Organizational politics and Organizational politics and careers: games your mother careers: games your mother

never taught younever taught you

Kate Mackenzie DaveyKate Mackenzie Davey

Politics in organizationsPolitics in organizationsInterviewer: But many managers argue that Interviewer: But many managers argue that organizational politics are a distraction, itorganizational politics are a distraction, it’’s not what s not what theythey’’re paid for, not part of the job?re paid for, not part of the job?Manager: I would say bollocks to that. I would say that Manager: I would say bollocks to that. I would say that people who get to those jobs only get to that level people who get to those jobs only get to that level because, first they are reasonably good at playing these because, first they are reasonably good at playing these games, and second, actually enjoy playing them. The games, and second, actually enjoy playing them. The people who fail at that level are, by and large, people people who fail at that level are, by and large, people who arenwho aren’’t particularly good at playing and dont particularly good at playing and don’’t t understand.understand.

(Buchanan & (Buchanan & BadhamBadham, 1999, p.610) , 1999, p.610)

Politics and machismo..Politics and machismo.....to a point that the politics becomes a means an end in ...to a point that the politics becomes a means an end in itself, just the power games, and going back to itself, just the power games, and going back to masculinity and femininity, I see that as a very masculine masculinity and femininity, I see that as a very masculine thing. Itthing. It’’s power games and not what you achieve in s power games and not what you achieve in terms of what you make, so Iterms of what you make, so I’’ll get satisfaction out of ll get satisfaction out of seeing a piece of equipment like, but people like (my seeing a piece of equipment like, but people like (my boss) seem to get their satisfaction out of getting one up boss) seem to get their satisfaction out of getting one up over someone else, out of winning the power games.. over someone else, out of winning the power games.. and thatand that’’s.. I see as a very macho masculine attitude to s.. I see as a very macho masculine attitude to work which I completely reject, which probably means Iwork which I completely reject, which probably means I’’ll ll never get very far in management because I just donnever get very far in management because I just don’’t t want to play those games and therewant to play those games and there’’s people who are s people who are good at playing those sort of games who get on. [Helen]good at playing those sort of games who get on. [Helen]Mackenzie Davey (in press)Mackenzie Davey (in press)

Aims of the talk..Aims of the talk..To examine why political views may be important for To examine why political views may be important for understanding careerunderstanding careerTo examine research on politics at different stages of the To examine research on politics at different stages of the careercareerTo give an overview of historic approaches to politics in To give an overview of historic approaches to politics in organizationsorganizationsTo explore the nature of a political theory of careersTo explore the nature of a political theory of careersTo consider the implications of a political approach to To consider the implications of a political approach to careers for practicecareers for practice

Interest in politics and careers Interest in politics and careers longstanding.. longstanding..

By focusing on how careers are affected by political By focusing on how careers are affected by political elements, we can develop an approach to the analysis of elements, we can develop an approach to the analysis of careers that is at once more consonant with reality and careers that is at once more consonant with reality and more able to comprehend and consequently deal with more able to comprehend and consequently deal with that reality. that reality. ((PfefferPfeffer, 1989:393), 1989:393)

Politics and rationality: Politics and rationality: the career may not be as it seemsthe career may not be as it seems

Politics: Politics: ““science of muddling throughscience of muddling through”” ((LindblomLindblom, 1959), 1959)

SatisficingSatisficing (Simon, 1957)(Simon, 1957)–– competing and shifting coalitions of multiple and conflicting incompeting and shifting coalitions of multiple and conflicting interests terests –– demands and objectives are constantly, but imperfectly reconciledemands and objectives are constantly, but imperfectly reconciled d –– rationality is limited or bounded by uncertainty over what is warationality is limited or bounded by uncertainty over what is wanted and nted and

how to achieve it. how to achieve it.

Organizations often act irrationally Organizations often act irrationally –– Goals and objectives emerge through a process of negotiation andGoals and objectives emerge through a process of negotiation and

influenceinfluence–– Composed of competing and shifting coalitionsComposed of competing and shifting coalitions–– Based in decisionBased in decision--making making ((CyertCyert & March 1963)& March 1963)

Politics and pluralism Politics and pluralism ––it is rational, depending on your point of viewit is rational, depending on your point of view

““The distinction between a political approach and other perspectiThe distinction between a political approach and other perspectives ves is NOT based on presumptions of rationalityis NOT based on presumptions of rationality…….Rather the distinction .Rather the distinction revolves around the role of power and influence in decision makirevolves around the role of power and influence in decision making, ng, the basis for decisions, and the role of interests in organizatithe basis for decisions, and the role of interests in organizationsons””((PfefferPfeffer, 1989) 380), 1989) 380)

Political activity concerns processes of using influence to mobiPolitical activity concerns processes of using influence to mobilize lize support for different interests and individual career achievemensupport for different interests and individual career achievement t (Pettigrew, 1973)(Pettigrew, 1973)

Politics as a game (Marshall, 1986)Politics as a game (Marshall, 1986)

Linked to conflict (Linked to conflict (DarrDarr & Johns, 2004)& Johns, 2004)

Individual rather than organizational rationalityIndividual rather than organizational rationality

Politics in organizationsPolitics in organizationsPolitics refers to individual or group Politics refers to individual or group behaviorbehavior that is that is informal, ostensibly parochial, typically divisive, and informal, ostensibly parochial, typically divisive, and above all in the technical sense, illegitimate above all in the technical sense, illegitimate -- sanctioned sanctioned neither by formal authority, accepted ideology, nor neither by formal authority, accepted ideology, nor certified expertise (though it may exploit any of these).certified expertise (though it may exploit any of these).

((MintzbergMintzberg, 1983, p.172), 1983, p.172)

Political implications of career Political implications of career systems 1systems 1

Politics of joining an organization: who do you know? Politics of joining an organization: who do you know? –– Criteria political rather than technical rationality Criteria political rather than technical rationality –– HomosocialHomosocial reproduction (reproduction (KanterKanter 1977)1977)–– Networks (Networks (GranovetterGranovetter, 1974), 1974)–– Selection decisions (Bozionelis,2005)Selection decisions (Bozionelis,2005)–– Role of Gatekeepers (King, Burke & Pemberton, Role of Gatekeepers (King, Burke & Pemberton,

2005) 2005) –– Socialization: surprises and Socialization: surprises and sensemakingsensemaking (Arnold, (Arnold,

1984; Fournier, 1984; Fournier, ChaoChao et al, 1994; Mackenzie et al, 1994; Mackenzie daveydavey & & Arnold, 2001)Arnold, 2001)

Political implications for career Political implications for career systems 2systems 2

Mobility structures: understanding the processesMobility structures: understanding the processes–– Career step or dead end: organizational Career step or dead end: organizational

structurestructure–– Proliferation of titlesProliferation of titles–– Appraisal systems (Appraisal systems (PoonPoon, 2004; Nurse 2005), 2004; Nurse 2005)–– Mentoring and career support (Mentoring and career support (RaginsRagins, 1997; , 1997;

KirchmeyerKirchmeyer, 2005), 2005)–– New organization forms and careersNew organization forms and careers

Political implications of career Political implications of career systems 3systems 3

SalarySalary–– Human capital Human capital –– LeadershipLeadership–– Sectional power or criticalitySectional power or criticality–– Structure of compensationStructure of compensation

Link to tenure, pensionLink to tenure, pensionSuccessionSuccession–– ReplacementReplacement–– Representation of specific groupsRepresentation of specific groups–– ““Candidacy and advocacy is always masked and Candidacy and advocacy is always masked and

legitimated, and other, more objective and rationallegitimated, and other, more objective and rational--appearing criteria are asserted.appearing criteria are asserted.”” (Pfeffer:392)(Pfeffer:392)

Perceptions of organizational Perceptions of organizational politics politics (Miller et al. 2008)(Miller et al. 2008)

MetaMeta--analysis 59 studies; 25,059 individual participants. analysis 59 studies; 25,059 individual participants. Strong negative relationships with job satisfaction and Strong negative relationships with job satisfaction and organizational commitment, organizational commitment, Moderately positive relationships with job stress and Moderately positive relationships with job stress and turnover intentionsturnover intentionsNonNon--significant relationship job performance. significant relationship job performance. Moderator tests show that age, work setting (i.e., public Moderator tests show that age, work setting (i.e., public sector or private sector), and cultural differences (i.e., sector or private sector), and cultural differences (i.e., domestic sample or international sample), have domestic sample or international sample), have contingent effects on certain POP relationships.contingent effects on certain POP relationships.

Political skill and political behaviour Political skill and political behaviour TreadwayTreadway et al 2005et al 2005

Political Skill Political Skill (18 items(18 items Ferris et al Ferris et al 2005)2005)–– Networking abilityNetworking ability

((egeg I am good at building I am good at building relationships with influential relationships with influential people at work)people at work)

–– Social astutenessSocial astutenessI am particularly good at I am particularly good at sensing the motivations and sensing the motivations and hidden agendas of othershidden agendas of others

–– Interpersonal influenceInterpersonal influenceIt is easy for me to develop a It is easy for me to develop a good rapport with most good rapport with most peoplepeople

–– Apparent genuinenessApparent genuinenessWhen communicating with When communicating with others I try to be genuine in others I try to be genuine in what I say and dowhat I say and do

Political BehaviourPolitical Behaviour–– I spend time at work politickingI spend time at work politicking–– I use my interpersonal skills to I use my interpersonal skills to

influence people at workinfluence people at work–– I let others know of my I let others know of my

accomplishmentsaccomplishments

Politics and paradoxPolitics and paradoxIndividual self interest Individual self interest -- antithetical to organizational antithetical to organizational goals (goals (DroryDrory & Romm,1990)& Romm,1990)Necessary but deplored Necessary but deplored ((KanterKanter 1979)1979)Non sanctioned, informal or discretionary Non sanctioned, informal or discretionary behaviourbehaviour not not clearly prohibited (clearly prohibited (PfefferPfeffer, 1992; , 1992; MintzbergMintzberg, 1983), 1983)Perceptions of politics (POPS) linked to negative Perceptions of politics (POPS) linked to negative individual and organizational outcomes (Ferris et al individual and organizational outcomes (Ferris et al 1992) and political skill linked to positive individual and 1992) and political skill linked to positive individual and organizational outcomes (Ferris et al 2007)organizational outcomes (Ferris et al 2007)

So, if I act politically the outcomes are positive.. If I see yoSo, if I act politically the outcomes are positive.. If I see you u acting politically the outcomes are negativeacting politically the outcomes are negative

Conceptual or measurement problemConceptual or measurement problemPositive v Negative politicsPositive v Negative politics ……

Perceptions of positive political Perceptions of positive political behaviorsbehaviors distinct from those of distinct from those of negative political negative political behaviorsbehaviors NOT different ends of a continuum NOT different ends of a continuum ((FedorFedor, et al. 2008). , et al. 2008). Linked to Linked to –– job satisfaction, job satisfaction, –– satisfaction with supervision and satisfaction with supervision and coworkerscoworkers;;–– fulfillmentfulfillment of psychological contract of psychological contract

Politically active happy with political culture (Politically active happy with political culture (HochwaterHochwater, 2003), 2003)Measurement issues: hard to studyMeasurement issues: hard to studySelf ratings or ratings by othersSelf ratings or ratings by others–– Strong social desirability effectStrong social desirability effect–– Assumption of insight to own behaviourAssumption of insight to own behaviour–– Political skilled less likely to be recognised as acting politicPolitical skilled less likely to be recognised as acting politically ally

(Ferris et al 2005)(Ferris et al 2005)

Critical approaches to politicsCritical approaches to politics““how control is exercised, power exerted, authority legitimated, how control is exercised, power exerted, authority legitimated, compliance achieved, consent maintainedcompliance achieved, consent maintained”” (Knights & McCabe, (Knights & McCabe, 1998 p.772). 1998 p.772). labourlabour processes of constructing subjectivity (processes of constructing subjectivity (KundaKunda, 1992) , 1992) social microsocial micro--processes through which power is maintained: processes through which power is maintained: ““the the marrow of organization processmarrow of organization process”” (Knights & Murray, 1994, (Knights & Murray, 1994, p.xivp.xiv).).

.. the articulation of various individual and group interests th.. the articulation of various individual and group interests through rough the everyday enactment of communicative processes that produce, the everyday enactment of communicative processes that produce, reproduce, resist, and transform collective (reproduce, resist, and transform collective (intersubjectiveintersubjective) ) structures of meaning. Politics is power enacted and resisted. structures of meaning. Politics is power enacted and resisted. ((MumbyMumby, 2001:587)., 2001:587).

Politics and leadership Politics and leadership Further definition..Further definition..

Because we define politics in organizational leadership Because we define politics in organizational leadership as as the constructive management of shared meaningthe constructive management of shared meaning, , we demonstrate how a political perspective does not we demonstrate how a political perspective does not necessarily cast leaders in a personally ambitious, necessarily cast leaders in a personally ambitious, manipulative role. We proceed to show how this political manipulative role. We proceed to show how this political perspective can contribute to effectiveness through both perspective can contribute to effectiveness through both enhanced leader outcomes and the constituencies' enhanced leader outcomes and the constituencies' consequences to which leaders are directing their consequences to which leaders are directing their efforts. (efforts. (Ammeter et al. 2002). Ammeter et al. 2002).

Political skill is important in positive Political skill is important in positive ““strategic bullyingstrategic bullying””(Ferris et al, 2007) (Ferris et al, 2007)

Politics and identityPolitics and identityScarce resources: basis for self esteem and source of power. Scarce resources: basis for self esteem and source of power. Possible unconscious collusion based on defensive reaction Possible unconscious collusion based on defensive reaction ((ZaleznikZaleznik, 1970), 1970)

A political view can explain why employees withhold information,A political view can explain why employees withhold information,restrict output, attempt to build empires (Robbins, 1986)restrict output, attempt to build empires (Robbins, 1986)politicspolitics

““needs to be understood in terms of power and identity relations needs to be understood in terms of power and identity relations or or how individuals seek through political maneuverings to further ohow individuals seek through political maneuverings to further or r secure their individual careers and identities in an uncertain wsecure their individual careers and identities in an uncertain world.orld.””(Knights and McCabe, 1998, p.761). (Knights and McCabe, 1998, p.761).

Denying politics: avoid exposing self interest (Knights and Denying politics: avoid exposing self interest (Knights and Murray,1994) Murray,1994)

Politics as a game or a joke (Burns & Stalker, 1961; Marshall, 1Politics as a game or a joke (Burns & Stalker, 1961; Marshall, 1986). 986).

Politics and diversityPolitics and diversityOrganizational politics is the usually masked activity through wOrganizational politics is the usually masked activity through which hich organizations are constructed and reconstructed. While apparentlorganizations are constructed and reconstructed. While apparently y allowing individuals and groups to undermine existing systems anallowing individuals and groups to undermine existing systems and d structures, its insidious nature and its fragmented links to existructures, its insidious nature and its fragmented links to existing sting power systems operate to exclude those who do not fit the culturpower systems operate to exclude those who do not fit the culture.e.Culture linked to political activity: covert and hard to readCulture linked to political activity: covert and hard to readGreater flexibility, informality and ambiguity linked to politicGreater flexibility, informality and ambiguity linked to politics s Dominant culture understand the rulesDominant culture understand the rulesEmotion and politicsEmotion and politicsPlaying the gamePlaying the gameLinks to new organization structures (Links to new organization structures (WickhamWickham et al, 2008)et al, 2008)Team working (Lindgren and Team working (Lindgren and PackendorffPackendorff, 2006) , 2006)

Ambivalence in views of Ambivalence in views of organizational politicsorganizational politics

Distancing or neglect in OD, STS, HRM (French & Bell, 1995)Distancing or neglect in OD, STS, HRM (French & Bell, 1995)Positive (open) or negative (shadow) uses of power (Greiner & Positive (open) or negative (shadow) uses of power (Greiner & ScheinSchein, 1988; Egan 1994), 1988; Egan 1994)Recognised as inevitable in Recognised as inevitable in processualprocessual approaches approaches (Pettigrew,1988)(Pettigrew,1988)Political skill: positive influencing and leadership (Political skill: positive influencing and leadership (HuczynskiHuczynski, 1996; , 1996; Ferris et al 2007)Ferris et al 2007)Politics linked to identity in critical management (Politics linked to identity in critical management (egeg Hardy, 1996; Hardy, 1996; Knights & McCabe, 2003)Knights & McCabe, 2003)

Politics important for the career because..Politics important for the career because..

Acknowledges plurality of organizational interest groupsAcknowledges plurality of organizational interest groups

Considers role of power in career developmentConsiders role of power in career development

Recognises conflict of insiderRecognises conflict of insider--outsider in acculturationoutsider in acculturation

Links to social exchange in organizationLinks to social exchange in organization

Includes organizational and individual levels of analysis: focusIncludes organizational and individual levels of analysis: focus on on the relationshipthe relationship

Accepts the role of self interest and identity processes in workAccepts the role of self interest and identity processes in workbehaviourbehaviour

Implications for practiceImplications for practice

Recognition of political aspects of work place: political activiRecognition of political aspects of work place: political activity ty

unlikely to be abolishedunlikely to be abolished

Complex processes: difficult to define, measure or evaluateComplex processes: difficult to define, measure or evaluate

Acknowledge insiderAcknowledge insider--outsider divide outsider divide

Clarify and specificity of organizational systems may reduce Clarify and specificity of organizational systems may reduce

negative impact negative impact egeg procedural justice, LMX to build trustprocedural justice, LMX to build trust

Links to acculturation: mentor support, training in political orLinks to acculturation: mentor support, training in political or

influencing skillsinfluencing skills

Danger: may be a pleasure for players but offensive to spectatorDanger: may be a pleasure for players but offensive to spectatorss