organizational behaviour canadian edition schermerhorn, hunt, osborn, currie prepared by: joan...
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Organizational Behaviour Organizational Behaviour Canadian Edition Canadian Edition
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, CurrieSchermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie
Prepared by: Joan CondiePrepared by: Joan Condie
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Questions Questions
What is motivation to work?What is motivation to work? How are reinforcement theories linked to motivation?How are reinforcement theories linked to motivation? What do the content theories suggest about individual What do the content theories suggest about individual
needs and motivation?needs and motivation? What do the process theories suggest about individual What do the process theories suggest about individual
motivation?motivation? How can satisfaction and its connection to How can satisfaction and its connection to
performance help bring together the insights of the performance help bring together the insights of the motivational theories, leading to an integrated motivational theories, leading to an integrated motivational model?motivational model?
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
What Is Motivation?What Is Motivation?
Motivation = the forces inside an individual that Motivation = the forces inside an individual that lead to the lead to the levellevel, , directiondirection, and , and persistencepersistence of of effort he or she makes at workeffort he or she makes at work
WhereWherelevel level = amount of effort (great or small)= amount of effort (great or small)directiondirection = choice as to where to direct effort when = choice as to where to direct effort when given alternativesgiven alternativespersistencepersistence = time spent continuing to try in = time spent continuing to try inan actionan action
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Three Categories of Motivational Three Categories of Motivational TheoriesTheories
A.A. Reinforcement theoriesReinforcement theories• Emphasize controlling an individual’s behaviour Emphasize controlling an individual’s behaviour
through manipulating its consequencesthrough manipulating its consequences
B.B. Content theoriesContent theories• Identify the needs that motivate individual behaviour, Identify the needs that motivate individual behaviour,
i.e., the physiological and psychological deficiencies i.e., the physiological and psychological deficiencies we feel compelled to reducewe feel compelled to reduce
C.C. Process theoriesProcess theories• Seek to understand the thought processes that Seek to understand the thought processes that
determine behaviour, why a person acts in a certain determine behaviour, why a person acts in a certain way given available rewards and work opportunitiesway given available rewards and work opportunities
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Reinforcement Approach to MotivationReinforcement Approach to Motivation
Reinforcement = the administration of a Reinforcement = the administration of a consequence as a result of behaviourconsequence as a result of behaviour
Theoretical background:Theoretical background: Classical conditioning: Classical conditioning: learning through learning through
association association Operant conditioning:Operant conditioning: the process of controlling the process of controlling
behaviour by manipulating consequencesbehaviour by manipulating consequences Law of effectLaw of effect states behaviour resulting in states behaviour resulting in
pleasing outcomes is likely to be repeated & pleasing outcomes is likely to be repeated & behaviour resulting in unpleasant outcomes is behaviour resulting in unpleasant outcomes is not likely to be repeatednot likely to be repeated
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Reinforcement StrategiesReinforcement Strategies
To increase a behaviour:To increase a behaviour:• Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement• Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement
To decrease a behaviour:To decrease a behaviour:• PunishmentPunishment• Extinction Extinction
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Increasing Behaviour: Increasing Behaviour: Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement = the administration of Positive reinforcement = the administration of positive consequences that tend to increase the positive consequences that tend to increase the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated in likelihood of the behaviour being repeated in similar settingssimilar settings
Rewards are positive reinforcers if they have the Rewards are positive reinforcers if they have the impact of increasing future behaviourimpact of increasing future behaviour
The reward must be contingent on the desired The reward must be contingent on the desired behaviour behaviour (law of contingent reinforcement)(law of contingent reinforcement) and and should be given as soon as possible after the should be given as soon as possible after the desired behaviour desired behaviour (law of immediate (law of immediate reinforcement)reinforcement)
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement
ShapingShaping is the gradual building of a is the gradual building of a behaviour by rewarding successive behaviour by rewarding successive approximations leading to the desired approximations leading to the desired behaviourbehaviour
Scheduling of reinforcementScheduling of reinforcement is either: is either: Continuous reinforcementContinuous reinforcement (desired (desired
behaviour is rewarded every time it occurs) behaviour is rewarded every time it occurs) oror
Intermittent reinforcementIntermittent reinforcement (desired (desired behaviour is rewarded only periodically)behaviour is rewarded only periodically)
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Scheduling of ReinforcementScheduling of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcementContinuous reinforcement Leads to quick acquisition of the desired Leads to quick acquisition of the desired
behaviour therefore effective in training behaviour therefore effective in training butbut Costly and less resistant to extinctionCostly and less resistant to extinction Therefore, after a behaviour is acquired, the Therefore, after a behaviour is acquired, the
reinforcement schedule changes from reinforcement schedule changes from continuous to intermittent in order to maintain itcontinuous to intermittent in order to maintain it
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Scheduling of ReinforcementScheduling of Reinforcement
Intermittent reinforcement can be given in one of Intermittent reinforcement can be given in one of four ways:four ways: Fixed ratioFixed ratio – reward a specific number of – reward a specific number of
behavioursbehaviours Fixed intervalFixed interval – reward the first behaviour after – reward the first behaviour after
specific time has elapsedspecific time has elapsed Variable ratioVariable ratio – reward a random number of – reward a random number of
occurrences of the behaviouroccurrences of the behaviour Variable intervalVariable interval – reward at random times – reward at random times Note that variable schedules lead to more consistent Note that variable schedules lead to more consistent
patterns of behaviourpatterns of behaviour
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Increasing Behaviour: Increasing Behaviour: Negative Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement (or avoidance) = the Negative reinforcement (or avoidance) = the withdrawal of negative consequences, which withdrawal of negative consequences, which leads to the likelihood of desirable behaviour leads to the likelihood of desirable behaviour being repeated in a similar setting (i.e., reward being repeated in a similar setting (i.e., reward by taking away something bad)by taking away something bad)
E.g., more likely to keep work area tidy if it E.g., more likely to keep work area tidy if it means supervisor no longer nagsmeans supervisor no longer nags
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Decreasing Behaviour: PunishmentDecreasing Behaviour: Punishment
Punishment = the administration of Punishment = the administration of negative consequences that tend to negative consequences that tend to reduce the likelihood of the behaviour reduce the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated in similar settingsbeing repeated in similar settings
Evidence that well handled punishment for poor Evidence that well handled punishment for poor performance can improve performance while performance can improve performance while maintaining satisfaction, but punishment seen maintaining satisfaction, but punishment seen as arbitrary or erratic can harm both as arbitrary or erratic can harm both satisfaction and performancesatisfaction and performance
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Decreasing Behaviour: Extinction Decreasing Behaviour: Extinction
Extinction = the withdrawal of the reinforcing Extinction = the withdrawal of the reinforcing consequences for a particular behaviourconsequences for a particular behaviour
E.g., not responding to someone’s complaints E.g., not responding to someone’s complaints and whining may lead them to stop doing it in and whining may lead them to stop doing it in front of you as they do not receive the attention front of you as they do not receive the attention they seekthey seek
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Issues in Using Issues in Using Reinforcement StrategiesReinforcement Strategies
Are observed improvements in performance due to Are observed improvements in performance due to reinforcement or the goal-setting involved (that reinforcement or the goal-setting involved (that holds people accountable for specific holds people accountable for specific accomplishments)?accomplishments)?
Ethics – use of reinforcement can lead to Ethics – use of reinforcement can lead to demeaning view of people and lead managers to demeaning view of people and lead managers to abuse their power through control over behaviourabuse their power through control over behaviour Counterclaim is that control is inevitable part of Counterclaim is that control is inevitable part of
manager’s job, and OK if done ethically, fairly and manager’s job, and OK if done ethically, fairly and constructivelyconstructively
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Content Theories of MotivationContent Theories of Motivation
1.1. Hierarchy of Needs TheoryHierarchy of Needs Theory
2.2. ERG TheoryERG Theory
3.3. Acquired Needs TheoryAcquired Needs Theory
4.4. Two-Factor TheoryTwo-Factor Theory Identify the needs that motivate individual behaviour, Identify the needs that motivate individual behaviour,
i.e., the physiological and psychological deficiencies i.e., the physiological and psychological deficiencies we feel compelled to reducewe feel compelled to reduce
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Hierarchy of Needs TheoryHierarchy of Needs Theory
Maslow’s pyramid of needs: physiological, safety, Maslow’s pyramid of needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization needssocial, esteem, and self-actualization needs Those lower on the pyramid claim greater priorityThose lower on the pyramid claim greater priority
Research does not support the five levelsResearch does not support the five levels Instead suggests that they more likely operate in a Instead suggests that they more likely operate in a
flexible hierarchy and the importance of each varies with flexible hierarchy and the importance of each varies with cultureculture
Appears that higher order needs (esteem and self-Appears that higher order needs (esteem and self-actualization) become more important than lower order actualization) become more important than lower order needs (physiological, safety, social) as one moves up needs (physiological, safety, social) as one moves up corporate laddercorporate ladder
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
ERG TheoryERG Theory
Compressed Maslow’s five need categories to three: Compressed Maslow’s five need categories to three: existence, relatedness, growthexistence, relatedness, growth (ERG) (ERG)
Offers Offers frustration-regression hypothesisfrustration-regression hypothesis: when a : when a higher-level need cannot be satisfied (is frustrated) , a higher-level need cannot be satisfied (is frustrated) , a lower level need can become reactivatedlower level need can become reactivated E.g., in a dead-end job where one’s growth needs are E.g., in a dead-end job where one’s growth needs are
frustrated, relatedness can become a key motivatorfrustrated, relatedness can become a key motivator Claims Claims more than one need can be activatedmore than one need can be activated at the at the
same timesame time
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Acquired Needs TheoryAcquired Needs Theory
Emphasizes importance of three needs acquired Emphasizes importance of three needs acquired through experiences:through experiences: Need for achievement (nAch)Need for achievement (nAch) Need for power (nPower)Need for power (nPower) Need for affiliation (nAff)Need for affiliation (nAff)
Research measures these through use of TAT Research measures these through use of TAT projective test; McClelland encourages managers to projective test; McClelland encourages managers to identify the presence of these needs through identify the presence of these needs through observation and create appropriate work environmentsobservation and create appropriate work environments
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Acquired Needs Theory Acquired Needs Theory
Needs are associated with work preferencesNeeds are associated with work preferences High nAchHigh nAch: individual responsibilities, challenging : individual responsibilities, challenging
goals, performance feedbackgoals, performance feedback High nAffHigh nAff: interpersonal relationships, opportunities : interpersonal relationships, opportunities
for communicationfor communication High nPowerHigh nPower: attention, recognition, opportunity for : attention, recognition, opportunity for
influence over othersinfluence over others Senior executive success associated with high Senior executive success associated with high
need for power and low need for affiliationneed for power and low need for affiliation
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Two-factor Theory Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)(or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)
Herzberg:Herzberg: Job contextJob context is source of dissatisfaction is source of dissatisfaction
• Problems with Problems with hygiene factorshygiene factors (e.g., pay, (e.g., pay, working conditions) lead to dissatisfaction; lack working conditions) lead to dissatisfaction; lack of problems means lack of dissatisfactionof problems means lack of dissatisfaction
Job contentJob content is the source of job satisfaction is the source of job satisfaction• Motivator factorsMotivator factors (e.g., achievement, (e.g., achievement,
responsibility) link with job performance; if high, responsibility) link with job performance; if high, satisfaction high and performance strongsatisfaction high and performance strong
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Two-factor Theory Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)(or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)
Validity unconfirmed – not replicated using Validity unconfirmed – not replicated using different methodsdifferent methods
Still does not explain individual differences, Still does not explain individual differences, professional or cultural differencesprofessional or cultural differences
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Equity TheoryEquity Theory
Adams: we will Adams: we will act toact to eliminate any eliminate any unfairnessunfairness that we see in the rewards that we see in the rewards we receive for our work compared to we receive for our work compared to what others receivewhat others receive
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Equity TheoryEquity Theory
Suggests person feeling under Suggests person feeling under rewarded or overrewarded will do rewarded or overrewarded will do one of following to restore equity:one of following to restore equity: Change own work inputs (e.g., effort)Change own work inputs (e.g., effort) Change own outcomes received (e.g., ask for raise)Change own outcomes received (e.g., ask for raise) Leave situationLeave situation Change comparison personChange comparison person Psychologically distort the comparisonsPsychologically distort the comparisons Act to change the inputs or outcomes of comparison Act to change the inputs or outcomes of comparison
personperson
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Equity TheoryEquity Theory
Suggests that the ways in which any reward is Suggests that the ways in which any reward is received will be affected by equity comparisons; it is received will be affected by equity comparisons; it is the the receiver’s perception that countsreceiver’s perception that counts, not the reward , not the reward giver’s intentionsgiver’s intentions
Research suggests people who feel Research suggests people who feel underpaid do underpaid do reduce the quantity or qualityreduce the quantity or quality of their work but those of their work but those who feel overpaid not as likely to improve their work as who feel overpaid not as likely to improve their work as overpayment is not as uncomfortable as overpayment is not as uncomfortable as underpaymentunderpayment
Different results in other cultures; concern over Different results in other cultures; concern over equality more an issue than equity in collectivistic equality more an issue than equity in collectivistic culturescultures
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
Vroom argues that work motivation is determined Vroom argues that work motivation is determined by individual beliefs about effort-performance by individual beliefs about effort-performance relationships and work outcomesrelationships and work outcomes
In deciding whether to do something, a person In deciding whether to do something, a person assesses:assesses: ExpectancyExpectancy – Can I do it? How hard must I work? – Can I do it? How hard must I work? InstrumentalityInstrumentality – What will happen as a result of my – What will happen as a result of my
success?success? ValenceValence – How much do I care about those – How much do I care about those
outcomes?outcomes?
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
Claims Claims M = E x I x VM = E x I x V where where M is motivationM is motivation E is expectancyE is expectancy I is instrumentalityI is instrumentality V is valenceV is valence
The The multiplier effectmultiplier effect means that all must be means that all must be high for high motivation, yet even one low one high for high motivation, yet even one low one can destroy motivationcan destroy motivation
Generally strong research supportGenerally strong research support
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Job SatisfactionJob Satisfaction
Job satisfaction = how positively or negatively Job satisfaction = how positively or negatively individuals feel about their jobsindividuals feel about their jobs
Observable informally through observation and Observable informally through observation and interpretation of behaviour and wordsinterpretation of behaviour and words
Measured formally in questionnairesMeasured formally in questionnaires E.g., Minnesota Satisfaction QuestionnaireE.g., Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire E.g., Job Descriptive IndexE.g., Job Descriptive Index
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Effects of Job SatisfactionEffects of Job Satisfaction
Link to absenteeism Link to absenteeism Satisfied have lower absenteeismSatisfied have lower absenteeism
Link to turnover Link to turnover Dissatisfied more likely to quitDissatisfied more likely to quit
Link to performance complexLink to performance complex Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual
performanceperformance Successful performance does seem to lead to greater Successful performance does seem to lead to greater
satisfactionsatisfaction Proper allocation of rewards can increase both Proper allocation of rewards can increase both
performance and satisfactionperformance and satisfaction
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
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Amount and Amount and schedule of schedule of contingent contingent extrinsic extrinsic rewardsrewards
Net amount Net amount of valent of valent intrinsic intrinsic rewardsrewards
Equity Equity comparisoncomparison
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Work Work effort effort neededneeded
IndividualIndividualattributesattributes
Organizational Organizational supportsupport
An Integrated Model of Individual An Integrated Model of Individual Motivation to WorkMotivation to Work
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