabilitationprocess,theymaycontinueto

demonstratesomelevelofhabituationuntilthedaytheyarereleased.However,experience

suggeststhat,inmostcases,bearcubsbecomeverywaryofhumans,includingindividuals

whowereresponsibleforcaringforthem,withinashorttime(10to14days)aftertheyare

released.

These observations suggest thatbears should be released in areas (and at times of the

year) where they are unlikely to encounter people during the first two weeks after their

release.

Insituationswhereitmightbeverydifficulttofindaremotereleaselocation,thetimingof

thereleasemaybecomethemoreimportantconsiderationinchoosingthesite.Biologists

intemperateclimateareashavereleasedbearssuccessfullybyplacingtheminnaturalor

artificialdensinwinter,ratherthanreleasethematothertimesoftheyearwhenpeopleare

usingforestedareasforfoodgatheringandrecreation.Winterreleasesalsoavoidproblems

whenareashaveadocumentedhistoryofhuman-bearconflictsrelatedtotheavailabilityof

anthropogenic(humanfood)foods.

Poachingandlegalhuntingactivitiesareadditionalconsiderationsthatmayinfluencethe

successofbearreleases.Althoughverylittleinformationexistsregardingtheeffectsof

poachingonreleasedbears,theyoccasionallyareshotduringlegalbearhuntingseasons,

usuallyduringthefirstyearoftheirrelease.Itisnotclearwhetherreleasedcubsaremore

vulnerabletohuntersasaresultoftherehabilitationprocessoraresimplyvulnerable

becausetheyaretravelingwidelyinsearchofapermanenthomerange,asisthecase

33

withwildsubadultbears.Regardless,theexistenceofhuntingandpoachinginapotential

releaseareashouldbeconsideredinchoosinganappropriatereleasesite.

It is advisable to avoid releasing orphaned bears during active hunting seasons for

bears or other large mammals.

Human/bearconflictsassociatedwithlivestockandapiariesarecommoninmanypartsof

theworld.Anybearcanbecomeinvolvedinaconflictsituationwhenhabitatconditions

becomelessthanoptimalduetodrought,wildfires,lossofkeyhabitatorotherenvironmen-

talfactors.Thatisespeciallytrueforbearsreleasedinareaswithinadequatenaturalfood

resources,whetherduetoenvironmentalconditionsorsimplypoor-qualityhabitat.

Alackoffamiliaritywiththelocationofhigh-qualityfoodresourcesinthereleaseareaalso

contributestothevulnerabilityofyoungbears.Insuchsituations,thesebears(aswellas

dispersingwild,subadultbears)maybetemptedtotakeadvantageofunfamiliarbutreadily

availablefooditems,resultinginhighmortalityratesfromconflictswithhumans.Asa

result,itisimperativethatbearreleasesoccurwherenaturalfoodresourcesareadequate

andthatthereleaseteamisawareofpotentialattractantsintheareathatcouldresultin

highmortalityratesfromhuman-bearconflicts.

Steps should be taken to avoid releasing bears where the probability is high that they

will become involved in conflict situations.

Otherreleasesitecharacteristicsthatmightplayanimportantroleindeterminingthe

successofreleasesincludetopographicfeatures,statusoftheresidentbearpopulation,

presenceofpotentialcompetitorsorpredators,andanyotherfactorsthatcouldacttolimit

thebearpopulation.

�) Topographic Considerations

Releasedbearsareknowntodispersefromthereleasesiteforseveralhundredkilometers.

OrphanbearsreleasedinOntariodispersedanaverageof34km(21mi)fromtherelease

site,andthemaximumdispersaldistanceobservedwasover400km(248mi).6Bears

releasedinrelativelyflatterrainorinbroadlydistributedmountainhabitatmayshowno

patternintheirdispersaldirectionfromthereleasesite.Moreover,inlinear-shapedmoun-

tainrangesorinareaswithgeographicalbarrierssuchasverylargebodiesofwaterorlarge

3�

agriculturalareasborderingthereleasearea,bearsoftenwilldispersealongtheaxisofthe

mountainrangeoralongtheborderofanareatheyarereluctanttocross.Releasedbears

alsoareknowntotraveldowndrainages.23Thesedispersalpatternsmayresultinbears

encounteringhumansettlementsshortlyaftertheyarereleased.

�) Predation

Thestatusoftheresidentbearpopulationinareleaseareaalsocaninfluencethesuccessof

releaseefforts.Manyrehabilitatorsprefertoreleasebearsinprotectedareastoreducethe

likelihoodthatbearswillbeshotbyhunters.Onthesurface,thisapproachsoundsreason-

able,butwhenconsideredinthecontextofthesocialstructureofwildbearpopulations,

itmaynotbeaseffectiveasreleasingbearsinareaswherethesocialstructureofthewild

bearpopulationisinflux(disruptedbyhuntingorotherfactors,resultinginhighmortality

ratesinthepopulation).Wildbearpopulationsthatarenothuntedorareonlylightlyhunted

tendtoreflectanold-agedpopulationstructuredominatedbylargemalesandcontaining

fewyoungbears.47Huntedpopulationsaredominatedbyyoungerbears,includingmany

dispersingsubadultmales.48Largeadultmalebearshavebeenimplicatedinthekilling

(infanticide)ofyoungbears,49suggestingthatorphanbearsreleasedinprotectedareas

dominatedbyolder-agedbearsmayexperiencehighermortalityratesduetopredationby

adultmalebears.

Inmanyareasoftheworld,bearsco-existwithotherlargecarnivoressuchastigers,

leopardsandotherbearspecies,andintheseplacespredationmaybeafactorlimitingthe

survivalratesofyoungbears.Althoughnorehabilitationfacilitieshavereportedcubmortali-

tiesasaresultofpredationbytigersorleopards,itisafactorthatshouldbetakeninto

considerationwhenchoosingareleasesitewherebearsco-existwithotherlargecarnivores.

6) Competition

Criticsofsupplementation/augmentationandre-introductionprogramshaveexpressed

concernsthatreleasedbearsmayexperience(orcauseresidentbearstoexperience)high

mortalityratesasaresultofdirectcompetitionforcriticalresourcessuchasfood,spaceor

mates.Thesocialstructureofbearsinvolvesadominancehierarchysystemwherebythe

moredominantindividualshavegreateraccesstofoodandmates.Thephysicalconditionof

allreleasedbearsrecapturedorkilledbyhunterswithinayearoftheirreleaseindicatesthey

hadnodifficultyobtainingadequatenaturalfoodresources.Thisinformationsuggeststhat

directcompetitionisnotasignificantthreattothesurvivalofreleasedorphanbearsortheir

wildcounterpartsinareaswithadequatenaturalfoodresourcesavailable.15

3�

�) Genetics

Geneticconsiderationsfrequentlyarecitedasamajorconcernregardingthereleaseof

orphanedorcaptive-bredbears.Theprimaryconcerninvolvesthelossofgeneticintegrityin

therecipientbearpopulationasaresultofhybridization.Concernsalsohavebeenexpressed

abouttheinabilityofreleasedanimalstosurvivewithoutanopportunitytolearncritical

survivalskillsfromtheirmother.

Thelevelofgeneticdiversityamongconspecificbearpopulationsvariesconsiderablyandis

areasonableindicatorofgeographicseparationovertime.Bearpopulationsthathavebeen

isolatedforcenturiesfromotherpopulationsofthatspeciesareknowntopossessdetectable

differencesingeneticmake-up,generallyresultinginalossofgeneticdiversitywithinthe

population.50,51Somebearpopulationsdohaveuniquegeneticsignatures.Thosepopula-

tionsarenotsuitablerecipientsforreleaseswithoutthoroughtestingoforphanedcubsto

ensuregeneticcompatibility.

Examiningtheissuefromanotherperspective,theremaybesomepotentialbenefitfrom

releasingorphanedbearcubsintosmall,isolatedbearpopulationsasanintrusivemanage-

mentoptiondesignedtopreventthelossofgeneticvariabilityin“atrisk”bearpopulations.

Thegeneticandbiologicalimplicationsoftherelationshipbetweenthelevelofgenetic

diversityandthe“health”ofwildbearpopulationsarecomplexandnotclearlyunderstood.

However,theissueofgenetic“pollution”isnotarelevantconcerninsituationswherethe

provenance(capturelocation)oftheorphanedcubisknownandtheproposedrelease

locationiswithinthesamegeographicalrangeofthespecies.Insituationswheretheprov-

enanceofthecubisunknown,genetictestingofthecubandtherecipientbearpopulation

istheonlysafe,ethicalapproachforreleasingthecub.

Concernsrelatedtothecapabilityoforphancubstosurviveinthewildwithoutthebenefit

oflearningcertainbehaviorsfromthemotherdonotappeartobevalid.Theresultsof

hundredsofreleasesoforphanedcubs,includingcubstakenintocaptivitybeforetheireyes

wereopen,confirmthefactthatalltheskillsbearsneedtosurviveinthewildareinnate,

notlearned.Theprimarybenefitcubsreceivefromtheirprolongedassociationwiththeir

mothersappearstobeprotectionfrompotentialpredators.Thereisnoquestionthatcubs

learncertainbehaviorswhileundertheirmother’scare,andtheycertainlybenefitfromthat

learningopportunity.Observationsofcubsthatentertherehabilitationprocesslateintheir

firstyearindicatetheyreadilyhabituatetotheirhumancaretakers,buttheyaregenerally

morewaryofhumans,andmaybelesslikelytobecomenuisanceanimalswithinayearof

theirreleasethancubstakeninshortlyaftertheywereborn.

36

The fact that cubs do not need to learn survival skills from their mother (or their hu-

man caretakers) reinforces the suggestion that the cubs be exposed to minimal con-

tact with humans during the rehabilitation process.

�) Disease/Parasites

Thepotentialforintroducingdiseaseorparasitesintoawildbearpopulationisasignificant

concernthatmustbeaddressedinanyreleaseprotocol.Diseaseandparasiticinfestations

arenotuncommoninwildbearpopulations.37However,itisraretofindactivecasesof

diseaseinwildorcaptivebears,evenifpositivetiterstoavarietyofdiseasepathogens

intheirbloodsamplesindicatetheyhavebeenexposedtodiseasepathogens.Ifbearsin

captivityhaveexternalparasites(ticks,liceoroccasionallyfleas),aveterinariancaneasily

treatthem,aswellasinternalparasiteslikeroundandtapeworms.

The risk of introducing either disease or parasites into wild bear populations is unac-

ceptable. Therefore, a licensed veterinarian must thoroughly examine all bears prior to

release and test them for disease exposure and parasitic infestation.

�) Ecological Issues

Althoughbearcubsareknowntosurviveinthewildafterbeingorphanedat5to7months

ofage,2,19,20survivalofreleasedbearsappearstobehigherforcubsthatareolderand

heavier.Bearsalsotendtobecomemoreindependentoftheircaretakersastheygetolder,

especiallyiftheyhaveanopportunitytosocializewithothercubsintherehabilitation

process.

Somerehabilitationfacilitiesadvocatereleasingcubsassoonaspossible.Theytypically

releasecubsinlatesummerorearlyfall,whenhigh-qualitybearfoodsareabundantinthe

forest.22Peopleassociatedwithotherfacilitiessuggestthattheoptimumtimeforrelease

shouldcoincidewiththetimeofnaturalfamilybreak-upinthewild.Theytypicallyover-

wintercubsbeforereleasingthemthefollowingspring,tomaximizecubsurvivalrates.

Releasing bears near the time of natural family break-up may be the more conserva-

tive approach to maximize cub survival.

3�

Bodyweightmayinfluencesurvivalandwhetherornotareleasedbearwillbeinvolvedina

nuisancesituationintheshort-termfollowingrelease.Captive-rearedcubsconsumealmost

twiceasmuchfoodeachdayaswildcubs.15Therefore,cubsraisedinarehabilitation

facilityoftenweighconsiderablymorethantheirwildcounterpartsatacomparableage.Itis

likelythatthereleasedcubs’additionalbodymasssomewhatbufferstheimpactofentering

anunfamiliarenvironment.Itmayenhancetheirinitialprospectsforsurvivalinthewildand

reducethelikelihoodthattheywillbeinvolvedinnuisancesituations.Therelationshipbe-

tweenbodyweightandsurvivalornuisanceactivitycertainlyisinfluencedbytheavailability

ofnaturalfoodsinthereleasearea,suggestingthattimingreleaseswiththeproductionof

high-qualitynaturalfoodsalsomayincreasetheprobabilityofsuccessfulreleases.

IX. Release Considerations

1) Public Relations

Publicinvolvementisanintegralpartofbearrehabilitationprograms.Itprovideswildlife

authorities,rehabilitatorsandthepublicanopportunitytoresolveorphancubissuesina

positivelight,toeducatethepublicaboutbearecology,andtoinvolvethepublicinwildlife

programs.Thepublicgenerallyhasapositiveattitudetowardwildlifeandthegovernmental

authoritieschargedwithmanagingwildlife.Infact,themajorityoffundingforrehabilitation

programscomesfromprivatedonations,indicatingthatthepublicisverysupportiveof

theseprograms.22

Wildlifeprofessionalsaretrainedtomanageatthepopulationlevel,andexceptinthecase

ofendangeredspecies,thefateofindividualanimalsrarelyaffectsthestatusofwildpopula-

tions.However,itisimportantforwildlifeauthoritiestorecognizethatthefateofindividual

animalsisimportanttomanymembersofthepublic.Thisdifferenceinperspectivehas

resultedandcontinuestoresultinunnecessaryconflictbetweenthegeneralpublic,animal

welfareorganizationsandwildlifeauthoritiesaboutthedispositionofinjuredororphaned

wildlife.

Bears,andmanyotherspecies,occasionallyareinvolvedinnuisancesituationsthatrequire

biologiststotakeunpopularactionstoremove(euthanize)adultfemalesaccompanied

byyoungoftheyear.Becausebearsareparticularlygoodcandidatesforrehabilitation

programs,raisingorphancubsforreleasebacktothewildprovidesareasonablealternative

toeuthanizingentirefamilygroupsinnuisancesituations.Placinginarehabilitationfacility

thecubsorphanedasaresultofmanagementactionsprovideswildlifeauthoritieswithan

opportunitytodemonstratetothepublicthatthefateofindividualanimalsisimportantand

3�

thatdecisionstokillnuisancebearsarenottakenlightlybyagencypersonnel.Italsogives

governmentalauthorities,rehabilitatorsandanimalwelfaregroupsanopportunitytoeducate

thegeneralpublicabouttheirroleincreatingnuisancesituationsintheircommunity,near

theirhomesandwheretheyrecreateinbearhabitat.

Thereleaseoforphancubsalsoprovidesanexcellentopportunitytoinvolveschool-age

childreninwildlifeprograms,whichcanresultinchangingthepublic’sattitudeabout

controversialspeciesandmanagementprograms.Forexample,inthelate1980stheIdaho

DepartmentofFishandGamere-introducedendangeredwoodlandcaribouintonorthern

Idaho.There-introductionwasverycontroversialbecauseoftheperceivedeconomicthreats

theseanimalsrepresentedtolocalcommunities.

Partofthepublicrelationseffortforthatprojectincludedprovidingselectedclassroomsin

thelocalschooldistrictwithcaribouradiocollarsforthechildrentodecorateandallowing

studentstonametheindividualanimalsthatwouldreceivethecollarswhencapturedand

released.Theclassroomsinvolvedindecoratingthecollarsandnamingthecaribouwere

providedweeklyupdatesonthemovementsandsurvivalof“their”caribou.Thisprogram,

calledAdopt-a-Caribou,wasahugesuccessintermsofeducatingschoolchildrenabout

theecologyofwoodlandcaribou.Thechildren’senthusiasmandsupportfortheprojectalso

appearedtoresultinreducedpublicanimosityforthere-introduction.Involvinglocalgovern-

mentandresidentsinbearrehabilitationprogramsofferssimilaropportunitiesforgaining

publicsupportforwildlifeprograms.

Thegeneralpublicrarelygetsanopportunitytoviewbearsinthewild;peoplecommonly

relyonsecond-personaccountsformuchofwhattheyknowaboutbearsandtheirhabits.

Bearsareshy,secretiveanimals,oftendifficulttoobserveinthewild.However,bearsin

general(andsomespeciesinparticular)canbeaggressiveandcauseinjuryordeathto

humans.Theyalsoarecapableofcausingsevereeconomicdamagestofarmersandranch-

erswhentheydepredateondomesticlivestock,agriculturalcropsorapiaries.

Releasing orphaned bears back to the wild has the potential to create a great deal of

controversy in nearby communities unless public relations efforts are planned and car-

ried out before the release.

Publicrelationsplansneedtoclearlyidentifythestepsthereleaseteamhastakento

preparethebearsforlivinginthewild.Theyalsomustoutlinethemonitoringprotocolthat

willbefollowedtoensurethatthebearscanberecapturedorremovedfromtheareaifthey

becomeinvolvedinnuisancesituationsordemonstrateaggressivebehaviortowardhumans.

3�

Providingreassurancetothepublicbylisteningtotheirconcernsandtakingactionsto

alleviatethemmayresultingreaterpublicacceptanceandsupportforbearreleases.

2) Ascertaining the Suitability of a Bear for Release

Priortorelease,boththephysicalandbehavioralcharacteristicsofabearshouldbe

evaluatedtodetermineifitisasuitablecandidateforrelease.Evaluatingthephysicalchar-

acteristicsisrelativelystraightforward.Itinvolvesassessingbodyandpelageconditionand

examiningthebearforexternalparasitesorinjuriesthatcouldcreateproblemsforthebear

afteritisreleased.Bearscanbecheckedforinternalparasitesbycollectingastool(fecal)

samplepriortothereleasedateandhavingitexaminedmicroscopicallybyaveterinarian.

Goodpelageconditionisparticularlyimportantforbearsthatwillbereleasedduringthelate

fallorwinter,andfatreservesshouldbeadequateforthedateoftherelease.Generalbody

conditioncanbeassessedusingtheguidelinespresentedinTable2.Thebearsshouldscore≥3.

Table 2. A visual method for estimating the body condition of bears prior to their release

to the wild.

1 2 3 � �

Pelvicandshoulderbonesprotruding;ribsveryprominentwithadeepsunkenareabetweentherumpandthelastrib;noob-viousfatundertheskin.

Easytofeelthepelvisandribs;somemuscletis-suecover-ingtheribs;thesunkenareabetweentheribsandrumpremainsobvious,butsofter.

Bodyappearstobefullyfleshedout.Obviouslayeroffatcoveringthepelvisandshoulderre-gion;sunkenareabetweentheribsandtherumpisabsent.

Bearhasablockyap-pearance;veryfull-bodiedoverallbonyareas;obviousfatovertherumpandshoulders.

Legsappearshortforthesizeofthebody;rollsoffatontheneck,shouldersandabdominalarea.

AdaptedfromStandardFieldScoringTableforpolarbears.39

Assessingbears’suitabilityforreleasefromabehavioralperspectiveisfarmoredifficult

becausesomeindividualsmayhavegreaterdifficultyadaptingtoanaturalenvironmentthan

othersthatdisplaysimilarbehaviorsintherehabilitationfacility.Mostcaptivebearsdem-

onstratesomelevelofhabituationtotheircaretaker.Habituationcanrangefromtolerating

thepresenceofthecaretakerintheenclosuretoseekingoutandattemptingtointeractwith

thecaretakerduringfeedingandcleaningactivities.Noclearcorrelationappearstoexist

betweenreleasesuccessratesforbearsshowingminimalhabituationandthosedemonstrat-

ingsignificantlevelsofhabituationtooneortwocaretakers,atleastinsituationswherethe

cubswereallowedtosocializewithothercubsintheenclosure.Habituationofsinglecubs

�0

presentsamoredifficultsituationforrehabilitators.Insuchcases,toincreasetheprobabil-

ityofasuccessfulrelease,stepsshouldbetakentoactivelydiscourageinteractionsbetween

singlecubsandtheircaretakers.

Stereotypicbehaviors(pacing,bawlingorotherbehavioralticks)arenotuncommonin

captiveanimals,particularlyinmammalsthatmaintainlargehomerangesinthewild.52,53

Bearsarenoexception.Themajorityofindividualsrespondingtoasurveyofrehabilitation

facilitiesreportedtheyaddedhabitatenrichmentfeaturestobearenclosurestominimize

theincidenceofstereotypicbehaviors.22Researchersinvolvedinonestudyofcaptivebears

reportedthatthefrequencyofstereotypicbehaviorsandtheirbehavioralpersistencetended

toincreasewithtimespentincaptivity,whichmayaffecttheabilityofbearstoadapt

behaviorallytothewildafterrelease.30

Otherresearchershavequestionedtheseresults,suggestingthatstudiesofcagedanimals

donotprovideacompletepictureofhowcaptivityaffectsthebrainandtheonsetof

stereotypicbehaviors.31Theyconcludedthatanimalsmayadapttheirbehaviortodifferent

environments,andfoundinsufficientevidencetoconcludethatstereotypymayaffectthe

survivalratesofreleasedbears.31Theyalsopointedoutthatfurtherresearchonhabitat

enrichmentprogramsmightshowthatcaptivebearsinarehabilitationfacilityaremore

likelytodemonstrateincreasedlevelsofstereotypicbehaviorsinsmallcagesthanthey

wouldinanenclosurewithmorefavorableenvironmentalconditions(largerenclosures

containingnaturalvegetation).Theseresultssuggestthateventhepresenceofstereotypic

behaviorsinorphanedcubsinarehabilitationfacilitymaynotbeagoodpredictoroftheir

abilitytoadapttothewild.

3) Release Type

Rehabilitatorsreportedthatwildlifeauthoritiesusedavarietyofreleasemethodsfor

releasingorphanedcubsbacktothewild.22Themostcommonmethodwas“hardrelease:”

simplytransportingthebeartothereleasesiteandreleasingitfromthetransportcontainer

directlyintotheforest.Thisistheleastcostlyapproach.“Softrelease,”thesecondalterna-

tive,involvedholdingthebearinanenclosureatthereleaselocationforaperiodoftimeto

allowthebeartoacclimatetoitsnewsurroundingsbeforebeingreleased.Openingthedoor

totheenclosureandallowingthebeartoleaveonitsown,withnopromptingbytherelease

team,accomplishedtheactualrelease.

Twoindividualsreportedthattheytookthebearsfordailywalksintheforestandputthem

backintheenclosureattheendoftheday.54Afteravariablelengthoftime,theenclosure

�1

doorwasleftopenandthebearswerefreetocomeandgoastheychose.Thereleaseteam

continuedprovidingfoodtothecubsaslongastheyreturnedtotheenclosure.Atoneofthe

twosoft-releasesites,inaveryremotearea,thebearshadlittleopportunitytocomeinto

contactwithpeopleaftertheypermanentlylefttheenclosure,andnosignificantbear/human

problemswerereported.Theothersoftrelease,inaruralarea,waslargelysuccessfulbut

theresultsweremixed.

Figure 16. AuthorreleasingayearlingAmericanblackbearinthespring.

Bears,particularlymales,aregeneticallyprogrammedtoemigratefromtheirnatalarea

shortlyafterfamilybreak-up.Asaresult,itisnotuncommonforreleasedbearstotravel

longdistancesfromtheiroriginalreleasesite.Movementsinexcessof200km(125mi)

fromthereleasesitehavebeenreportedforhard-releasedbears.6,55Itisunclearatthistime

whethersoft-releasedbearsmaybemoreinclinedtoremainintheimmediatevicinityofthe

releasesite.

�) Timing of the Release

Anumberoffactorsdeterminethebesttimingforreleasesinaspecificarea,includingthe

ageandweightofthebear,thepresenceofhumanactivity,snowdepths(intemperate

climates)andtheavailabilityofnaturalfoods.Allofthesefactorsarecontrollablebythe

releaseteamandpotentiallycouldinfluencesignificantlytheprobabilityofasuccessful

release.Individualsrespondingtoasurveyofrehabilitationmethodsreportedreleasingbears

successfullyduringthelatesummer/earlyfallofthecubs’firstyear;duringwinterintemper-

ateclimateswherethebearscouldbeplacedinartificialornaturaldens;andinlatespring

ofthecubs’secondyear.22

�2

Typically,latesummer/fallreleasesoccurwhenhigh-qualityfoodsareavailableintherelease

area,andthisapproachthereforemayinfluencethebears’post-releasemovements.Releases

atthistimeofyearalsoareadvantageousbecausethebearsarekeptincaptivitylesstime,

therebyreducingtheirexposuretohumansandthecostofraisingthemfortherehabilitator.

However,summer/fallreleasesoccuratatimeveryclosetotheminimumagecubsare

knowntosurviveinthewildwithouttheirmother,andthusmayresultinsurvivalrates

lowerthanthoseofbearsreleasedinwinterorduringthefollowingspringwhentheyare

yearlings.

Figure 1�.Feedingonberriesinthefall.

Winterreleasesaremoredifficultlogistically

thanotherreleases,buttheyofferanumberof

advantagesthatmaypositivelyaffectsuccess

rates.Themajoradvantageisthatcubsplaced

inwinterdenshibernatethroughoutthewinter,

withverylittleopportunityforcontactwith

humans.Thecubsusuallyemergefromtheir

densveryearlyinthespringwhenhumanuseof

theforestremainslow,allowingthecubsad-

ditionaltimetoadjusttotheirnewenvironment.

Cubsthatdonothavecontactwithhumansfor

10to14daysaftertheirreleaseappeartobe

moresuccessfulinmakingthetransitionbackto

thewildthancubsthatencounterpeopleshortly

aftertheirrelease.55

Tranquilized,orphanedbearshavebeenplacedsuccessfullyinbothnaturalandartificial

winterdens.Occasionally,bearswillabandontheirdensandmoveshortdistancesbefore

buildinganotherden;however,snowdepthsof>30cm(12in)tendtodiscourageden

abandonment.Theabilitytoconstructorusenaturalcavitiesfordenningappearstobe

aninnatebehaviorcommontobearsregardlessoftheagetheyarriveinarehabilitation

facility.Thissuggeststhatprovidingthemwithnaturalorartificialdensmaybeunneces-

saryunlessthegroundisfrozenatthetimeofrelease.

Orphancubsalsohavebeenobservedbuildingelaborateabove-grounddenningstructures

foruseduringwinter.Amajordisadvantageofwinterreleases,inadditiontothe

logisticalchallenges,involvesthenecessityoftranquilizingthecubspriortotransport

(insomefacilities),andthenagainatthereleasesitepriortoputtingthemintotheden.

�3

Tranquilizinganywildanimalinvolvessomeriskandcanbeparticularlychallengingwhen

oneormorecubsarehousedinsmalltransportcages.

Individualswhobelievesurvivalratesarehigherforbearsreleasedduringthetimeframe

whenfamilybreak-upnormallyoccursinthewildfavorspringreleases.Althoughverylittle

dataexiststosupportthisbelief,springreleasesshouldbegivenseriousconsiderationfor

severalreasons.Theprimaryadvantageisthatthecubs(nowyearlings)arelargerandpo-

tentiallylessvulnerabletopredationbylargeadultmalebearsorotherpredators(thisisone

reasoncubsremainwiththeirmothersfor1.5to2.5years).Also,logisticalconsiderations

arenotanimportantconsiderationinspring.Themajordisadvantagesofspringreleases

arethecostsassociatedwithmaintainingcubsincaptivityforalongerperiod,additional

contactwithhumansafteremergingfromhibernation,andpossiblelackofenclosurespace

duringearlyspring,whennewcubsoftenshowupatrehabilitationfacilities.

Releasetimingunquestionablyisanimportantcomponentoftherehabilitationprocess.To

date,mostbearreleaseshaveoccurredwithspeciesthatmaintainthemother-cubfamily

bondforapproximately1.5years,includingbrownbearreleasesinEurope.27InNorth

America,however,brownbearcubsnormallyremainattheirmother’ssideforapproxi-

mately2.5years.Thisraisesthequestionofwhethersuchcubs,whenorphaned,should

bereleasedasyearlings(tominimizehumancontactduringcaptivity)oras2.5-year-olds

(topotentiallyincreasesurvivalrates).ThefewreleaseattemptsmadewithNorthAmerican

brownbearcubshaveoccurredwhenthecubswereyearlings,andmostwereunsuccessful,

suggestingitmightbemoreeffectivetoholdthesecubsuntiltheyare2-or2.5-year-olds

beforereleasingthemtothewild.14

�) Tranquilizing Bears

Inmanyinstances,itwillbenecessarytotranquilizecubstoperformroutinehealthexami-

nations,treatinjuriesorplacetheminatransportboxforrelocationtoanotherenclosureor

areleasesite.Thecaretaker’sabilitytoapproachcubsintheenclosurewilldictatethemost

appropriatemethodofadministeringthedrugs.

a. Jab Stick -Ifbearcubswillallowahumantoapproachwithin2m(6ft.),ajabstick

istheidealequipmenttoadministerdrugs,becauseitdoesnot“force”drugsintomuscle

tissueunderhighpressureandresultsinlesstissuedamage.Jabstickscanbepurchased

commerciallyorbehand-madefromeasilyobtainedmaterials.Somecommercialjab

stickscanbeextendedfrom1m(3ft.)to3+m(10ft.),whileothersarefixedinlength.

Jabstickshaveasmall(12cc)syringemountedonthetipthatholdsthedrugs.Theyare

��

injectedintothemuscletissuethroughan18-16ganeedleaspressureisappliedtothe

stickagainstalargemusclemassinthecub.

Figure 1�. AuthorusingajabsticktotranquilizeanAmericanblackbearcub.

b. Blowpipe-Blowpipesalsoareeffectiveinsituationswherethecubscanbeapproached

closely.Blowpipesaretypicallyabout1m(3ft.)inlengthandcanbeusedaccuratelyat

distancesof3-4m(10-12ft.).Drugsareinjectedintoalargemusclemassbyacompressed

airdart(identicaltothoseusedincaptureguns)blownbymouthfromthepipe.Tubes

suitableforblowpipesshouldbeslightlylargerindiameterthanthedarts.Theycanbe

handmadeorpurchasedcommercially.

c. Capture Gun-Whencubswillnotallowhumanstoapproachthemclosely,adartfired

fromacapturegun(orpistol)iseffective.Apowderchargeorcompressedairfiresthedart.

Thelatteroftenispreferablebecauseitiseasytoadjustthepressuretocompensatefor

changingconditionsintheenclosureasthetargetedbearcubisapproached.Manycapture

gunsarefittedwithtelescopicsightstofacilitateaccuracy.Captureguns(andpistols)fire

compressed-airdartsthatexpelthedrugsintoalargemusclemasswhentheystrikethe

bear.Iflargedrugvolumes(>2cc)areadministered,somemusclebruisingistobeexpected

fromtheimpactofthedartandtheinjectionofthedrugsintothemuscletissue.Thisusually

isnotamajorproblem,butmayresultinaserioussituationifthedartpenetratestheskin

andcutsamajorbloodvessel,orenterstheabdominalcavity.Itisadvisabletousewell

trained,experiencedpeopletoremotelyadministerdrugsusingalltypesofcaptureequip-

ment.

d. Drugs -Thetwodrugscommonlyusedtoimmobilizebearsinordertoperformhealth

examinationsortransportthemtoreleasesitesareKetamineandTelazol.Bothare“dissocia-

tive”anestheticsthatchemicallyseparateconsciousnessfromthesensoryandmotorcontrol

��

mechanismsofthebrain.Thesedrugsproducerapidanalgesia,anesthesiaandatrance-like

state.BothKetamineandTelazolworkverywellonbearsandhavewidemarginsofsafety.

i. Ketamine/Rompun-Ketaminecausesmusclerigidityandisbestusedincombination

withRompun,asedative,whichcausesdepressionofthenervoussystem.Combining

KetamineandRompunalsohasasynergisticeffectthatreducesthevolumeofKetamine

necessarytoachievecompleteimmobilization.AdministeringYohimbinetoarecoveringbear

reversestheeffectsofRompunandresultsinthebearreturningmorequicklytophysiologi-

calnormalcy.DosageratesforthesedrugsarepresentedinTable3.

TheprimaryadvantagesofusingamixtureofKetamineandRompunarethatthesetwo

drugsareinexpensive,theyhaveawidemarginofsafetyandtheyactquickly.Theinduc-

tionperiodforblackandbrownbearsisapproximately3-5minutesor8-10minutes,

respectively,duringtheactiveseason.Thereducedmetabolismofhibernatingbearscauses

inductiontimestoincreasetoapproximately25-30minutesinthewinter.Caremustbe

usedwiththisdrugmixtureduringextremesinambientairtemperaturebecauseitinterferes

withtheanimal’sabilitytoregulateitsbodytemperature.BearsdruggedwithKetamineand

Rompunarecapableofrecoveringveryquickly,sotheymustbemonitoredcontinuously

forearlysignsofarousal(headmovements,lipandnosetwitching,increasedrespiration

orreactiontosound).Occasionally,bearswillrecoverquicklyfromthisdrugcombination

withoutshowingmanyoftheseearlysignsofrecovery.Ketaminecanbeusedtomaintain

anesthesia;multipledosesofRompunshouldnotbeusedtomaintainanesthesia.

ii. Telazol –Thisdrughasbeenusedforyearstoimmobilizebearsandit,too,hasawide

marginofsafety.Telazolcontainsatranquilizer,Zolazepam,tohelprelaxtheanimal.Bears

immobilizedwithTelazolrecovermoreslowlythanbearsdruggedwithaKetamine/Rompun

mixture.Thatcanbeamajoradvantagewhenhandlingtimesarelong.Inductiontimesfor

Telazolareshort(approximately3-8minutes)andbearsoftenremainimmobilizedupto

3hours.Theantagonist,Flumazenil,reversestheeffectsoftheZolazepamcomponentof

Telazol,butisveryexpensiveandnotoftenusedbybiologistsinthefield.Theearlysignsof

recoveryforTelazolaresimilartothosedescribedforKetamine/Rompun.Recoverygenerally

occurs20-30minutesafterthebearisabletoraiseitshead.Ketamineisthedrugofchoice

whenitisnecessarytomaintainanesthesiainabearimmobilizedwithTelazol.

iii.Diazepam(Valium)–Itisnotuncommonforimmobilizedbearstohaveseizuresifthey

areoverdosedorareparticularlysensitivetotheimmobilizingdrugsbeingused.Ifseizure

activityoccurs,administeringDiazepamwillcontrolit.AlowinitialI.V.doseofDiazepam

(0.25mg)isrecommended,followedbyanadditionaldoseafter5minutesiftheseizure

activitycontinues.

�6

Table 3. Recommended dosage rates for black and brown bears.�6

Drug Black Bear Brown Bear

Ketamine/Rompun

(100mg/ml)

Ketamine-2.0mg/lb.I.M.

Rompun–1.0mg/lb.I.M.

Ketamine–3.6mg/lb.I.M.

Rompun–1.8mg/lb.I.M.

Yohimbine

(5mg/ml)

0.05mg/1mgRompunI.V.or

I.M.

0.09mg/1mgRompunI.V.or

I.M.

Telazol

(100mg/ml)

2.0–3.0mg/lb.I.M. 2.0–3.0mg/lb.I.M.

Diazepam

(5mg/ml)

0.25–5.0mg/100lb.I.V.

(givenslowlyover5-10sec.)

0.25–5.0mg/100lb.I.V.

(givenslowlyover5-10sec.)

Figure 1�. Authorplacingaradiocollaronacubpriortorelease.

6) Marking

Applyingasemi-permanentorpermanentmarkto

individualbearsbeforereleasingthembacktothe

wildisanessentialelementofanymonitoringeffort

designedtoprovideinformationaboutmovements

andsurvivalrates.Thetypeofmarkusedtoidentify

individualbearsvarieswiththeobjectivesofthe

monitoringplan.Marksthatprovideopportunistic

data(ear-tags,PITtagsandtattooing)aretheleast

costly,buttheyresultinsporadicdatacollection.

Returnsfrombearsmarkedthuslydependlargelyon

thebearsbeingrecapturedbywildlifeauthoritiesin

researchornuisancesituations,orkilledandreported

toauthoritiesasaresultoflegalhuntingseasons,

roadaccidentsordepredationkillpermits.

Markingbearswithradiocollars(orradioimplants)isfarmorecostlybutproducesbetter

qualityinformationaboutthefateofreleasedbears.StandardVeryHighFrequency(VHF)radio

collars,includingimplants,arelessexpensivetopurchasethanGPScollars,butrequiremore

humanefforttomonitoronadailyorweeklybasis.ThecosttoobtainaVHFradiolocation

variesconsiderably,dependingonmanpowerandvehiclecosts,roadaccessinthereleasearea

andtheavailabilityofsmallaircrafttolocate“missing”collars.ThecostofmonitoringVHF

collarsonorphanedbearscanbereducedbyreleasingbearsinanareawhereotherwildlife

researchormonitoringisoccurring.Releasingorphanedbearcubswhereotheranimalsare

��

beingmonitoreddoesnotreducethehardcostsassociatedwithdruggingandradio-collaring

thecubs,butmaysubstantiallyreducemonitoringcosts.

Inmanypartsoftheworld,largeexpansesofbearhabitatexistwherethelackofroad

accessandsmallaircraftavailabilitylimittheutilityofVHFradiocollars.Intheseareas,

thebestoption—possiblytheonlyoption—formonitoringreleasedbears’movementsand

survivalmaybeGPSorGPS-Satelliteradiocollars.AlthoughGPScollarsaremoreexpensive

topurchasethanVHFcollars,thecostperlocationoftenismuchless.Also,theycanpro-

videinformationonsurvivalandmovementsinplaceswhereVHFcollarsarenotpracticalto

use.InsomeareasofEurope,GPS-GSM(GPScollar-cellphonecommunication)technology

maybeavailable,butitissomewhatexperimental,andadditionalresearchisneededto

validateitsusefulnessfortrackingbears.

Orphanedbearswerereleasedon-site(softrelease)attworehabilitationfacilitiessurveyed

in2005.22Theremainingfacilitiestransportedcubstodistantreleasesitesandwere

requiredtoaddresspotentialproblemsassociatedwithmovingbearsunderenvironmental

conditionsthatvariedfromrelativelyhot(>30°C;>85F)toverycold(<-10°C;<12F)

ambienttemperatures.

Aftercubsaretranquilized,theyshouldbemonitoredtobesuretheyhaveaclearairway,or

theteamshouldwaituntilthecubscancontroltheirheadmovementsbeforetransporting

them.

�) Transporting cubs

Transportcagesmaybeconstructedfromwoodormetalinvarioussizes,largeenoughto

holdasinglecuborseveral.Whencubswillbereleaseddirectlyfromtheirtransportcage,

itssizemaynotbecriticalifallthecubsaretobereleasedinthesamelocation.However,a

cagemustbelargeenoughtoholdcubscomfortably,especiallyiftheyaretranquilizedwhen

placedinthecage.Itisoftenmoreconvenientandsafertoplacenomorethantwocubs

inatransportcageifthecubswillbetranquilizedbeforebeingreleasedfromit(i.e.winter

denningsituations).

Transportingcubsrelativelylongdistancesduringwarmweathermaynecessitateproviding

themwithwater.Inthesesituations,blockiceisanexcellentoptionforkeepingwaterin

frontofthecubsforextendedperiodsoftime.Wrappingtransportcagesincanvasorplastic

tarpsprotectscubsfromcoldtemperaturesduringwinterreleases.Tarpsarenotrecom-

mendedforuseduringwarmweather,however,whenadequateaircirculationisimportant

��

tohelpkeepthecubscool.Extremelyhotweathermayrequiresprayingthecubsdownwith

waterduringtransporttoassisttheminmaintainingcoolbodytemperature,orevenneces-

sitatedelayingthereleaseuntiltemperaturesmoderate.

Figure 20. Metaltransportcagewithdoublelocksondoor.

�) Monitoring

Monitoringreleasedbearsrequiresasignificantinvestmentinbothtimeandmoney.Thisinflu-

encesdecisionsaboutwhetherornottomonitorbears,aswellashowoftenandhowlongto

monitorthem.Becausemanywildliferehabilitatorsdependondonationsfromanimalwelfare

groups,thepublicandoftentheirpersonalfinancialresources,theyoftenrelyongovernmen-

talwildlifepersonneltoconductmonitoring.Inthepast,throughoutmuchofNorthAmerica,

wildlifeauthoritieswerenotactivelyinvolvedinrehabilitationprogramsforbears,resultingin

sporadicmonitoringeffortsonreleasedbearsandlimitedinformationregardingthesuccessor

failureofrehabilitationprograms.

Thislackofactiveparticipationbymanywildlifeauthoritieshasledtomonitoringcriteriathat

oftenrepresenttheminimumeffortrequiredtoevaluatetheeffectivenessofrehabilitation

efforts.Simplyputtingear-tagsonbearsortattooingthemdoes,overtime,yieldinformation

onminimumsurvivalrates.However,becausebearsarelong-livedanimals(theysufferlow

mortalityrates),thesedatadonotprovidethetimelyinformationrehabilitatorsneedtoadjust

theirprogramsforincreasedreleasesuccess.Recently,wildlifeauthoritieshavebecome

moreinvolvedandareprovidingradio-collarsandpersonneltomonitorreleasedbears.This

cooperativeapproachhasresultedinbetterqualityinformationthatcanbeusedtoevaluate

methodsforreleasingbears.

Twomajormythsexpressedbybearrehabilitationcriticsarethatorphanedcubsneedto

betaughtsurvivalskillsbytheirmothersandthatthesebearswillnotbeassimilatedinto

��

wildpopulationsbecauseofbehavioraldeficiencies.Ithasbeendifficulttoaddressthese

concernsusinginformationfromindividualrehabilitationfacilitiesbecausetheylacked

intensivemonitoringdata.Asaresult,muchoftheinformationavailableonthesurvival

andproductivityofreleasedbearsisanecdotal.However,itisaccumulating,anditsuggests

promisingresultsformanybearrehabilitationprograms.Individualsrespondingtoa2005

surveyofbearrehabilitatorsreportedthatatleastsevenAmericanblackbearswereknown

tohavesurvivedfor>7years,atleastfivebrownbearshavesurvived>4years,andone

Andeanbearsurvived>10yearsinthewild.Theyalsoreportedthatfewerthan2%of576

releasedbearsfromeightfacilitieswereknowntobeinvolvedinnuisancesituationswithin

ayearoftheirrelease.22

Figure 21. IdahoFishandGamebiologistJeffRohlmanradiotrackingareleasedcub.

Althoughtheseresultsareencouraging,thelackoflargedatasetsillustratestheneedfor

bettermonitoringofreleasedbears.Severalmonitoringeffortshavebeenconductedover

shorttimeframeswithsmallsamplesizesbyeitherrelyingoncaptureandkillinformation

fromtaggedanimalsorbyfollowingradio-collaredbears(primarilyAmericanblackbears

andEuropeanbrownbears)forafewmonthsaftertheirrelease.Recently,amajorstepwas

takeningatheringsurvivalandmovementdatabymonitoringthefatesof60orphanedcubs

fromthreefacilitiesinOntario.6Todate,thatresearchprojectrepresentsthelargestsingle

efforttodirectlyexamine,overatwo-yearperiod,thesurvivalandmovementsofreleased

orphanbears.Thedatashowedsurvivalratesforthe60orphanedbearstobecomparable

tosurvivalratespublishedforwildbearsofsimilarages.6

Concernsexpressedaboutbehavioraldeficienciesinrehabilitatedbearsaremoredifficult

toaddressbecausebearsaredifficulttoobserveaftertheyarereleasedbacktothewild.

Gatheringthesedataisalsocomplicatedbythelengthoftimebearsmustbemonitoredto

�0

obtaininformationabouttheirreproductivestatus.Althoughconcernhasbeenexpressed

abouttheeffectofstereotypicbehaviorsonsurvival,30mostofthefocusappearstobeon

whetherrehabilitatedbearssuccessfullyintegrateintothewildpopulationandbecome

activebreeders.Becausefemalebearsdonotreproduceuntiltheyareatleast3or4years

old,itisoftenimpracticaltomonitorproductivityinorphanbearsexceptinaresearchenvi-

ronment.Despitethislimitation,fourindividualsopportunisticallydocumentedreproduction

byreleasedAmericanblackbears,including17setsofcubsbysevendifferentfemales,

andonesetofcubsbytheoffspringofareleasedbear.Anotherindividualhasdocumented

reproduction(twolitters)byareleasedAndeanbearinEcuador.12

Beyondfinancialconsiderations,inmanypartsoftheworldthosemonitoringthesurvival

andmovementsofreleasedbearsfaceobstaclessuchasinsufficientroadaccessintoremote

areas,fewsmallaircraftavailabletolocate“missing”bears,andthelackoftrainedperson-

neltoradio-trackthebears.Inaddition,bearpopulationsinmanycountriesarenothunted

becausetheyarethreatenedorendangered,makingtheuseofradiotelemetryessentialfor

obtaininginformationonsurvivalandmovements.Relativelynewtechnologies(GPSand

GPS/Satellitecollars)arenowavailabletoovercometheseobstacles,butinmanyrehabilita-

tionprojects,thepriceofthesecollars(severalthousanddollarseach)discouragestheiruse.

�) Interventions

Invariouspartsoftheworld,thepotentialforbearattacksonpeopleliving,workingand

recreatinginbearhabitathasgeneratedconcernsaboutreleasingsomespeciesofbears.

Often,thesefearsareexacerbatedbytheknowledgethatbearsfromrehabilitationprograms

arehabituatedtohumansatsomelevelandthathabituationmayincreasethelikelihoodof

areleasedbearattackingaperson.Althoughnoreportsareavailableofrehabilitatedbears

attackingpeopleaftertheirrelease,intensivemonitoringofreleasedbearsisappropriate

becauseitallowsthereleaseteamtointerveneinatimelymannerifareleasedbearenters

anareaoccupiedbypeopleordemonstratesaggressivebehaviortowardhumans.

Althoughfewreleasedbearsbecomeinvolvedinnuisancesituationsafterrelease,somerisk

isalwaysassociatedwithreleasingbearsthathavehabituatedtotheircaretakersduringthe

rehabilitationprocess.Mostreportsofreleasedbearsbecomingnuisanceanimalsinvolve

bearsthat,shortlyaftertheyarereleased,donotshyawayfrompeopleormovetoward

peoplewhentheyencounterthem.Inmanycasesthesebearsencounteredpeopleinthe

forest,butoccasionallyconflictsoccurredatnearbyhomesitesorinvillages.12,15

Formanyspeciesofbears,suchencountersdonotrepresentathreatofinjuryordeathto

thepeopleinvolved.However,somespeciesofbearsareknowntobeaggressivetoward

people,especiallywhentheyaresurprisedintheforestorareprotectingtheiryoungora

�1

foodresource.Asaresult,itisadvisabletodevelopaninterventionplanbeforereleasing

bearsfromarehabilitationfacility.Itshouldaddressanyconflictsthatmaydevelopifa

releasedbearbecomesinvolvedinanuisancesituationoractsaggressivelytowardpeople.

Insomecountries,locallawsmayprohibitresidentsfromkillingnuisancebearsthatare

damagingprivatepropertyorthreateninghumanlife.Intheseareas,aninterventionplan

canbeapositivepublicrelationstool,providingreassurancetoresidentsthattherelease

teamispreparedtorespondtotheirconcernsaboutanuisancebearinatimelymanner.

Theinterventionplanshouldincludeinformationthatclearlystatesthefollowing:

a. Criteriaforcompensatingforactualdamages,inareaswherecompensation

programsexist.

b. Whoisresponsibleformonitoringthemovementsandactivityofreleased

bears,includingthefrequencyanddurationofmonitoringefforts.

c. Criteriafordecidinghowtorespondtoanactualorperceivedconflictsituation

anddeterminingwhichsituationswarrantaresponse.

d. Optionsforresolvingtheconflict,includingdecisioncriteriaforeuthanizing

thebearorrelocatingit,andpotentialrelocationareas.

10) Evaluation

Periodicevaluationofreleaseprotocolsisanecessarysteptoensurethatrehabilitatorsare

usingprovenmethodstoraiseandreleasebearcubs.Asurveyofrehabilitationfacilities

indicatedthatwhilemanyofthefacilitiesusedverysimilarapproachestoraisingand

releasingorphanedbears,somemethodsdiffered.22Despitethis,mostfacilitiesreported

thatmanyoftheirreleasesweresuccessful.Asaresult,ascertainingthecriticalfactorsthat

determinethesuccessorfailureofindividualreleasesisoftendifficult.Bearsapparentlyare

geneticallyequippedtosurviveinthewildwithoutthebenefitoflearningessentialsurvival

skillsfromtheirmothers,butotherfactorsmayplayanimportantroleindeterminingthe

successorfailureofanygivenrelease.

Bears readily habituate to people. Therefore, rehabilitators need to take careful steps to

minimize contact between captive bears and people.

Biologistsandrehabilitatorsalsorecognizethatmanyhabitatvariablescaninfluencerelease

outcomes.Individualsreportingreleasefailureshavesuggestedthatexposingbearstolarge

numbersofpeople,raisingcubsinisolation(withnoopportunitytosocializewithother

cubs),andindividualbearpersonalitiesmayhavecontributedtothosefailures.Increased

cooperationamongrehabilitatorstodocumentmethodsforraisingandreleasingbears,in

�2

additiontomonitoringbears’fatesafterrelease,isneededtobetterunderstandthedynam-

icsbetweensuccessfulandfailedreleaseefforts.Evaluatingshort-andlong-termsuccess

indicatorsforallaspectsoftherehabilitationprocesswouldbehelpfulinrevisingrelease

protocolstoincreasethepotentialsuccessoffuturereleases.

X. Key Elements Associated with Successful Releases

Rehabilitatorsuseavarietyofmethodstoraiseorphanbearcubsforreleasebacktothe

wild.Inmanycasesthedifferencesarerelativelyminor,butsometimestheyaremajor.

Forexample,atleastonerehabilitationfacilitycompletelyscreenedthebearenclosureto

preventthebearsfromseeingtheircaretakersduringfeedingorotheractivitiesoccurringin

thegeneralareaoftheenclosure,whileotherfacilitiestooknostepstopreventbearsfrom

seeingtheircaretakersduringfeeding.Yetareviewofthefatesofreleasedbearsfoundno

detectabledifferenceinsuccessratesforfacilitiestakingthesetwodisparateapproaches.

Thesamewastrueforfacilitiesthatactivelydiscouragedhumancontactwithveryyoung

cubsandthosethatdidnotdiscouragecontactuntilafterweaning.Thisinformationsug-

geststhatbearsareveryflexibleintheirabilitytoadapttocaptivityforshortperiodsoftime

andstillremaingoodcandidatesforrelease.Despitesuchdifferences,manyrehabilitators

agreedsomefactorsareimportanttosuccessfullyreleasingbears.

Figure 22. RadiocollaredorphanbearwalkingthroughtheforestinIdaho.

�3

Key elements associated with successful releases include:

1) Minimizing the frequency of contact and number of caretakers, particularly after weaning.

2) Providing an opportunity for cubs to socialize with other bears while in captivity.

3) Releasing bears close to the age when family break-up occurs in the wild and with suffi-

cient fat reserves to sustain them during their initial adjustment period.

�) Releasing bears in good quality bear habitat.

�) Timing releases to coincide with the availability and abundance of natural foods.

6) Releasing bears when the probability of encountering people in the forest shortly after

their release is low.

��

APPENDIX A.

DEFINITIONS USED IN THE TEXT:

IUCN Definitions: 46

Re-introduction Anattempttoestablishaspeciesinanareathatwas

oncepartofitshistoricalrange,butfromwhichit

hasbeenextirpatedorbecomeextinct.

Re-establishment Asuccessfulre-introductionofaspecies.

Translocation Thedeliberateandmeditatedmovementofwildindi-

vidualstoanexistingpopulationofconspecifics.

Re-enforcementor Theadditionofindividualstoanexistingpopulation

ofSupplement conspecifics.

ConservationorBenign Anattempttoestablishaspecies,forthepurposesof

Introduction conservation,outsideitsrecordeddistributionarea

butwithinanappropriatehabitatoreco-geographical

area.

Definitions of Additional Terms:

WildlifeRehabilitation Treatmentandtemporarycareofinjured,diseased

and/ordisplacedindigenousanimals,andthesub-

sequentreleaseofhealthyanimalstoappropriate

habitatsinthewild.

Euthanasia Totakeawaylifeforahumanepurpose;theinduc-

tionofdeathwithminimalpain,stressoranxiety.

HardRelease Areleasemethodwherebyanimalsarereleaseddi-

rectlytothewildwithoutbenefitofacclimatizationto

thereleasearea.

��

SoftRelease Areleasemethodwherebyanimalsareconfinedin

thereleaseareaforaperiodoftimebeforerelease

intothewild.

Imprinting Alearningprocessthattakesplaceearlyinthelifeof

socialanimals,establishingabehaviorpatternsuch

asrecognitionoforattractionofconspecificsora

substitute.

Conspecific Ofthesamespecies.

Hibernate Topassthewinterinaninactiveordormantstate.

Hibernaculum Ashelteroccupiedduringthewinterbyadormant

animal.

Anthropogenic Relatingto,orresultingfrom,theinfluenceofhu-

mansonnature.

StereotypicBehaviors Behaviorsthatarerepetitive,invariantandwithout

obviousfunction.

Analgesia Insensibilitytopainwithoutlossofconsciousness

Anesthesia Absenceofnormalsensation,especiallysensitivitytopain,inducedbydrugs.

�6

APPENDIX B

SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF REFERENCED SPECIES

1. PandaBear Ailuropoda melanoleuca

2. AmericanBlackBear Ursus americanus

3. NorthAmericanBrownBear Ursus arctos horribilis

4. EuropeanBrownBear Ursus arctos arctos

5. AsiaticBlackBear Ursus thibetanus

6. SunBear Helarctos malayanus

7. AndeanBear Tremarctos ornatus

8. SlothBear Melursus ursinus

9. Tiger Panthera tigris

10.Leopard Panthera pardus

11.WoodlandCaribou Rangifer tarandus caribou

��

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Photo Credits: JohnBeecham–CoverandFigures2-6,10,11,13,20,21 EmreCan–Figures1,12 SergeyPazhetnov(IFAW)–Figures14,15,17 VictorWatkins(WSPA)–Figure8 DianeRonayne–Figures9,16,18,19,22 SallyMaughan–Figure7