ornamental fish and invertebrates for home aquaria

May | June 2012

Feature title: Ornamental fish and invertebrates for home aquaria

The International magazine for the aquaculture feed industry

International Aquafeed is published five times a year by Perendale Publishers Ltd of the United Kingdom.All data is published in good faith, based on information received, and while every care is taken to prevent inaccuracies, the publishers accept no liability for any errors or omissions or for the consequences of action taken on the basis of information published. ©Copyright 2012 Perendale Publishers Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without prior permission of the copyright owner. Printed by Perendale Publishers Ltd. ISSN: 1464-0058

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The trade in ornamental fish and invertebrates is a truly global industry, generating many millions of dollars, and touching the lives

of a vast range of people. From artisanal fishermen in Indonesia, to importers and exporters in Singapore and Spain, farmers in the Czech Republic and Florida and ending with the home aquarist in any one of hundreds of countries worldwide, the appeal of ornamanetals is worldwide.

While freshwater ornamental fish are largely farmed, thereby providing a sustainable and renewable supply, marine species are largely wild caught, leading to a potential for species loss, ecological imbalance, and habitat degradation. As the ornamental industry pro-vides livelihoods in many places where there are very few opportunities for employment, it

is important that the industry is encouraged to grow, but it is essential that proper monitoring is in place to ensure that this growth is sustain-able, in terms of individual species, population ecology, and habitat preservation.

Industry scaleLivengood and Chapman (2008) estimated

that some 1539 species of marine and fresh-water fish, 102 species of hard and soft coral and 293 species of invertebrates were traded globally. According to FAO statistics from 2004, as summarised by Ploeg (2004), between 1974 and 2004, the number of countries reporting ornamental fish exports

rose from 28 to 146, and this number is expected to continue to rise.

It is expected that most of these are developing countries which see the export of ornamental fish as a means to increase employment and generate wealth. The world-wide value of exports in 2004 was reported to be US$251m, a rise of US$230m in the preceding 30 years at an average 14 percent per annum, with a retail value of approxi-mately US$2.2bn.

A further FAO report in 2008 valued exports at US$278m in 2005 (Livengood and Chapman, 2008). At these rates, it could be estimated that global exports now value over US$600m, although the effects of the global economic slowdown are not yet known for the sector.

In terms of the division of these exports between regions and countries, 55 percent of

the 2004 exports came from Asia, while 25 percent came from Europe, mainly the Czech Republic. Between 1974 and 2004, the number of countries importing ornamental species rose from 32 to 120, with a slight

dip in the interim. The largest of the import-ers of ornamental fish was Europe with 51 percent (the UK alone imports 19 percent of this figure), and North America with 26 percent of the market share (the USA making up 87 percent of this, making the largest single country importer with nearly 23 percent of the global market share).

Of the exporting countries, the fastest growth was seen in Czech Republic and Spain, while drops were noted in exports from the USA, Germany and Hong Kong, presumably linked to reducing imports into Japan, an important destination for ornamentals from these countries.

Monitoring of the global trade

The effective monitoring of the global trade is essential in order to properly record and analyse the volumes of species traded, in particular those perceived as vulnera-ble or under threat, to prevent irreversible damage. Through monitoring, a balance can be achieved and maintained between the demand for ornamental species, the need for income and employment, and the ecological requirements of habitats and populations. This balance can then provide for a sustain-able industry into the future, reducing the risk of catastrophic loss of habitat or ecological imbalance potentially leading to socioeco-nomic issues in less developed areas.

In 2000, in response to a need for bet-ter monitoring of marine ornamental trade, the United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), the Marine Aquarium Council (MAC) and members of various aquarium trade associations began, in collabo-ration, to address this need and created the Global Marine Aquarium Database (GMAD).

Trade data has been obtained from wholesale exporters and importers of marine aquarium organisms and integrated into quan-titative, species-specific information which has been made public.

Fifty-eight companies, approximately one-fifth of the wholesalers in business, and four government management authorities have provided data to GMAD. In August 2003 the dataset contained 102,928 trade records (7.7 million imported and 9.4 million exported animals) covering a total of 2,393 species of fish, corals and invertebrates and spanning the years 1988 to 2003. It was believed that this data permitted the most accurate quantitative estimates available of the size of the global trade in marine ornamental fish and corals, and the first ever estimates for invertebrates other than corals.

A consultation on the monitoring the industry conducted in 2008 carried out for


It is expected that most of these are


The effective monitoring of the global

for home aquariaby Dr Jack M James, Aquabiotegch Group, Malta

Ornamental fish and invertebrates

The worldwide value of ornamental fish

exports in 2004 was reported to be US$251m,

a rise of US$230m in the preceding 30 years

at an average 14 percent per annum, with a

retail value of approximately US$2.2bn.

36 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | May-June 2012

FEATURE

May-June 2012 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | 37

IAF12.03.indd 36 14/05/2012 18:08

The trade in ornamental fish and invertebrates is a truly global industry, generating many millions of dollars, and touching the lives

of a vast range of people. From artisanal fishermen in Indonesia, to importers and exporters in Singapore and Spain, farmers in the Czech Republic and Florida and ending with the home aquarist in any one of hundreds of countries worldwide, the appeal of ornamanetals is worldwide.

While freshwater ornamental fish are largely farmed, thereby providing a sustainable and renewable supply, marine species are largely wild caught, leading to a potential for species loss, ecological imbalance, and habitat degradation. As the ornamental industry pro-vides livelihoods in many places where there are very few opportunities for employment, it

is important that the industry is encouraged to grow, but it is essential that proper monitoring is in place to ensure that this growth is sustain-able, in terms of individual species, population ecology, and habitat preservation.

Industry scaleLivengood and Chapman (2008) estimated

that some 1539 species of marine and fresh-water fish, 102 species of hard and soft coral and 293 species of invertebrates were traded globally. According to FAO statistics from 2004, as summarised by Ploeg (2004), between 1974 and 2004, the number of countries reporting ornamental fish exports


It is expected that most of these are developing countries which see the export of ornamental fish as a means to increase employment and generate wealth. The world-wide value of exports in 2004 was reported to be US$251m, a rise of US$230m in the preceding 30 years at an average 14 percent per annum, with a retail value of approxi-mately US$2.2bn.

A further FAO report in 2008 valued exports at US$278m in 2005 (Livengood and Chapman, 2008). At these rates, it could be estimated that global exports now value over US$600m, although the effects of the global economic slowdown are not yet known for the sector.

In terms of the division of these exports between regions and countries, 55 percent of

the 2004 exports came from Asia, while 25 percent came from Europe, mainly the Czech Republic. Between 1974 and 2004, the number of countries importing ornamental species rose from 32 to 120, with a slight

dip in the interim. The largest of the import-ers of ornamental fish was Europe with 51 percent (the UK alone imports 19 percent of this figure), and North America with 26 percent of the market share (the USA making up 87 percent of this, making the largest single country importer with nearly 23 percent of the global market share).

Of the exporting countries, the fastest growth was seen in Czech Republic and Spain, while drops were noted in exports from the USA, Germany and Hong Kong, presumably linked to reducing imports into Japan, an important destination for ornamentals from these countries.


The effective monitoring of the global trade is essential in order to properly record and analyse the volumes of species traded, in particular those perceived as vulnera-ble or under threat, to prevent irreversible damage. Through monitoring, a balance can be achieved and maintained between the demand for ornamental species, the need for income and employment, and the ecological requirements of habitats and populations. This balance can then provide for a sustain-able industry into the future, reducing the risk of catastrophic loss of habitat or ecological imbalance potentially leading to socioeco-nomic issues in less developed areas.

In 2000, in response to a need for bet-ter monitoring of marine ornamental trade, the United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), the Marine Aquarium Council (MAC) and members of various aquarium trade associations began, in collabo-ration, to address this need and created the Global Marine Aquarium Database (GMAD).

Trade data has been obtained from wholesale exporters and importers of marine aquarium organisms and integrated into quan-titative, species-specific information which has been made public.

Fifty-eight companies, approximately one-fifth of the wholesalers in business, and four government management authorities have provided data to GMAD. In August 2003 the dataset contained 102,928 trade records (7.7 million imported and 9.4 million exported animals) covering a total of 2,393 species of fish, corals and invertebrates and spanning the years 1988 to 2003. It was believed that this data permitted the most accurate quantitative estimates available of the size of the global trade in marine ornamental fish and corals, and the first ever estimates for invertebrates other than corals.

A consultation on the monitoring the industry conducted in 2008 carried out for


It is expected that most of these are


The effective monitoring of the global

for home aquariaby Dr Jack M James, Aquabiotegch Group, Malta

Ornamental fish and invertebrates

The worldwide value of ornamental fish

exports in 2004 was reported to be US$251m,

a rise of US$230m in the preceding 30 years

at an average 14 percent per annum, with a

retail value of approximately US$2.2bn.


FEATURE

May-June 2012 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | 37

IAF12.03.indd 36 14/05/2012 18:08

the European Commission by UNEP and the WCMC stated that a properly monitored and sustainably managed industry can present a valuable opportunity for income generation and support to livelihoods, while also provid-ing an alternative to environmentally destruc-tive activities.

Not monitoring the trade could, on the other hand, lead to an over exploi-tation of resources, damaging the long term future potential of the industry. The consultation identified the six mecha-nisms for monitoring the trade at species level as:

1. the monitoring activities put in place by certification schemes (e.g. Marine Aquarium Council - MAC)

2. GMAD3. the statistics generated by Customs and

FAO, 4. CITES5. veterinary controls6. Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade

Regulations. In analysing these monitoring options, they

determined that certification schemes are desirable but provide only partial coverage, are expensive, some have been unsuccess-ful, and there is little evidence of consumer awareness.

GMAD, being voluntary, was found to not

be comprehensive enough for monitoring trade for conserva-tion purposes.

Information generated by cus-toms and FAO lacks the detail in the information required for conservation purposes.

CITES is effective at targeted monitoring of individual species of interest, however the mon-etary cost of obtaining permits to trade can be prohibitive.

Veterinary controls, for exam-ple in the EU, record species level data which could be useful for conservation purposes; how-ever, at the time of the report, this data was being not captured and so valuable information was not being aggregated in a stand-ardised and accessible manner.

Finally, Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade Regulations proved to be the most effec-tive tool for monitoring for conservation purposes, providing species level data of unrestricted species, with no monetary cost to the importer, making it the only instrument that could, at the time of the report, provide comprehensive species level data on the international trade in species of conservation

concern. However, there was a willingness for EC veterinary controls to be investigated as a further mechanism for monitoring the trade.

While concerns were raised regarding the fact that these controls will only accurately monitoring imports into the EU while global trade may be underestimated, the fact that

36 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | May-June 2012 May-June 2012 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | 37

FEATURE

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IAF12.03.indd 37 14/05/2012 18:08

form of specific mRNAs, proteins, hormones and other biomolecules. At egg activation and fertilization, these factors become available for embryogenesis, sometimes after a process of activation involving translation or protein modification.

It has been documented that vitamin C or ascorbic acid deficiency in larval fish has been associated with hyperplasia of collagen and cartilage, scoliosis, lordosis, internal hemor-rhages, resorbed opercules and abnormal support cartilage in gills, spine and fins with deformities of the jaw and snout.

Based on recent research, vitamin C needs for reproduction and early life stages of fish are 10 times the recommended dose for rais-ing young adult fish. These high levels cannot be met by dietary administration to broodfish because the nutrient is water soluble and readily absorbed / utilized by other organs during oocyte development.

It has been demonstrated in several species that nutrients in broodfish diet are transferred to oocytes through uptake of extra-ovarian substances from the maternal blood. Also, there was up to a 82.4 percent loss of ascor-bic acid of the prepared commercial diet. A 3.8 – 8.3-fold increase of vitamin C in the diet generally results in 56 to 71.9 percent increase of total ascorbic acid in the eggs respectively.

The fry produced from par-ents fed with elevated levels of vitamin C tend to have higher growth performance as compared with control groups. Thus, there is a need in enhance ascorbic acid in the broodfish. A diet with vitamin C content adequate for normal growth may not be sufficient for broodfish when the goal is to transfer ascorbic acids to embryos.

Reproduction and arval performance

Broodfish diet has a major influence on fecundity and egg quality. It has also been demonstrat-ed that the nutritional status of broodfish can affect offspring quality. The accumulation of essential nutrients in eggs is dependent on 1) the nutrient reserves in the female fish and 2) the dietary intake preceding gonadogenesis. Vitamin C is needed for maturation, repro-duction and larval metamorphosis. Beneficial effects include increased fertility, fecundity and egg quality.

Nutrients in broodfish diet are trans-

ferred to oocytes through uptake of extra-ovarian substances from the maternal blood. Immersion enrichment of eggs is another approach to introduce compounds and nutri-ents into eggs. Immersion enrichment fol-lowed by feeding fry with vitamin C enhanced feed was also found to be an effective method.

Injecting vitamin C in to broodfish during artificial- induced maturation improved repro-duction and progeny performance. Efforts are

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turbot larvae, could be involved in the viral transmission.

Similarly, it has been demonstrated that the freshwater crayfish

(Astacus astacus) retains the virus in tissues and hemolymph, constantly shedding the virus to the water. Halder and Ahne suggest that these organisms are infected by the consump-tion of IPNV-infected trouts.

The following shellfish species are regard-ed as reservoirs of the IPNV: mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis), oysters (Crassostrea gigas), periwinkles (Littorina littorea), and wild fish as sand eels (Ammodytes sp), sprat (Sprattus sprattus) and blue

whiting (Micromesistius poutasou), among others. IPNV

has been also isolated from moist fish pellets and marine sediments. Wild piscivorous birds are regarded as vectors of the IPNV, which can be isolated from faeces samples.

SignsThe IPN is a typical disease in early ages

of salmonids, causing up to 100 percent of mortalit y in fi ngerlings and fi rst-feeding fry. An experimental study reported a mean cumulative mortality ranging from 84 per-cent to 92 percent in challenged Atlantic salmon fry. The fish mortality started seven days post-challenge and peaked at 10-12 days.

Generally affected fish showed anorexia and rotate about their long axis in a whirling motion with lapses of ataxia. In these fish darkening occurs (hyperpigmentation). Mild to moderate exophthalmia and abdominal distention are common. Also, gills are typi-cally pale and hemorrhages are sometimes present in ventral areas, including the ventral fins. Many emaciated fish trail long, thin, whitish, cast-like excretions from the vent.

Macroscopic and microscopic findings

According to necropsy findings, spleen, heart, liver and kidneys of fry are abnormally pale and the digestive tract is almost always

devoid of food. Petechiae are observed in some viscera. Sometimes, food residue remains in the gut, the quantity is small and confined to the far distal or rectal portion. Very often the body cavity may contain ascitic fluid. The stomach and anterior intestine con-tains a clear to milky cohesive mucus, among other findings.

Main lesions found at the histopathology study

include: focal coagulat-ive necrosis in pan-

creas, kidney and intestine. The pancreatic tissue

showed

degenerative changes, including acinar cell areas, and zymogen granules freeing. Nuclear pyknosis of different sizes are observed. In many cases, inflamatory cell infiltration is not evident. In fish that suffered the disease up to two years before the histology study, hyper-trophy of Langerhans’ islets with abundant fibrosis were found.

In cases of pancreatic lesions, also acute enteritis featured by necrosis and sloughing of the epithelium are observed. In the intestinal lumen, catarrhal whitish exudate is associated with the disease. Inclusion bodies are not observed in affected cells. In many cases, the renal tissue has small focal degenerative changes. In fish that were infected during early ages, abundant rounding up of epithelial cells with karyorhectic nuclei was found. This finding suggest that they can be viral replica-tion sites in carrier fish; however, it has not been confimed.


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there is a system in place which is effective at monitor the ornamental trade is encourag-ing. It is therefore imperative that monitoring systems which can act on a global scale and based on those identified as being effective are initiated in order to provide proper trace-ability and sustainable development of the industry going forward.

Sustainability of marine ornamental supply

Despite sometimes being accused of causing undue degra-dation of populations and habitats, the marine ornamental trade is a low volume, high value industry. In 2000, 1kg of aquarium fish from the Maldives was valued at almost US$500, whereas 1kg of reef fish harvested for food was worth only US$6. Furthermore, the live coral trade is estimated to be worth about US$7,000 per tonne, whereas the use of harvested coral for the production of limestone yields only about US$60 per tonne (Wabnitz et al, 2003). There is therefore a clear financial incentive to preserve the important marine habitats and populations which provide to the ornamental industry, such as coral reefs and mangroves.

It is clear from the information available that the potential is there for a sustainable and profitable industry, but from the case study of the GMAD, there are clearly still large gaps in the knowledge on, in particular, marine ornamental harvesting.

This creates a need for a two pronged approach to developing a sustainable marine ornamental industry – the first being improved monitoring as discussed previously, and the second being an effort to increase the number of species which are cultured for the industry. Only one-10 percent of marine ornamental fish and less than one percent of hard corals are cultured (Wabnitz et al, 2003), this is in contrast to over 90 percent of freshwater ornamental species. In order to increase the proportion of marine species cultured, simple and cost effective culture methods must be sought which enable poor communities which rely on harvesting to switch their efforts to culture, thereby moving towards a more sustainable industry while not neglecting the beneficial potential of the ornamental trade for these communities.

The responsible aquaristAn appreciation by the home aquarist is the

first step to self-regulation in terms of promot-ing sustainably sourced or farmed animals over those known to come from unsustainable wild fisheries. For example, in some wild fisheries collectors may use highly toxic substances such as sodium cyanide in marine environments and rotenone in freshwater systems to incapacitate the fish prior to collection.

Such practices can have long term toxic effects

on the species assemblage and the community as a whole. Losses post capture can also be very high, up to 80 percent for some tropical marine

fish, while other spe-cies such as cardinal tetra can have mor-tality as low as six percent, and so proper species selection to reduce demand for livestock which do not travel well can have a beneficial impact.

Additionally, better guidelines for collection, transport, and storage can help to reduce mortality. Therefore the consumer can have a marked impact on enhancing the sustainability of the industry through being aware of and choosing the most sustainably sourced live-stock available, while ensuring they are properly educated on the requirements of their chosen livestock, so reducing mortality at home.

To highlight the role that responsible and properly informed aquarists can play, trade data, correlated with aquarium suitability information, indicates that two species known not to acclimatise well to aquarium conditions are nonetheless very commonly traded. They are the bluestreak cleaner wrasse (Labroides dimidiatus: 87,000 individuals traded between 1997 and 2002) and the mandarin fish (Synchiropus splendidus: 11,000 live individu-als exported to the EU in the same period).

Data further indicates that species charac-terised as ‘truly unsuitable’, mainly due to their restricted dietary requirements, such as the four-eye butterflyfish (Chaetodon capistratus), the harlequin filefish (Oxymonacanthus longisrostris) and the Hawaiian cleaner wrasse (Labroides phtirophagus), are also commonly traded, albeit in lower numbers (Wabnitz et al, 2003). Demand for species such as these is presumably per-petuated by mortality in home aquaria due to the unsuitable conditions, and it is these kinds of practises which can be minimised or eradicated through responsible aquarium keeping.

The global ornamental trade is a strong and growing industry, and it benefits all walks of life through wealth generation and aesthetic

enjoy-

ment. It has the opportunity to become a unique example of an ecologically and financially sustainable and renewable industry, where wealth flows from some of the worlds richest economies to some of the very poor-est communities around the world.

However, in order to do this, improved systems for monitoring the global trade must be sought and implemented, and aquarists must strive to be as well educated as possible on the source and care of their livestock. In this way, the inhabitants of our home aquaria can remain some of the world’s most popular companion animals, while remaining affordable and healthy, and above all without damaging their natural habitats and populations. ■

References

Livengood, E. J., & Chapman, F. A. (2008). The Ornamental Fish Trade: An Introduction with Perspectives for Responsible Aquarium Fish Ownership. University of Florida IFAS Extension, (FA124). Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences.

Ploeg, A. (2004). The Volume of the Ornamental Fish Trade. Ornamental Fish International. Ornamental Fish International.

Wabnitz, C., Taylor, M., Green, E. P., & Razak, T. (2003). From Ocean to Aquarium: the global trade in marine ornamental species. Cambridge: UNEP-WCMC.

UNEP-WCMC. (2008). Monitoring of International Trade in Ornamental Fish - Consultation Paper. Context.

there is a system in place which is effective at monitor the ornamental trade is encourag-ing. It is therefore imperative that monitoring systems which can act on a global scale and based on those identified as being effective are initiated in order to provide proper trace-ability and sustainable development of the

Sustainability of marine

Despite sometimes being accused of causing undue degra-dation of populations and habitats, the marine ornamental trade is a low volume, high value industry. In 2000, 1kg of aquarium fish from the Maldives was valued at almost US$500, whereas 1kg of reef fish harvested for food was worth only US$6. Furthermore, the live coral trade is estimated to be worth about US$7,000 per tonne, whereas the use of harvested coral for the production of limestone yields only about US$60 per tonne (Wabnitz et al, 2003). There is therefore a clear financial incentive to preserve the important marine habitats and populations which provide to the ornamental industry, such as coral reefs and mangroves.

It is clear from the information available that the potential is there for a sustainable and profitable industry, but from the case study of the GMAD, there are clearly still large gaps in the knowledge on, in particular, marine

on the species assemblage and the community as a whole. Losses post capture can also be very high, up to 80 percent for some tropical marine

fish, while other spe-cies such as cardinal tetra can have mor-tality as low as six percent, and so proper species selection to reduce demand for livestock which do not travel well can have a beneficial impact.

Additionally, better guidelines for collection, transport, and storage can help to reduce mortality. Therefore the consumer can have a marked impact on enhancing the sustainability

enjoy-

ment. It has the opportunity to become a unique example of an ecologically and


FEATURE

IAF12.03.indd 38 14/05/2012 18:08

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VOLUME 15 I S SUE 3 2 012

THE INTERNATIONAL MAGAZINE FOR THE AQUACULTURE FEED INDUSTRY

Transfering Vitamin C from fish to embryos

Oxygenation technology– poised to transform aquaculture worldwide

Ornamental fish and invertebrates for home aquaria

Brewers’ yeast as a supplement in aquaculture

IAF12.03.indd 1 14/05/2012 18:05

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