Robbins & JudgeOrganizational Behavior

INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR CHAPTER 2

Chapter Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Contrast the two types of ability. Define intellectual ability and demonstrate its

relevance to OB. Identify the key biographical characteristics and

describe how they are relevant to OB. Define learning and outline the principles of the

three major theories of learning. Define shaping, and show how it can be used in OB. Show how culture affects our understanding of

intellectual abilities, biographical characteristics, and learning.

AbilityAn individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. Made up of two sets of factors: Intellectual Abilities

The abilities needed to perform mental activities. General Mental Ability (GMA) is a measure of overall

intelligence. Wonderlic Personnel Test: a quick measure of intelligence for

recruitment screening. No correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction.

Physical Abilities The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity,

strength, and similar characteristics.

Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

Dimensions of Intellectual Abilities

Nine Basic Physical Abilities Strength Factors

Dynamic strength Trunk strength Static strength Explosive strength

Flexibility Factors Extent flexibility Dynamic flexibility

Other Factors Body coordination Balance Stamina

Contrast Intellectual from Physical Ability

Insert Exhibit 2.3

Examples of Nine Physical Abilities

Biographical Characteristics

Objective and easily obtained personal characteristics.Age Older workers bring experience, judgment, a

strong work ethic, and commitment to quality.Gender Few differences between men and women that

affect job performance.Race (the biological heritage used to identify oneself) Contentious issue: differences exist, but could be

more culture-based than race-based.

Other Biographical Characteristics

Tenure People with job tenure (seniority at a job) are more

productive, absent less frequently, have lower turnover, and are more satisfied.

Religion Religion is wrongly becoming issue in the workplace

in this post-9/11 world. Sexual Orientation

Federal law does not protect against discrimination (but state or local laws may).

Domestic partner benefits are important considerations.

Gender Identity Relatively new issue – transgendered employees.

Types of Diversity

Diversity Concerns

Discrimination

Discrimination is treating somebody unfavorably because of: Their racial or ethnic origin Their age A disability Their religion or other beliefs Their sexual orientation.

If a job ad says No disabled people need apply or No blacks, that is obviously direct discrimination. But a ban on wearing hats at work could be indirect discrimination against some religions. Unless it’s for safety reasons, for instance.

UnfovorableTreatment

At work, treatment amounting to discrimination may involve: Unjustly denying somebody a job Unjustly denying somebody promotion or a job transfer Harassment – intimidating a person, being hostile to

them, or treating them in a degrading or humiliating way just because they are seen as different. Harassment isn’t necessarily spectacular. Constant degrading jokes or gossip about somebody can be demeaning.

Victimization - treating someone badly or differently for making a complaint about discrimination or supporting a colleague who has made a complaint.

Stereotypes and How They Function in Organizational Settings A stereotype is a belief about a certain group of people. “Discrimination” is to note a difference between things. Unfair discrimination is assuming stereotypes about groups

and refusing to recognize differences. Discrimination is the behavior or actions, usually negative,

towards an individual or group of people, especially on the basis of sex/race/social class, etc.

Prejudice is an unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual based solely on the individual’s membership of a social group.

For example, a person may hold prejudiced views towards a certain race or gender etc. (e.g. sexist).

LearningAny relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experienceLearning components:

Theories of Learning Classical Conditioning

A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.

Operant Conditioning A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior

leads to a reward or prevents a punishment. Social-Learning Theory

People can learn through observation and direct experience.

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s Dog Drool Key Concepts:

Unconditioned stimulus A naturally occurring phenomenon.

Unconditioned response The naturally occurring response to a natural stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus An artificial stimulus introduced into the situation.

Conditioned response The response to the artificial stimulus.

This is a passive form of learning. It is reflexive and not voluntary – not the best theory for OB learning.

Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner’s concept of Behaviorism: Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences. Key concepts in operant conditioning are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment and negative punishment.

Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement is giving something pleasant after a behavior. This increases the probability that the behavior will continue. Examples are:

Having a job and going to work every day to receive a paycheck.

A teacher complimenting students when they answer correctly will increase that behavior.

In the Skinner Box experiment, a rat got food as a reward for acceptable behavior, such as pressing a lever.

Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement is taking away something unpleasant as a result of the behavior that is acceptable. This is also meant to increase the behavior. Examples are:

A teacher exempts student from the final test if they have perfect attendance. So, the teacher is taking away something unpleasant to increase behavior.

In the Skinner box experiment, a loud noise continuously sounded inside the cage until the rat did what Skinner wanted him to do. When he did, the noise stopped, so the unpleasant noise was taken away. 

Positive Punishment

Positive punishment is used to decrease a behavior and is presenting something unpleasant after the behavior. Examples are:

An employee exhibits bad behavior at work and the boss criticizes him. The behavior will decrease because of the boss’s criticism.

Negative Punishment

Negative punishment is also used to decrease a behavior and is removing something pleasant after the behavior. Examples are:

An employee is habitually late for work so begins losing the privilege of listening to music while working. The behavior will decrease because of losing a privilege.

Why Is Operant Conditioning Useful in the Workplace?

Productivity Good employee morale can be directly linked to

increased productivity in the workplace, and operant conditioning can be useful in keeping both high.  Form of verbal praise or pay increases, will elicit a desired response, which in the workplace is optimal productivity.

Project Teams When one team member fails to meet his or her individual projects

goals, the entire project can suffer, potentially leading to conflict among team members, punishment from superiors and the loss of repeat business from clients. Keeping all employees accountable for their actions and rewarding high performing teams is one form of operant conditioning that can help ensure projects are completed on time and within a set budget.

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Social-Learning Theory

People can learn through observation and direct experience. The influence of models is central to this theory.

Much of what we have learned comes from watching models – parents, teachers, peers, movies, TV programs, bosses, players, etc.

Key Concepts: Attentional processes

Must recognize and pay attention to critical features to learn. Retention processes

Model’s actions must be remembered to be learned. Motor reproduction processes

Watching the model’s behavior must be converted to doing. Reinforcement processes

Positive incentives motivate learners.

Shaping: A Managerial Tool

Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response.

Four Methods of Shaping Behavior: Positive reinforcement

Providing a reward for a desired behavior (learning) Negative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs (learning)

Punishment Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an

undesirable behavior (“unlearning”) Extinction

Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation (“unlearning”)

Schedules of Reinforcement: A Critical Issue Two Major Types:

Continuous Reinforcement A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated

Intermittent Reinforcement A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the

behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated

Multiple frequencies

Types of Intermittent Reinforcement

Ratio Depends on the number of responses

made. Interval

Depends on the time between reinforcements.

Fixed Rewards are spaced at uniform time

intervals or after a set number of responses.

Variable Rewards that are unpredictable or that

vary relative to the behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed-ratio

Behavior Modification (OB Mod)The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals

in the work settingFollows the Five-Step Problem-Solving Model

Example of steps in O.B. MODStep 1: Identify. Coming to work on time

Step 2; Measure. Each member of the work group is late at-least three times a week

Step 3: Analysis. Workers know that they should come to work on time but receive no positive reinforcement for doing so or punishment for coming late

Step 4: intervention. Positively reinforce workers for coming on time as follows: A worker is allowed one Friday afternoon off each month he/she is never late

Step 5. Evaluate. Workers always come on time

Problems with OB Mod and Reinforcement OB Mod ignores thoughts and feelings. OB Mod may not explain complex behaviors that involve

thinking and feeling. Stimuli may not be consciously given as a means of shaping

behavior.

Modern managers and OB theorists are using cognitive approaches to shaping behavior.