organizational behaviour 3

8/3/2019 Organizational Behaviour 3

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ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

There are two approaches to development of personality

Stage approach consider specific physiological and

psychological stages that occur in the development of

human personality.Second approach tends to identify the important

determinants of personality.

The stage approach is theoretical in nature whereas

determinants based approach is empirical in nature.

The main contributors are Freud, Erikson, Alfred Adler,

Carl Jung, et al


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Freudian Stages

Although the stages of personality development

may be found in the writings of ancient Greek, it was

Freud who developed a meaningful stage theory ofpersonality

Sigmund Freuds Psychoanalytical Theory is based

on the notion that human behaviour is motivatedmore by unseen forces than by conscious and rational

thought.

According to Freud Personality develops as a result

of four main sta es of stress


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Freudian Stages

The sources of stress are Physical Growth Process,

Frustration, Conflicts and Threats.

These sources affect differently at each stage of life of a

person and these stages can be classified into five categories:

1.Oral Stage

2.Anal Stage

3.Phallic Stage4.Latency Stage

5. Genital Stage

Freud believes that these stage are the main driving forcesof Personalit Develo ment


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Oral Stage

Oral Stage covers the period from birth to 18 months

of age.

This period can be divided into two stages:Oral Sucking Stage

Oral Biting Stage

In oral stage both needs and gratification primarilyinvolve the lips, tongue and later the teeth.

Oral Sucking period is from birth to 8 months in which

child satisfies his sexual instincts by sucking from

mouth, tongue and lips


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Oral Stage

the child in this condition is totally in ids

effect and driven by Pleasure Principle

If he is not breast fed properly, he satisfies

himself by sucking his thumb or fingers.

After 8 months the mother starts weaning. If

weaning is abruptly stopped, it creates

disturbances in personality development.


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Oral Stage

Oral Biting starts at the age of 8

months and lasts up to 18 monthsEgo starts separating from id

Denial of breast feeding at this stagecreate problems of personality

development


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Oral StageAdults have well developed oral habits and a continued

interest in maintaining oral pleasures.

Sucking, eating, chewing, smoking, biting, and licking ones

lips are physical expressions of these interests.

Adult sarcasm, tearing at ones food and gossip have been

described as being related to this development stage

Oral gratification , if it is a dominant mode of gratification,i.e., if a person is excessively dependent on oral habits to

relieve anxiety or tension unrelated to to hunger or thirst


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Anal Stage

This stage is from 18 months to 3 years

The child satisfies his sexual instincts by urinating

and defecating

He expresses his anger by urinating or defecating in

wrong places

Ego is developed at this stage and the childunderstands that he is from a particular sex.

At the later period of this stage he understands the

necessity and social value of toilet control


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Anal Stage- extends from 18 months to 7years

Toilet training given to the child by his parents will

have its effect on adulthood.

If the mother too harsh and repressive, the childwithholds faeces, and if this becomes excessive, the

child develops an anal retentive personality.

When grown up, such personality expresses traits ofobstinacy, stinginess, orderliness, punctuality, and

extreme cleanliness or extreme messiness


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Anal Stage

If the mother pleads with her child to have

regular bowel movements and showers him

with praise when he does, the child will developanal aggressive structure.

A person fixated at this level would show

traits of cruelty, destructiveness, disorderlinessand hostility.


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Phallic Stage- extends from 3 to 7 years

at this stage the child discriminates genitals

The sexual instincts is satisfied by touching sex

organs and expressing interest in matters of birth andsex.

Freud observed that during this period both males

and females develop fears about sexual issues.The child is developing jealous about the intimacy

that the parents share with each other.

Children reacting to parents as potential threats to


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Phallic StageIf the boy is not getting proper attention from his father, he

develops a complex called Oedipus Complex.

Oedipus Complex is the fear for his father and the love and

sexual desire for mother

Girls develop Electra Complex

Girl wishes to posses her father for which she sees her

mother as rival.


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The latency stage is from 7 to 12 years

The childs sexual instincts are usually at sleep

because of social fear

His outwardly interest grow, he enjoys playing andtalking with his friends

He does not like the love shown by his parents.

This stage remains till pubertyIt is the time when the unresolvable sexual desires

of Phallic Stage are repressed by the superego


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Genital Stage this stage is from 12 to 20 year

the boys and girls see their sexual organs grow

Phallic Stage is again aroused with strong intensity

The children at this stage, start telling false stories,day dreaming.

When boys and girls are alone they feel depressed

and defeatedPersonality development is satisfying sexual

instincts

Develops a genuine interest in opposite sex


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Genital Stage

Freud believed in order for people to attain the ideal

genital character they must relinquish the passivity of

the early childhood days. For that they must get love,security, physical comfort.

They must learn to work, postpone gratifications,

become responsible and assume a more active role in

dealing with lifes problems.


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Freudian Stages

This theory of Freud is based on a theoretical

conception, rather than measurable item for

scientific verification

This theory does not give a total picture of

personality

This theory gives an important insight in to

Personality Structure and the idea of

unconscious motivation.


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Neo- Freudian theories

Modern Psychologists do not agree on over-emphasis

of sexual instincts as determinants of personality

development as identified by Freud.Jung, Adler, Horney, Fromm and Erikson were

prominent among them.

They emphasized environmental variables in thedevelopment of personality.

Eriksons Personality development stages provide

valuable insight for understanding development of


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Eriksons Psychological Stages

Erikson gave more attention to social rather than the

sexual adaptations of the individuals.

Erikson identified eight stages characterize theunending development of a person.

He characterize each stage by a particular crisis that

needs to be resolved successfully before a person canmove to the next stage

These eight stages are not totally separable and the

crisis are never fully resolved


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Stage of

Development

Age Crisis

Oral Sensory stage 0-1 year

Trust Vs

Distrust

Mascular and AnalStage

1 yr to 2yrs

Autonomy VsDoubt

Locomotor and

genital stage 3 yr - 5 yr

initiative vs

guilt


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Latency stage

6yr -

puberty

industry vs

inferiority

Puberty &Adolescence 12yr- 19yr

identity vsconfusion

Early Adulthood

20s &

above

intimacy vs

isolationYoung and middle

adulthood 40s & 50s

Generativity vs

Stagnation

60s & Integrity vs


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1. Oral Sensory Stage or Infancy Stage a child who

is raised in loving and affectionate atmosphere

learn to trust others. Lack of love and affectionleads to mistrust. This bears long lasting impact on

ones personality and the reluctant behaviour

2.

Muscular and Anal stage or Early Childhood thisperiod the child starts to acquire independence.

When the child is allowed to it he/she feels

autonomy. If disallowed, a sense ofshame and

doubt develops in child


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3. Play Age or Locomotor Genital Stage the child

seeks to discover what can be done. If the child is

allowed or encouraged, he/she develops a sense ofinitiative. If the child is discouraged he/she feels lack

of self-confidence/ guilt.

4.School Age or Latency Stage the child joins school

and learns knowledge and skills. If the child makes

progress compatible with his/her abilities, it develops

a sense ofindustry in the child, otherwise a sense of

inferiority.


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Eriksons Psychological Stages5. Adolescence or Puberty and Adolescence during

teen age period children try to gain identity for them in

the society. They do not want to become confused about

them selves, who they are. The autonomy, initiative and

industry developed in the early stages help the teenagers

gain identity for them. Otherwise they are confused

about themselves.6. Young Adulthood or Early Adulthood during the

twenties they develop deep and permanent relationships

with others to have a feeling of intimacy. Failing in it

results in isolation


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Eriksons Psychological Stages7. Adulthood or Young and middle Adulthood the adults

during 40s and 50s ( Starting from late 20s) face the situation

ofgenerativity or self-absorption. Adults who are productive

in their work, raise children with serious concern and guidesto next generation are called generative. They are absorbed in

their career development and maintainence.

8.Old Age/Sunset Age/Mature Adulthood- the adult of

integrity gains a sense of wisdom. He/she appreciates

continuity of past, present and future and becomes fully

satisfied.Fear of death is dispelled. The reverse situation

results in a sense ofdespair, fear from death, desire for livingsecond time and de ressed


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Chris Argyris, an OrganizationalBehavioural Theorist, diverted from

strict StageT

heories of PersonalityDevelopment and has identified

specific dimensions of human

personality, progresses along acontinuum immaturity as an infant to

maturity as an adult.


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Immaturity Maturity Continuum

Immaturity

Characteristics

Maturity Characteristics

PassivityDependence

Few ways of Behaving

Shallow interestsShort-time Perspective

Subordinate Position

Lack of self-awareness

ActivityIndependence

Diverse Behaviour

Deep InterestsLong time perspective

Super ordinate Position

Self-awareness and

Control


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Immaturity Maturity Continuum1. As Child from passivity stage to an adult of

increased activities. A child is in the hands of his

environment, and events occur without his choice,

but an adult knows how to control environment

and occurring events.

2. From dependence as a child to independent as an

adult. This process occurs unevenly making somepeople very independent and others quite close to

protective people.


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Immaturity Maturity Continuum3. Child behaves only in few ways but adult behaves in

many ways. An adult is less predictable and more

adaptable than the child. Few goals and many goals.

4. Child has erratic, casual and shallow interests but

develops deeper and stronger interests as an adult.

Gradually he acquires a fairly well defined set of

interests, which can absorb him for hours and offerhim great satisfaction.


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Immaturity Maturity Continuum5. Child is almost exclusively concerned with the present, histime perspective is very short, as a mature, his time

perspective increases to include the past and the future.

6. Child is subordinate to everyone, as adult he moves to

equal or superior position. He might be working as a superior

or subordinate, he does not think himself as being inherently

to be a follower.

7. Child does not have habitual set of attitudes. As an adult he

thinks about himself and is aware of the kind of person he is.

He has an ego and may go to protect it


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Sheldons Personality DevelopmentWilliam Sheldon tried to explain personality development

based on an individuals body build.

BODY BUILDS PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICSENDOMORPH

( FLESHY)Friendly, People Oriented, seeks others

when in trouble, slow to react, loves to eat,

jovial, good in human relationship

MESOMORPH

(Athletic)

Seeks physical adventure, enjoys exercise,

aggressive, risk taker, competition oriented

ECTOMORPH

(Thin)

Likes privacy, socially inhibited, quick to

react and hypersensitive to pain


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PERSONALITY TRAITS

The structure of personality depends oncharacteristic (trait) that describe an individuals

behaviour.

A comprehensive classification of personality traitsis the sixteen source traits by R.B. Cattel (1973)


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Source TraitsOut going

Less inteligent More intelligent

Affected by feeling Emotionally stable

Submissive dominant

Serious Happy go-lucky

Expedient Conscientious

Timid Venturesome

Tou h-minded Sensitive


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Trusting Suspicious

Practical Imaginative

Forthright Shrewd

Self-assured Apprehensive

Conservative experimenting

Group- dependent Self sufficient

uncontrolled controlled

RelaxedT

ension


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PERSONALITY TRAITS AFFECTING BEHAVIOUR

Personality has a key influence on work

performance

Each mans personality reveals it self the in the way

he works with his superior, his subordinates, andother people.

As a result, when the incumbent on a job changes,

everyone has to adjust to a whole series of changes inthe way work is accomplished.

On this context psychologists have tried to identify

types of personality and personality traits


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From the OB point of view the followingclassifications were made:

1. Big Five Personality Traits

2. Other Personality TraitsBig Five Personality Traits

Researchers identified five fundamental traits that are

relevant to organizations. These are:

1. Agreeableness 4. Extroversion

2. Conscientiousness 5. Openness

3. Negative Emotionality


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Big Five Personality TraitsAgreeableness

High Low

ConscientiousnessHigh Low

Negative Emotionality

Low High

Extroversion

Extroversion Introversion

Openness

More Less


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Big Five Personality TraitsAgreeableness is a persons ability to get along with others.

It causes some people to be gentle, cooperative, forgiving,

understanding and good-natured in their dealings with

others.

Conscientiousness is the number of goals on which a person

focuses his attention. Persons who focuses on a few goals at a

time are likely to be organized, systematic, careful, thorough,and disciplined.

Negative Emotionality means moving of the feelings or

agitation of mind. Persons with less negative emotionality are

relatively poised, calm, resilient, and secure.


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Big Five Personality TraitsExtroversion reflects a persons comfort level with

relationships. Introversion is the tendency in

individuals which directs them to turn inward andexperience and process feelings, thoughts and ideas

within themselves. Extroversion to outward of

themselves searching for outward stimuli with which

they can interact. Introverts are quiet, reflective andintellectual people who prefer to interact with small

intimate circle of friends. Extroverts are sociable,

lively gregarious and seek outward interaction.


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Big Five Personality TraitsOpenness refers to a persons rigidity of beliefs and range of

interests. A person with high level of openness are willing to

listen to new ideas and to change their own ideas, beliefs and

attitudes to new information. They also tend to have broadinterests and to be curious, imaginative and creative.

Generally people with more openness perform better.

Managers who can both understand the framework and assess these traits in their employees are

in a good position to understand how and why they

behave as they do.


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Other Personality TraitsOther than Big Five Personality traits, there are some other

personality traits which are relevant for organizations.

1. Self-Concept

Self-concept is the way individuals define themselves as

to who they are and derive their sense of identity. It is the

extent to which they consistently regard themselves as

capable, successful, important and worthy individuals.2. Self-Esteem

An individuals liking or disliking one self is called self-

esteem. It is how managers perceive themselves and their

role in the organization.


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Other Personality Traits3. Self-Monitoring is ones ability to adjust his/her

behaviour to external factors or situation. Individuals

with high self-monitoring trait show greateradaptability to adjust themselves with external

situations. They can behave differently in different

situations. They are likely to more successful

managers, who at times required to play multipleroles and even contradictory roles to perform their

managerial activities.


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4. Machiavellianism is manipulation of others asprimary way of achieving ones goals. Mach scale

measures the extent to which an individual tends to

beMachiavellian. People with high score onMach

scale, tend to be cool, logical in assessing the system

around them, willing to twist and turn facts to

influence others, and try to gain control of people,

events and situations by manipulating the system totheir advantage. The personality characteristics of

Machiavellianism (Mach) is named after Niccole

Machiavelli, who wrote how to get and manipulate


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5.Risk-Taking individuals differ in taking risks. Thepropensity to assume or avoid risks affectsManagers

behaviour in making decisions.Managers with high

risk taking make more rapid decisions and use less

information in making choices. The propensity of

assume risks varies depending upon the nature of the

job. The Stock Trader in brokerage firm which

demands for rapid decision-making , but the samepersonality trait may not be considered good in

auditing activities which require concentration and

low risk-taking propensity.


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6.Locus of control- is ones belief that what happensis either within ones control or beyond ones control.

The former is called Internals and the latter is called

Externals.Those who have internal locus of control

believe that they are masters of their fate. On the

contrary, those who have external locus of control see

themselves as pawns of fate and believe that what

happens to them in their lives is due to luck or factorsbeyond their control. A comparison of internals with

externals have proved that externals are less satisfied

with their jobs and have higher absenteeism rates


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7. Need Patterns there are four types of needs thatpeople have at work. These are needs for autonomy,

achievement, affiliation and dominance. Those who

have high need for achievement engage themselves

proactively in work in order to feel proud about their

achievements and successes; those who have high

need for affiliation work co-operatively with others;

those who having high need for autonomy like towork in an environment with less close supervision;

those who have high need for dominance are very

effective in an environment where they can actively


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8.Tolerance for Ambiguity some people can toleratehigh level of ambiguity withoutv experiencing undue

stress and still function effectively while people who have

low tolerance of ambiguity may be effective in structured

work setting but it is almost impossible to operate whenthings are rapidly changing.

9. Work-Ethic orientation- the extremely work-ethic-

oriented people get greatly involved in the job and live

upto being described as living, eating and breathing the

job. On the other hand people with low-work-ethic

orientation try to do the minimum that is necessary.


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10. Authoritarianism - is an attribute used todescribe persons having certain negative beliefs about

work and workers. Based on this the behaviour of

employees in an organization is explained by using the

following traits:

1. Believes in formal authority

2. Obedient to the authority

3. Stick to conventional values and resists new ideas

4. Conforms to rules and regulations


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10. Authoritarianism

5. Believes in directing subordinates rather than

listening to them

6. Is rigid and prefers a structured environment.They will achieve targets in the short-run, but in the

long-run will not be able to maintain the level of

motivation and satisfaction.

From the above mentioned traits, some conclusion

can be drawn about the desirable personality

characteristics for effective managers.


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