organizational behavior - session 2

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005

Foundations of Individual Behavior

Lecturer: Do Tien Long09 04 51 54 [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

Organizational Behavior, Do Tien Long

The changing nature & scope of managing individuals

In the 21st century there are new demands for an unpredictable future –

There is ever-increasing changeThere are flatter, matrix-based structuresThere are new work methodsMore need to balance family demands & workIncreased consumerism


Embracing diversity – an organisation’s perspective

We ought to reflect the style, taste & opinions of our consumers, who represent sexes, all colours & creeds, all ages & disabilities.

Cultural diversity will strengthen the quality of the company & will make us much more outward-looking.

Barry Gibson, Littlewoods


Defining diversity

Relating & working with people who hold different perspectives & views, bringing different qualities to the workplace

Diversity consists of visible & non-visible differences which will include sex, age, background, race, disability, personality and workstyle.

Kandola & Fullerton


Managing diversity

Does not mean managers champion their own values & try & shift other people’s values to conform & match their own

Does mean encouraging individuality & at the same time expecting group co-operation & team work


How do individuals differ?

Ethnic originPhysiqueGenderEarly family experiencesSocial & cultural factorsNational culture

MotivationAttitudesPersonalityIntelligence & abilitiesPerception


Personality

Defined as the combination of stable physical and mental characteristics that give the individual his or her identity

Including how one looks, thinks, acts and feels

Are the product of interacting genetic and environmental influences


The big five personality dimensions

Personality Dimension

1. Extraversion2. Agreeableness

3. Conscientiousness

4. Emotional stability5. Openness to experience

Characteristics of a person scoring positively on the dimensionOutgoing, talkative, sociable, assertiveTrusting, good natured, cooperative, soft heartedDependable, responsible, achievement oriented, persistenceRelaxed, secure, unworriedIntellectual, imaginative, curious, broad minded

Source: Organizational Behavior, 5th, Robert Kreitner & Angelo Kiniki


Personality and job performance

Studies showed that:Generally Conscientiousness had the strongest positive correlation with job and training performanceExtraversion associated with success for managers and salesperson; stronger predictor of job performance thanAgreeablenessBeing courteous, trusting, straightforeward, and soft-hearted had smaller impact on job performance than being talkative, active, and assertive

One shoes does not fit all people, one personality does not fit all job situations


Personality and Self-concept

Self-concept is the view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, and spiritual or moral beingsIs a key personality dynamic in study of OB3 related and crucial aspects are:

Self-esteem: one’s overall self-evaluationSelf-efficacy: a person’s belief about his or her chances of successfully accomplishing a specific taskSelf-monitoring: observing one ‘s own behavior and adapting it to the situation


Conceptual model for individual differences

Self-concept•Self-esteem•Self-efficacy•Self-monitoring

Personalitytraits

The unique individual Forms of self-expression

Attitudes

Abilities

Emotions



Attitude

Is a predisposition to respond in a positive or negative way to someone or something in one’s environmentAn attitude results in intended behavior; this intention may or may not be carried out in a given circumstanceIn general, the more specific attitudes and behaviors are, the stronger the relationship


Attitude

The cognitive component of an attitude reflects the beliefs, opinions, knowledge, or information a person possessesBeliefs represent ideas about someone or something and the conclusions people draw about themThe effective component of an attitude is a specific feeling regarding the personal impact of the antecedentThe behavioral component is an intention to behave in a certain way based on your specific feelings or attitudes


Example of 3 components of attitudes


ANTECEDENTS

beliefs and values

“My job lacksresponsibility”

“Job responsibility is important”.

ATTITUDE

feelings

“I don’t like my lob”.

RESULT

Intended behavior

“I’m going to quit my job”.

create thatinfluence


Attitudes and values

Values defined as broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes. It tends to influence to attitudes and behavior

Values reflect a person ‘s sense of right or wrong, or what “ought” to be: “equal rights for all” or “people should be treated with respect and dignity”

Sources of values are parents, friends, teachers and external reference group


Attitudes

Provide a state of readiness or tendency to respond in a particular way

Are learned through life and are embodied within our socialisation process


Abilities and Emotion

Ability represents a broad and stable characteristic responsible for a person’s maximum physical or mental performance

Intellectual abilityPhysical ability

Emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something


Is intelligence inherited

Nativists – believe intelligence is mostly inherited (nature)

Empiricists – believe that our environment shapes our behaviour & mental abilities (nurture)

Galton suggests that genius runs in families & so intelligence must be inherited


Emotional intelligence (EI)

Expands classical view of intelligence to include emotional qualities of individuals

Can predict top performance

18 competencies including items such as empathy, developing others, service orientation, change catalyst, initiative, adaptability, self-confidence

Goldman


IQ vs. EQ

IQAbilities of logic, conculation, languege, and spacesFrom birthControl reasonLittle impact to othersSuit to managerial responsibility

EQAbility to recognize, understand, monitor the emotions, and use it to develop thinkingPossible to growCan control the behavior of the individual and othersHave influence to othersSuit to managerial relations


Ability-JobFit

The Ability-Job Fit

EmployeeEmployee’’ssAbilitiesAbilities

JobJob’’s Abilitys AbilityRequirementsRequirements


What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?

• People’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.

• The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviorally important.

•• PeoplePeople’’s behavior is s behavior is based on their based on their perception of what perception of what reality is, not on reality is, not on reality itself.reality itself.

•• The world as it is The world as it is perceived is the world perceived is the world that is behaviorally that is behaviorally important.important.

Perception

A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.


Errors and Biases in AttributionsFundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others.

In general, we tend to blame the person first, not the situation.


Errors and Biases in Attributions (cont’d)

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.

Thought: When student gets an “A” on an exam, they often say they studied hard. But when they don’t do well, how does the self serving bias come into play?

Hint: Whose fault is it usually when an exam is “tough”?


Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

Selective Perception

People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.



Halo Effect

Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic

Contrast Effects

Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics



Projection

Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people.

Stereotyping

Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs.


Specific Applications in Organizations

Employment InterviewPerceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of interviewers’judgments of applicants.

Performance ExpectationsSelf-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect): The lower or higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities.

Ethnic ProfilingA form of stereotyping in which a group of individuals is singled out—typically on the basis of race or ethnicity—for intensive inquiry, scrutinizing, or investigation.


Specific Applications in Organizations (cont’d)

Performance EvaluationsAppraisals are often the subjective (judgmental) perceptions of appraisers of another employee’s job performance.


The Link Between Perceptions and Individual Decision Making

Perception of the

decision maker

Perception of the

decision maker

Outcomes

ProblemA perceived discrepancy between the current state of affairs and a desired state.

DecisionsChoices made from among alternatives developed from data perceived as relevant.


Assumptions of the Rational Decision-Making Model

Model Assumptions• Problem clarity• Known options• Clear preferences• Constant

preferences• No time or cost

constraints• Maximum payoff

Model Assumptions• Problem clarity• Known options• Clear preferences• Constant

preferences• No time or cost

constraints• Maximum payoff

Rational Decision-Making Model

Describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some outcome.


Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Model

1. Define the problem.

2. Identify the decision criteria.

3. Allocate weights to the criteria.

4. Develop the alternatives.

5. Evaluate the alternatives.

6. Select the best alternative.


The Three Components of Creativity

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and useful ideas.

Three-Component Model of Creativity

Proposition that individual creativity requires expertise, creative-thinking skills, and intrinsic task motivation.

E X H I B I T 5–4E X H I B I T 5–4


Creative thinking process

Creativity – the application of imaginative thought which results in innovative solutions to many problems

1. Preparation2. Incubation3. Illumination4. Verification

Wallas

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How Are Decisions Actually Made in Organizations?

Bounded Rationality

Individuals make decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity.


Common Biases and Errors

Overconfidence BiasBelieving too much in our own ability to make good decisions

Anchoring BiasUsing early, first received information as the basis for making subsequent judgments

Confirmation BiasUsing only the facts that support our decision.



Availability BiasUsing information that is most readily at hand.

Representative Bias“Mixing apples with oranges”Assessing the likelihood of an occurrence by trying to match it with a preexisting category using only the facts that support our decision



Escalation of CommitmentIn spite of new negative information, commitment actually increases!

Randomness ErrorCreating meaning out of random events

Hindsight BiasLooking back, once the outcome has occurred, and believing that you accurately predicted the outcome of an event


Intuition

Intuitive Decision MakingAn unconscious process created out of distilled experience.

Conditions Favoring Intuitive Decision MakingA high level of uncertainty existsThere is little precedent to draw onVariables are less scientifically predictable“Facts” are limitedFacts don’t clearly point the wayAnalytical data are of little useSeveral plausible alternative solutions existTime is limited and pressing for the right decision


Individual Differences in Decision Making

Personality Aspects of conscientiousness and escalation of commitment.

Self Esteem High self serving bias Gender

Women tend to analyze decisions more than men.


Organizational Constraints on Decision Makers

Performance EvaluationEvaluation criteria influence the choice of actions.

Reward SystemsDecision makers make action choices that are favored by the organization.

Formal RegulationsOrganizational rules and policies limit the alternative choices of decision makers.

System-imposed Time ConstraintsOrganizations require decisions by specific deadlines.

Historical PrecedentsPast decisions influence current decisions.


Cultural Differences in Decision Making

Problems selectedTime orientationImportance of logic and rationalityBelief in the ability of people to solve problemsPreference for collective decision making


Ethics in Decision Making

Ethics and National CultureThere are no global ethical standards.The ethical principles of global organizations that reflect and respect local cultural norms are necessary for high standards and consistent practices.


Ways to Improve Decision Making

1. Analyze the situation and adjust your decision making style to fit the situation.

2. Be aware of biases and try to limit their impact.3. Combine rational analysis with intuition to increase

decision-making effectiveness.4. Don’t assume that your specific decision style is

appropriate to every situation.5. Enhance personal creativity by looking for novel

solutions or seeing problems in new ways, and using analogies.


Toward Reducing Bias and Errors

Focus on goals.Clear goals make decision making easier and help to eliminate options inconsistent with your interests.

Look for information that disconfirms beliefs.Overtly considering ways we could be wrong challenges our tendencies to think we’re smarter than we actually are.

Don’t try to create meaning out of random events.Don’t attempt to create meaning out of coincidence.

Increase your options.The number and diversity of alternatives generated increases the chance of finding an outstanding one.

Source: S.P. Robbins, Decide & Conquer: Making Winning Decisions and Taking Control of Your Life (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Financial Times/Prentice Hall, 2004), pp. 164–68.


Learning

Learning• Involves change• Is relatively permanent• Is acquired through experience

Learning• Involves change• Is relatively permanent• Is acquired through experience

LearningAny relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.


Theories of Learning

Key Concepts• Unconditioned stimulus• Unconditioned response• Conditioned stimulus• Conditioned response

Key Concepts• Unconditioned stimulus• Unconditioned response• Conditioned stimulus• Conditioned response

Classical ConditioningA type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.


Theories of Learning (cont’d)

Key Concepts• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior• Conditioned (learned) behavior• Reinforcement

Key Concepts• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior• Conditioned (learned) behavior• Reinforcement

Operant ConditioningA type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.



Key Concepts• Attentional processes• Retention processes• Motor reproduction processes• Reinforcement processes

Key Concepts• Attentional processes• Retention processes• Motor reproduction processes• Reinforcement processes

Social-Learning TheoryPeople can learn through observation and direct experience.



Key Concepts• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.• Some rewards are more effective than others.• The timing of reinforcement affects learning

speed and permanence.

Key Concepts• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.• Some rewards are more effective than others.• The timing of reinforcement affects learning

speed and permanence.

Shaping BehaviorSystematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response.


Types of Reinforcement

Positive reinforcementProviding a reward for a desired behavior.

Negative reinforcementRemoving an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs.

PunishmentApplying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior.

ExtinctionWithholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation.


Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement

A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated.

Intermittent Reinforcement

A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.


Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals.

Variable-Interval Schedule

Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses.


Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

Fixed-ratio


Reinforcement Theory

When professors give random pop quizzes or take random attendance, students often

complain that they are adults, old enough to make their own decisions, and should

therefore not be required to come to class. How do you reconcile this argument with

what we know about reinforcement theory? Discuss with a classmate. What kind of reinforcement schedule are these

professors using? Would a different schedule be preferable? If so, which one?


Reinforcement Theory

Recall and write down the three criteria that indicate learning has occurred. Do you think

that learning, according to these criteria, really occurs as a result of a one semester

college class? Discuss with a neighbor.

What kinds of things would you recommend to a college professor to increase the likelihood of

students learning? Use theories from the text to frame your answer.


Factors influencing the learning process


The significance of learning for managers

• Powerful processes which can lead to positive outcomes, e.g. increased competence, understanding, self esteem & morale

• Individuals who enjoy learning are more likely to be flexible in times of constant change & therefore more adaptable to organisational turbulence

• Growing evidence that a learning culture can affect an organisation’s effectiveness


Components of the thinking environment

AttentionIncisive questionsEqualityAppreciationEase

Kline

EncouragementFeelingsInformationPlaceDiversity


Action learning sets

Small groups of people who all wish to develop themselves through tackling live issues

The sets provide opportunities for each individual to report in turn on their actions and reflect on the progress they have made


Applying theories of learning to organisations

1. Self development – learning what to do, how to be, learning the ropes

2. Development of others – personal development, development of planned learning events

3. Development of learning culture – policy development


Develop a life plan

Think about where you are going/want to go/want to achieveWork out what it is that is important to youIdentify stability zones in your lifeInvolve your family/friends, take account of their needSet clear and realistic goals and prioritiesEliminate the less value aspects of your life

organizational behavior - session 2

Business

tien long09

job performance studies

values values

job lacksi dont

job responsibilityis

key personality dynamic

individual differences

cultural diversity