MINISTRY OF EDUCATION I UNDPI UNESCO

EDUCATION SECTOR STUDY PROJECT

(MYA I 80 I 0041

No. 6.3

Organization and Management of

Universities and Colleges

by

U Saw Gibson

and U Thain Htay

MyaMl8l' Education Rasearch BureauYangon

February • '992

Organization and Management of

Universities and Colleges

by

U Saw Gibson (Yangon University)

and U Thein Htay (DHE)

Acknowledgement: This paper is the outcome of the collaborative effort of ESS Working Group No. 6(Organization and Management of the Education System). The working group, chaired by Oaw Hla Kyu (OBE)included the following members: U Myint Thein (OBE), U Thein Htay (OHE), U Saw Gibson (Yangon University)and U Myint Han (MERB).

ABSTRACT

This paper presents higher education and how the colleges, universities and institutions came intoexistence, how they are organized and managed as well as how they can be improved. The paperfocuses on the role of the leading organs and recommends that their functions and responsibilitiesbe reviewed and redefined in order to improve their role. Other important issues are the admissionpolicy, the examination system and the importance of finding additional sources of funding.

PREFACE

The Ministry of Education, UNDP and UNESCO are engaged in a joint effort to review the presentstate of education and manpower training in the Union of Myanmar. This review is being carriedout under the Education Sector Study project, which began in mid-1990. The objective of theproject is to help improving Myanmar's education system so it can make contribute moreeffectively to the country's social and economic development. The first phase of the EducationSector Study (ESS), a detailed diagnosis and analysis of the needs of the education sector, is nowcompleted. A synthesis of the main findings has been issued in a separate report.

This paper is one of a series of working papers produced by Myanmar ESS participants. The seriescovers various important aspects of education, such as quality and efficiency, linkages betweeneducation and employment, costs and financing, school facilities, and sector organization andmanagement. The ESS Working Papers series addresses itself to all professional staff in theeducation sector, as well as to interested researchers. It is hoped that these papers will contributeto stimulate a national discussion on ways and means to improve Myanmar's education system.

Dr. Khin Maung KyweNational Project Director

Antoine SchwartzChief Technical Adviser

OBEDHEDTAVEESSMERB

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Department of Basic EducationDepartment of Higher EducationDepartment of Technical, Agricultural and Vocational EducationEducation Sector StudyMyanmar Education Research Bureau

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

I. INTRODUCTION .

11. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2

Ill. INSTITUTES, UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES 4

IV. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND GOVERNANCE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6

V. ACADEMIC AFFAIRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9

VI. ADMINISTRATIVE AFFAIRS 15

VII. MAJOR ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED , ',.. 18

VIII. CONCLUSiON................................................ 19

ANNEXES

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Higher Edu.cation in the Union of Myanmar is provided by the followinguniversities, colleges and institutes:

••••••••••••

Universities (Arts and Science)Degree colleges (Arts and Science)Two-year colleges (Arts and Science)Institute of MedicineInstitute of Dental MedicineInstitute of TechnologyInstitute of EducationInstitute of EconomicsInstitute of AgricultureInstitute of Animal Husbandry andVeterinary ScienceInstitute of Computer Science andTechnologyInstitute of Foreign Languages

Nos:36

113111111

This paper attempts to describe how these institutions for higher learning havecome into existence and are being organized and managed and what major issues have'to beaddressed for the improvement of the system.

CHAPI'ER IT

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The beginnings of Modern University Education can be traced back to 1878. In1884/85, Rangoon College was affiliated to Calcutta University. In 1904, the government assumeddirect management and it became known as Government College, Rangoon. The College wasrenamed University College and it became one of the two constituent colleges of the Universityof Rangoon on its establishment.

The University of Rangoon Act was passed by the Burma Legislative Council inSeptember 1920 and the founding of the university took place on December 1, 1920. The firstConvocation of the university was held on November 28, 1921.

With the outbreak of the second world war in Asia, classes at the University weresuspended by the University of Rangoon (Suspension) Act, 1943.

In 1949, the University Suspension withdrawal Act was passed and shortlyafterwards an amendment, the University of Rangoon (Amendment) Act, 1949 was enacted.According to this Act, the Collegiate System (a system under which the University College, JudsonCollege, Medical College, Engineering College, Teachers Training College were loosely coupledtogether as the University of Rangoon) was abolished and a Unitary System was established. Underthe new Unitary System, previously mentioned autonomous colleges were merged into a singleUniversity of Rangoon, and reorganized into faculties such as Faculty of Arts, Faculty of Sciences,Faculty of Medicines, Faculty of Engineering, Faculty of Education, Faculty of Social Sciences, andso on. In other words, a faculty system was introduced. In 1959, the University College, Mandalaywas upgraded and named the University of Mandalay.

During the four decades since Independence, higher education has growntremendously. With the increase in population and the demand for education, coupled with thestrive towards providing greater access and ensuring equity, higher education sector has undergonefar-reaching changes time after time. The most notable change took place in 1964 when theUniversity Education Law of 1964 was enacted. Under the new law, the unitary system of highereducation ceased to exist and many faculties, mostly those that dealt with professional education,of the two universities were upgraded and established as degree-conferring university levelinstitutes. In the same year, an Institute of Foreign Languages was established in Yangon. TheUniversity Education Law of 1964 was repealed by the University Education Law of 1973.

Another notable change took place in 1976/77. Seventeen two-year RegionalColleges and later on three more two-year Regional Colleges were established in states anddivisions on a quasi-government status. Although these colleges were created and operated,administratively and financially, by local authorities they received financial subsidy from the centralgovernment and close supervision from the Ministry of Education. However, in April 1980, theseRegional Colleges came under the jurisdiction of the Department of Higher Education as affiliatedtwo-year colleges that were administratively separate but academically affiliated to either theUniversity of Yangon or the University of Mandalay. They were no longer referred to as RegionalColleges.

In 1975/76, a university correspondence course was also established and named"The University Correspondence Department, Yangon". It was established and supervised by the

3

Ministry of Education but was administratively and financially independent as a self-fundinginstitution with no financial support from the state. The department was taken over by the stateand placed under the Department of Higher Education in January 1981.

In 1986, Mawlamyine Degree College was upgraded to a university and TaunggyiCollege, Myitkyina College and Sittwe College were upgraded to degree colleges.

CHAYI'ER ill

INSTITUTES, UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES

Institutes

As previously mentioned in chapter 11, when the higher education system was reformed in1964 under the University Education Law (19641, "Institutes" came into being. All the institutionsthat dealt in professional education are designated as "Institutes". The followings are the institutesthat exist today:

• Degree-conferring university-level institutes under the Department of HigherEducation:1 Yangon Institute of Technology2 Institute of Education, Yangon3 Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, Yezin4 Institute of Economics, Yangon5 Institute of Computer Science and Technology, Yangon6 Institute of Agriculture, Yezin

• Degree-conferring. university-level institutes under the Department of HealthManpower:1 Institute of Medicine (1 I, Yangon2 Institute of Medicine (21, Yangon3 Institute of Medicine, Mandalay4 Institute of Dental Medicine, Yangon

• Affiliated institute:1 Institute of Foreign Languages (an institute affiliated to the University of

Yangonl

Universities

Since 1964, the institutions that teach academic disciplines in the liberal arts andsciences and are endowed with the authority to confer degrees have been designated and refer'redto as "Universities". The Arts and Science University, Yangon and the Arts and Science University,Mandalay were the two universities. They were renamed in 1981 as the University of Yangon andthe University of Mandalay respectively. In 1986, Mawlamyine Degree College was upgraded touniversity status and named the University of Mawlamyine.

Dearee Colleges

These are colleges that sponsor and hold full undergraduate classes on arts and sciences,yet are not endowed with the authority to confer degrees on its graduates and thus academicallyhave to be affiliated to a university. The followings are the degree colleges:

5

• Those affiliated to the University of Yangon1 Pathein Degree College2 Sittwe Degree College3 Workers' College

• Those affiliated to the University of Mand~lay1 Myitkyina Degree College2 Taunggyi Degree College3 Magway Degree College

Two-Year Colleges

As the name implies, these are colleges that sponsor only the first two years ofundergraduate classes on arts and sciences subjects. Like degree colleges, they are affiliated toa university. The followings are the two-year colleges:

• Those affiliated to the University of Yangon1 Hinthada College2 Pyay College

• Those affiliated to the University of Mandalay1 Monywa College2 Shwebo College3 Meiktila College4 Yenanchaung College5 Pakokku College6 Lashio College

• Those affiliated to the University of Mawlamyine1 8ago College2 Hpa-an College3 Dawei College

The three institutes of medicine and the Institute of Dental Medicine are under thejurisdiction of the Ministry of Health while the remaining institutes, universities and colleges areunder the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education.

CHAPTER IV

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND GOVERNANCE

The Leading Organs

At central level, the Universities Central Council and the Council of UniversityAcademic Bodies are 'the two supreme organs that are constituted according to the UniversityEducation Law (1973) and the University Education Amendment Law (1989). Both councils arechaired by the Minister of Education and are empowered to formulate broad and comprehensivepolicies and guidelines, in academic as well as in administrative matters, for the implementationand fulfilment of the missions and goals set out in the University Education Law.

Among members of the Universities Central Council are Deputy Ministers from theMinistry of Education, the Ministry of Industry, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forest, the Ministryof Planning and Finance, the Ministry of Health; Directors General from the Department of HigherEducation, the Department of Basic Education, the Department of Health Manpower; the Chairmanof Myanmar Education Research Bureau; Rectors of universities and institutes; and Principals ofcolleges. The Director (Universities) and the Deputy Director (Universities) of the Department ofHigher Education are secretary and joint-secretary respectively of the Council. All together thereare about 42 members in the Council.

Among members of the Council of University Academic Bodies are the DeputyMinisters from the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Industry, and theMinistry of Agriculture and Forest; one representative each from the Ministry of Planning andFinance, the Ministry of Mines, and the Ministry of Transport and Communications; DirectorsGeneral and Managing Directors from various departments and corporations from other ministries;Directors General of the Department of Higher Education, the Department of Basic Education andthe Department of Technical, Agriculture and Vocational Education; the chairman of MyanmarEducation Research Bureau and Myanmar Board of Examination; Rectors of universities andinstitutes; Principals of colleges; and a representative from each Academic Body of universities andinstitutes. Again, the Director (Universities) and the Deputy Director (Universities) act as secretaryand joint-secretary respectively to the council. All together, the Council has 55 members.

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The following table shows the functions and responsibilities of the two Councils

The Universities Central Council The Council of University Academic Bodies

1. To formulate educational policies 1. To prescribe educational standardin higher education 2. To set educational admission standards

2. To submit any recommendation and to prescribe screening and selectionto establish new institutions to modes.the government 3. To evaluate and supervise curriculum

3. To decide which degrees, planning and developments and teachingdiploma or certificates be offered methods.and awarded. 4. To prescribe rules and methods for

4. To formulate admission policies. examinations.5. To formulate research policies. 5. To submit recommendations to the6. To prescribe the academic Universities Central Council concerning

qualifications required by the the academic qualification needed byfaculty. faculty.

7. To formulate policies for the 6. To formulate research poliCies with agranting of honourary degrees. view to staff development

8. To prescribe the functions to be 7. To streamline and coordinate theperformed by universities and functions of constituent membercolleges. councils of the CUAB.

9. To oversee the performance of 8. To appraise and submit proposalsthe administrative Bodies of received from universities and collegesuniversities & colleges. to the minister.

At the institutional level an Administrative Body for each university, institute andcollege is constituted according to the University Education Law (1973) and the UniversityEducation Amendment Law (1989). Its main function is to formulate and give administrativeguidance to the institution concerned. The Administrative Body is chaired by the Rector / Principalconcerned.

An Academic Body for each university and university-level institute is constitutedand function according to the University Education Law. It is also chaired by the Rector of theuniversitylinstitute concerned. Its main duty is to deliberate, formulate and give academic guidanceto the university/institute, to put forward proposals and make recommendations on academicmatters to the Council of University Academic Bodies if and when required; and to confer degrees.Professors and heads of academic departments as well as Principals from affiliated colleges aremembers of the Academic Body.

At departmental level are the Board of Studies. Each academic discipline has itsown Board of Studies chaired by Head of the Department or a senior professor and its membersinclude senior faculty members as well as experts (on the subject matter) from other departments.The Board's main duty is to take initiation in drawing up new curriculum, to review and revise theexisting curriculum, and then put forward its recommendations to the Academic Body for approval.

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The Department of Higher Education

The Department of Higher Education, headed by the Director General, is theexecutive branch of the Ministry of Education with the responsibility to administer and co-ordinateth6 work of universities, colleges and institutes thereby ensuring the achievement of the goals ofhigher education within the framework of policies and guidelines formulated by the UniversitiesCentral Council and the Council of University Academic Bodies.

Structurally, the Department of Higher Education is made up of two major divisions,one taking care of foreign relations and the other taking care of universities affairs. Service Unitssuch as Universities' Central Library, Universities' Press, Universities' Translation and PublicationDepartment, Myanmar Educational Materials and Equipment Centre, and Applied GeologyDepartment are also the units that come under the responsibility of the Universities Divisions ofthe Department of Higher Education (Annex 1).

The Foreign Relations Division is responsible for foreign relation and cooperation.It acts as a liaison body between the Ministry of Education and other governments andinternational organizations regarding educational exchanges, co-ordination of educational projectsand training programmes.

Universities' Division is responsible for all other activities related to highereducation.

Institutes. Universities. and Colleges

Institutes, universities and colleges, though under the umbrella of the Departmentof Higher Education, maintain a partial autonomous status in both administrative and academicspheres.

Each institution has its own Administrative Body as described in chapter Ill, and therector or principal is its chief executive officer. Due to the reorganization and strengthening,structurally, of the universities and colleges in 1986 and the institutes under the Department ofHigher Education in 1988, every institution has been structured to be sufficiently staffed. However,due to the unavailability of qualified candidates and a considerable rate of attrition, only about 70per cent of the approved posts are filled and therefore shortage of teaching staff is still being felt.

Each institution has two major divisions: The Academic Division and theAdministration Division. Under the Academic Division are the academic (teaching and research)departments of various academic disciplines and library department, while under the AdministrationDivision are the support or service departments for students' affairs, hostel affairs, financial affairs,personnel affairs, stores and supplies, physical plant maintenance, estate management, etc.(Annex2).

Academically, univerSities and institutes of university status have their ownAcademic Body and have academic freedom to implement and fulfil the goals of higher educationwithin the framework laid down by the Government, the Department of Higher Education and thehigher councils.

CHAPTER V

ACADEMIC AFFAIRS

Admission and Registration

On matriculating from high schools, students who want to pursue studies in highereducation have to apply for admission to the Department of Higher Education which handles thejob of screening and selection based on the marks obtained in high school examinations. Only freshhigh school graduates are considered for the admission to regular classes, while graduates fromprevious years are considered for admission only to correspondence classes.

Marks obtained in high school examination are the sole criteria for selection andthus only students who have scored high marks would likely be selected for admission to theprofessional institutes and academic disciplines that limit the number of students to be admitted.All the rest of applicants are however selected for admission to the arts and science universitiesand colleges either as fUll-time students or as correspondence students. Hence, the number ofstudents admitted to these arts and science universities and colleges varies from year to year andthis renders proper planning very difficult.

Once selection is done, the students will be notified and they will have to contactthe institute, university or college to which they would be admitted. Admission and registration ofthe students, therefore, is the responsibility of the institutions concerned. Successive follow-upactivities such as the publication of class roll numbers, the issue of identity cards, transfers,withdrawals, annual re-enrolment, registrations for examinations, and so on, are handled by theoffices of the registrar of the institutions concerned.

Boarding and Messing

The institutes, universities and some colleges have boarding facilities but of limitedcapacity. Therefore admission to hostels has to be done selectively on a very competitive basis andmarks obtained in examinations are used again here as a yardstick. No boarding fee is charged;all boarding facilities are made available free of cost. Before classes were closed down in 1988,only a messing fee of Kyat 120/- per month was charged and the messing fund is managed by themessing committees concerned (each hostel has its own messing committee chaired by thewarden.)

Those students who are not fortunate enough to get accommodation have to turnto private accommodation, which is usually of inferior standard and relatively expensive. Themaintenance of discipline and morals in the private boarding houses is very much in doubt. .

Students' Aids and Grants

Each year, university scholarships of Kyat 75 per month are awarded to the top 100students who passed their high school examination with highest marks. Most of these studentsjoin professional institutes. Similarly 60 science scholarships and 30 economics scholarships ofKyat 100 per month are also awarded to students with outstanding performance in their highschool examination.

--------- -----

10

Stipends, Kyat 75 per month, are selectively awarded to needy students.Applications for stipends have to be submitted through local authorities and only applicants whoare recommended on a needs basis by the authorities concerned are awarded the privilege.Normally about 10 per cent of the total enroled students receive stipend grants.

Research stipends, Kyat 100 per month, are awarded to postgraduate students toenable them to do research for their papers, for it is expected that their findings will contribute tofurther knowledge.

Those needy students who are not awarded stipends are considered for andawarded "free-tuition". That is, they are allowed to pursue their education free-of-charge. These"free tuition" students can apply for stipends that may be granted whenever additional fundsbecome available.

The common condition to be fulfilled by scholarship holders, stipend holders andfree-tuition holders is to pass their examinations regularly.

Expenditures on stipends and free-tuition are borne by the institutions concernedout of funds provided by the state.

Extra-curricular Activities

There are subject-based students' associations, nationalities literary and culturalassociations, arts and culture associations, and sports committees, in universities and colleges.They are officially formed and each association is headed by a faculty member. •

Sports competitions, cultural shows, arts ~xhibitions, excursions, etc., are thecommon extra-curricula activities carried out by the associations in conformity with the guidelineslaid down.

Examinations

The examination is the dominant mode of educational assessment in highereducation, for both undergraduate and graduate levels. An academic-year-end examination is heldannually and marks scored in each subject are taken as indicators of the student's academicperformance. In some academic disciplines, tutorial and laboratory works done throughout the yearare taken into account in the final assessment, the allocation to this evaluation mode being about20 per cent of the total.

The plan and time-table for the year-end examination is usually drawn-up at theDepartment of Higher Education level with full participation and co-ordination of the rectors andprincipals concerned.

However, when the examinations are held, it is the duty of the rectors andprincipals to execute and implement the examination plans in minute detail.

The results of the examinations are handled and published by the Registrar onbehalf of the Academic Body. Usually problems that arise from the examinations are referred tothe Academic Body.

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A student is allowed only three chances to sit for an examination. He/She has topass his/her examination on the third attempt; otherwise, he/she is disqualified to be a universitystudent.

Curriculum Planning and Design

The Council of University Academic Bodies, is the supreme authoritative body withregard to academic matters of higher education. As such it is the final decision making body withregard to all curricula and lays down the framework and guidelines for all curriculum planning anddesign.

Curriculum planning and development in higher education is conducted within aninstitutional structure comprising the following bodies:

• Council ot University Academic Bodies• Academic Bodies• Boards of Studies

The Academic Bodies which are organized by the university or institute, con~ider

and decide on all academic matter~ pertaining to the university or institute concerned. In curriculumplanning and development, the Academic Bodies not only function as an essential link between theCouncil of University Academic Bodies and the Boards of Studies but also serve to co-ordinate theactivities of the various Boards of Studies.

The Boards of Studies consider and decide on all academic matters relating to theirrespective disciplines and as such they are directly responsible for the planning and design of thecurriculum within the framework and according to the guidelines established by the Council ofUniversity Academic Bodies.

The stimulus for curriculum change and development comes from various sources.Among them are: changing perceptions to the educational needs of society; the on-going effort toco-ordinate the educational sector with other social and economic sectors; adjusting the varioussub-sectors of education for better co-ordination and developments in the academic field resultingin the creation of new disciplines and sub-disciplines and the formulation of new theories andapproaches in the older ones.

The initiative for major curriculum change and development usually originates in theMinistry of Education in response to new developments in national educational policy. For example,the re-introduction of English as the medium of instruction in 1981 and the introduction of PoliticalScience as a compulsory subject in 1972. The Council of University Academic Bodies thenestablishes the general framework and guidelines for curriculum planning and design. The actualplanning and design of the curriculum is executed by the Boards of Studies in the higher institutionswhich have the necessary expertise and resources. The major considerations in this planning anddesign are the goals of national educational policy, as expressed in the guidelines established bythe Council of University Academic Bodies, and the international norms and current requirementsof the respective academic disciplines. The Academic Bodies also play a significant role in theprocess of curriculum planning and design, particularly in co-ordinating the activities of the Boardsof Studies to achieve an integrated curriculum.

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With a national educational system and a unified and integrated curriculum coveringall institutions of tertiary education and all academic disciplines, curriculum planning anddevelopment necessarily proceeds at a deliberate pace. Major curriculum changes can be madewithin one or two academic years. Nonetheless this does not prevent curriculum development fromkeeping pace with the developing educational needs of society.

Research

Besides teaching, faculty members of universities, colleges and institutes areencouraged to engage in research work. Hence, research funds, though inadequate, are allocatedannually to academic departments that submit proposals for research work.

Proposals for research projects are initiated and drawn up by faculty members andforwarded by Heads of the Departments to the academic Body and the Administrative Body of theuniversity concerned for approval. The approved proposals are recommended to the Departmentof Higher Education for the provision of funds. After consultation with the rectors and principals,the Director General of the Department of Higher Education allocates funds in lump sum to beredistributed to researchers. Normally it takes about 6 months to get the funding.

Quarterly as well as annual progress reports on research projects must be submittedregularly to the Department of Higher Education. Any significant discovery or development fromthe work has to be reported. It is desired that research papers be produced and published.Researchers are encouraged to participate in research papers reading sessions. Cooperation andco-ordination with research organizations of other ministries also exist.

A University Research Centre has been established very recently in the campus ofthe University of Yangon, but since it is still in the formation stage, it does not yet have a formalorganizational structure and therefore it has to be staffed by the University of Yangon.

Distance Learning

Since the three universities and their affiliated colleges were structurally reorganisedand strengthened in 1986, the management of distance learning by correspondence has been, toa certain extent, decentralized and shared. Every university and college has established adepartment to look after this operation. Screening and selection of fresh students to the first yearcourse is centralized at the office of the Department of Higher Education, while the setting ofcurricula, the printing and publishing of books, the setting of correspondence assignments andexamination questions, and the declaration of examination results are conducted/managed at theuniversity level.

The production of course materials, assignments, and radio lessons are theresponsibility of the academic staff of the various departments of the universities concerned. TheUniversity of Yangon offers Arts, Science, Economics and La~ courses while the remaininguniversities and colleges offers only Arts and Science courses.

Course materials in printed form containing explanations and instructions andassignments (numbering about sixteen per year for each subject) are distributed to the students,mostly by special postal service. Weekend lectures, tutorials and practical work for science and

13

economics students are held throughout the academic year by universities and colleges and theInstitute of Economics. This effectively limits enrolment in these courses to residents of the citieswhere universities and colleges are located. A few weeks before examinations are held, follow-uplecture sessions are held for Arts and Law students which require two weeks of attendance. TheInstitute of Education and the Institute of Economics are the only professional institutes that offercourses through the Correspondence School.

Distance education is an educational mode of great significance in many developingcountries (eg. China, Thailand, Indonesia, India) because of its potential to greatly increase accessto higher education. In the AY 1987/88 enrolment through the Correspondence School were87,881 students or 41 per cent of higher education enrolment of Department of Higher Educationinstitutions.

Concern has been expressed about the effectiveness of current correspondenceprovisions including: course design and materials development; use and potential of low cost multi­media learning activities; access to and availability of book, library, laboratory and other learningresources; operations management particularly postal service deliveries and feedback to studentson assignments; and the use of residential periods for examination cramming. Because of itscurrent and potential importance a specific review should be made of performance requirementsand indicators for distance education operations.

libraries

Established libraries

Each and every institute, university and college has a library. The teachingdepartments of these three major arts and science universities, the University of Yangon, theUniversity of Mandalay and the University of Mawlamyine also have departmental libraries of theirown. The six professional institutes have one main library each specializing in the subjects of:

• Agriculture,• Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science,• Economics,• Education,• Technology and• Computer Science and Technology.

There are six Degree College Libraries: viz., one each in Pathein, Magway,Myitkyina, Sittwe, Taunggyi and Workers College in Yangon. Libraries are also being establishedin the 11 two-year colleges, but at present they have only a limited number of books andperiodicals and only Bago, Pyay and Meiktila have professional librarians.

library Personnel

New staff positions were created for all the University and College Libraries (exceptthe Universities Central Library) in 1986 and 1988. At present some professional library posts(about 35 in number) with salaries equivalent to those of tutors and assistant lecturers in theteaching department, still need to be filled, and efforts are being made to promote and appoint

14

qualified librarians. More library professional positions need to be created, especially at theUniversities Central Library whose organisation and staffing levels has remained at the 1962 level.

library Training

There is only one department of Library Science at the University level. It was firstestablished in 1971 at the University of Yangon, but up to now the department does not have asingle full-time teaching staff. The staff of the Universities' Central Library, and the librarians ofthe universities and colleges, especially in Yangon, have to be engaged as part-time teachers in thisDepartment. Only courses leading to a postgraduate Diploma in Library Science are at presentavailable. The Department of Library Science at the University of Yangon needs to be strengthenedin order to produce adequate professional librarians for the country's need.

Scholarships for sending librarians abroad for professional training in library andinformation studies at the Masters' level is urgently needed.

Books and Periodicals

Good bookshops with technical and professional books for the university level arenon-existent in this country. In 1981. English was reintroduced as the medium of instruction at alluniversities and colleges to enable students and teaching staff to acquire up-to-date knowledge andinformation through books and periodicals published world-wide in English. However, libraries havenot been able to buy books and periodicals from abroad since 1984/85 due to the unavailabilityof foreign exchange.

Only the Universities' Central Library has a small exchange of publicationsprogramme with foreign libraries. Presentations of books and periodicals by internationalorganizations and foreign governmental agencies are still very limited. Grants from foreignfoundations for buying books and periodicals ceased in 1962.

Library Facilities

University and college libraries in Myanmar function in traditional form and lackmodern facilities such as photocopiers,microfilm readers, air conditioners, dehumidifiers, andvarious library and conservation equipments. None of the libraries has computer facilities forinformation retrieval or on-line connections with documentation centres that shall be establishedin Myanmar or that exist abroad.

CHAPTER VI

ADMINISTRATIVE AFFAIRS

Personnel

The institutions under the Department of Higher Education being state-owned andstate-funded,all personnel, except a few daily-paid casual labourers and honoraria-remuneratedpart-time staff, are government employees. Hence all personnel matters such as appointment,promotion, termination of service, remuneration, disciplinary action, leave and privileges, and soon, have to be carried out within the general guidelines and rules and regulations prescribed forpublic personnel in general.

The Director General of the Department of Higher Education, rectors of universitiesand institutes and principals of degree colleges are appointed by the supreme organ of the state(at present the State Law and Order Restoration Council) while principals of two-year-colleges areappointed by the Minister of Education. However, in the majority of cases, the search for and theproposal of the above mentioned posts is initiated by the Director General of Department of HigherEducation. Study shows that almost all rectors and principals as well as pro-rectors andvice-principals were once faculty members and therefore their leadership and management stylestend to be more collegial and less bureaucratic.

The Minister of Education retains the authorit-y to appoint, promote and terminateacademic as well as administrative staff of gazetted ranks. The authority to appoint, promote andterminate non-academic staff of all ranks up to branch clerk Clnd its equivalent is delegated torectors and principals.

Teaching staff of arts and science disciplines are transferred in rotation amonguniversities and colleges. Hence the handling of transfers becomes one of the main and mostdemanding tasks for administrators. One of the undesirable effects of these transfers is that manyteaching staff rather choose to resign their posts than be transferred. The service of manyexperienced and able scholars have been lost in this manner and there is an impact on any researchand other university commitments they were undertaking.

To be eligible for the post of tutor and demonstrator, a candidate must at least bea graduate who is eligible to pursue master courses. To be eligible for the post of assistant lecturerand above, a candidate needs to hold a master degree. Otherwise, seniority in service overshadowseducational qualifications in the handling of promotions.

Some personnel related authorities such as the authority to grant leave, theauthority to grant permission to leave headquarters, the authority to reprimand, etc. have beenrecently delegated by the Director General to rectors and principals.

No staff development or systematic training of any kind which relates to theadministration of higher education is available for administrators. Most administrators enrich theirknowledge only through experience. For academic staff, staff development is done in a limited waythrough the holding of seminars and refresher courses, the reading of research papers, theprovision of opportunities to pursue graduate studies, etc.

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Staff Welfare

Staff welfare societies as well as savings cooperatives have been formed underthe guidance of the state, in every institute, university and college to cater for the welfare of thestaff. Staff welfare societies collect monthly contribution fees from its members and spend it onsports activities, library facilities, cultural activities, and relief. Cafeterias and staff shops are alsoopened and run by staff welfare societies. In addition to these institutional staff welfare societies,some academic departments form their own welfare clubs, usually known as "coffee clubs" atdepartmental level.

"Savings cooperative" is also'a kind of welfare society from which financial relief,in the form of low-interest small loans repayable in instalments, can be sought by members.

Housing accommodation is also provided for both academic staff and administrativestaff. However, these are limited and cannot be available to everyone. At the University of Yangon,for example, only 8 per cent of the total staff are provided with housing.

Finance

Being state-owned, the institutions in higher learning are funded by the state. Fundsneeded for capital outlay as well as operating and recurring expenses are provided by thegovernment in the form of annual capital budget and annual current budget appropriations.Although admission fees, tuition fees, examination fees, laboratory fees, etc. are charged, they areof no,!,inal amount, being Kyat 360 per annum in 1991, and have to be remitted to governmentrevenue and can not be set aside for expenditures. This requirement to forward all fees togovernment revenue acts as a disincentive to any institution that might wish to be entrepreneurial.

Request for funding is made annually by drawing up budget proposals (capital aswell as current). Institutes, universities, colleges and support units under the Department of HigherEducation have to forecast their needs and draw up budget proposals according to budgetinstructions, from the higher authorities. The office of the Department of Higher Education, onreceiving budget pro'posals from the institutions, makes necessary revisions, compiles aconsolidated budget and forwards them, through the office of the Ministry of Education, to theBudget Department of the Ministry of Planning and Finance.

How much funding each institution receives and whether the amount requested isreceived or not depends largely on the amount of appropriation received by the Ministry ofEducation. Experience shows that due to limited resources, some budget cuts have to be madeat the national level and these cuts have to be shared by all departments. Hence, other than insome exceptional cases, the institutions have to manage with a lesser amount than initiallyrequested.

Once institutions receive their share of budget allotments, it is the responsibility of. the rectors and principals to administrator the funds according to government financial rules and

regulations in force. To do so, they are endowed with financial authorities to approvedexpenditures within budget limits. Every expenditure, however, has to be accounted for; monthlyaccounts have to be submitted to the office of the Department of Higher Education, which in turnhas to compile consolidated accounts for the whole department and send them to the BudgetDepartment of the Ministry of Planning and Finance.

17

Physical Facilities

The Department of Higher Education as well as every institute, university andcollege has an engineering and estate section to look after its physical facilities, especially land andbuildings. Construction of new buildings and maintenance and renovation of existing propertiesis the section's responsibility.

In every institution, there is also a store section charged with the responsibility toprocure, store, and make available materials and equipment needed for both administrative andacademic purposes.

However, these sections have not been able to function effectively due to theunavailability of adequate funds, especially in foreign exchange. Consequently, shortages ofclassrooms, laboratory equipments, office supplies, utilities, and so on are being felt.

Information System

The information system in higher education lacks modern technology and almosteverything is still performed in the old traditional way. For example, copier machines, electroniccalculating machines, computers, overhead projectors, and other modern equipments needed fora modern information system is almost non-existent in the majority of the institutions. Sometimes,even the efficiency and effectiveness of the traditional information system were in doubt due tothe lack of adequate facilities such as telephones, typewriters, duplicating machines and stationaryand supplies. Again, the main cause is inadequate financial resources.

Printing and Publishing

Printing and publishing, though of limited capacity, is taken care of by theUniversities' Press and the Universities' Translation and Publication Department. Universitytextbooks are printed and published by these departments. Three of the Press's five offset printingmachines are used exclusively in a confidential printing section which severely restricts the volumeof work and places stress on old machines for which spare parts are not readily avpilable. TheUniversity Press that is so vital to improving the quality of education should be reviewed andmodern equipment provided.

CHAYrER VII

MAJOR ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED

The role of the leading organs -- the functions and responsibilities of the leading organs such asthe Universities' Central Council, the Council of University Academic Bodies, the AdministrativeBodies, the Academic Bodies and the Boards of Studies should be reviewed and clearly redefinedin order to eliminate some ambiguous interpretations in their implementation.

Admission policy -- a limited number of fresh high school graduates are admitted to professionalinstitutes while the rest or applicants for admission are placed in arts and science universities andcolleges put undue and sometime unmanageable pressure on the latter and makes proper planningimpossible.

Assessment -- the present mode of examinations should be reviewed so that the examination­oriented system will be replaced by a curriculum-oriented system and thereby creating a morefavourable academic atmosphere for learning.

Finance -- additional sources of funding should be explored and tapped so that adequate fund willbe available for improvement needed to be made in the following areas:

• to maintain and provide adequate physical facilities - classrooms and teachingequipments, laboratory rooms and equipments, library facilities, office facilities,sports and recreational buildings and facilities, residential accommodation for bothstudents and staff, lighting and sanitation facilities, and so on;'

• to recruit and retain high calibre academicians - adequate financial .reward for theirservices as teachers or researchers; sufficient fund to do research In various fields;adequate fund for staff development programmes, etc. are the important factorsto be considered;

• to broaden research activities;

• to increase financial assistance to students;

• to procure and stock books and periodicals for the libraries.

Distance learning -- the ever increase in demand for distance learning through correspondencecourses need a thorough consideration and a comprehensive plan should be drawn up.

International contact -- to keep up with the country's changing political and economic outlook, thepolicy concerning interactions with international institutions of higher learning should be reviewed.

CHAPfER VID

CONCLUSION

In view of the situation analysis of the organization and management of universitiesand colleges presented so for, the strengths and weaknesses in higher education administrationis considerably identified.

To ensure accessibility of higher education to every talented students, statefinanced institutions of higher learning are opened throughout the country. Out of 14 States andDivisions in Myanmar, only Chin state and Kayah state do not have a college. A college for Chinstate, however, will be opened in the very near future. A nominal amount of tuition fees ( K. 30/­month) is charged and this enables many low income families to send their children to colleges.Moreover, the existence of University Correspondence Courses enable many students, who cannot attend colleges as full-time students, to pursue university education in the form of distancelearning.

However, since all the institutions are state-owned and totally financed from thestate's budget, the state's economic condition and financial situation did have a profound impacton them. For many years, the institutions have to face and operate within financial constraints(lack of Foreign exchange-hard currencies; insufficient funding) while the demand for highereducation is ever on the rise. Increase in student population, insufficient funding, restrictions ininternational contact and exchange, the ambiguous role of the leading organs that lead to excessivecentralization, lack of strategic long-term planning, insufficient programmes for staff development(especially for administrators and planners) etc., are the main causes of weaknesses apparent inmany areas of the higher education system in Myanmar.

LIST OF ANNEXES

1 Organizational Chart of the Department of Higher Education2 A Organizational Chart of a University! an Institute2 B Organizational Chart of a College

Annex 1Organizational Chart of the Department of Higher Education

I Ministry of Education I

Universities Council of UniversityCentral Council I Academic Bodies

IDept. of Higher Education I

I I- Universities/ I Administration I I Foreign Relations I

Institutes

-i Degree Colleges i

H 2-Year Colleges Iy Service Units I

Note: Medical Institutes (including Dental) are not included in this organizational structurebecause they are under the jurisdiction of the Department of Health Manpower, Ministryof Health. .

Annex 2 AOrganizational Chart of a University/ an Institute

I Rector II Administrative Body I I Academic Body II I

I Pro-rector I

I Administration I I Academic I

Students' Affairs English II Personnel I Myanmar

Hostel Affairs I Maths I

I Finance I History

Exams. I Physics I

I Campus I Geogl"aphy

correspondence Chemistry ICentre

IPsychology

I

ILibrary I

Note: The numbers and the names of the departments that appeared in the boxes unc;ierAcademic will be different for different universities/institutes.

Annex 2 BOrganizational Chart of a College

I Principal I

I Administrative Body II

I Vice-principal i

I Administration I I Academic I

Students' Affairs I English II Personnel I Myanmar

Hostel Affairs I Maths I

I Finance I History

Exams. I Physics I

I Campus IGeography

Correspondence I Chemistry I

Library I

Note: In addition to Departments shown, as examples, in boxes under Academic, there areother departments: Geology, Zoology, Botany, PaiL

LIST OF WORKING PAPER SERIES

1. Education Data Review and Analysis

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

Performance Indicators in Basic Educationby U Saw Win (Institute of Economics).

Performance Indicators in Higher Educationby U Thein Htay (DHE).

Performance Indicators in Technical, Agricultural and Vocational Educationby U Myat Naing (MERB) and U Nyunt Maung (DTAVE).

Quantitative Review of Education Staffby U Tun Hla and U Myint Thein (DBE).

Population Projections (1983-2013) by U Nyan Myint (Institute of Economics).

2. The Quality of Education

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

Teacher Quality by Daw 00 Khin Hla (Institute of Education).

Pedagogy by Oaw Nu Nu Win (Institute of Education).

Curriculum by U Myint Han (MERB).

Student Evaluation by Dr. Khin Saw Naing (Institute of Medicine 2).

Student Characteristics by U Maung Maung Myint (DBE).

3. Education and Employment

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

Manpower Demand and Employment Patterns in a Changing Economyby Dr. Thet Lwin (Institute of Economics).

A Tracer Study of Recent Graduates: Implications for Education and ManpowerPlanning by U Kyaw Kyaw (Department of Labour).

Linkages between Training Institutions and Employersby U Tun Aye (Ministry of No.1 Industry), Daw Myint Myint Yi (Institute ofEconomics) and U Van Naing (DBE).

Education and Work Performance (A Survey of Employers' Perceptions) by DawHla Myint (Institute of Economics).

Non-Formal Education in Myanmar by Daw Win Win Myint (Institute ofEconomics) and Daw Lai [ai Yu (MERB).

Labour Market Institutions in Myanmar by U Kyaw Kyaw (Department of Labour).

4. Costs and Financing of Education

4.1

4.2

4.3

Management and Administration of the Education Budget by Or. Khin Ohn Thant(Ministry of Planning and Finance).

Government Expenditure on Education by Oaw Soe Soe Aung (Institute ofEconomics) .

Non-Government Expenditure on Education by U Saw Gibson (Yangon University),

5. Education Infrastructure

5.1

5.2

5.3

5.4

The Construction Sector by U Tet Tun (Ministry of Construction), U Nyi Hla Nge(Yangon Institute of Technology), Oaw Naw Joy Loo (Institute of Medicine 1) andOaw Win Win Maw (Institute of Medicine 1).

A Comprehensive Survey of Education Facilities by U Sein Myint (OBE), U NyiHla Nge (Yangon Institute of Technology), Oaw Win Win Myint (Institute ofEconomics), Oaw Naw Joy Loo (Institute of Medicine 1), U Saw Wynn (OBE) andOaw Win Win Maw (Institute of Medicine 1).

The Provision of Infrastructure by U Nyi Hla Nge (Yangon Institute ofTechnology), U Nyunt Hlaing (Ministry of No.l Industry), U Tet Tun (Ministry ofConstruction) and U Sein. Myint (OBE),

Norms and Standards for Education Facilities by U Nyi Hla Nge (Yangon Instituteof Technology), Oaw Win Win Maw (Institute of Medicine 1), and U Tet Tun(Ministry of Construction).

6. Organization and Management of the Education System

6.1

6.2

6.3

Organization and Management of Basic Education by Oaw Hla Kyu (OBE) and U,Myint Thein (OBE).

The Cluster System for Primary Schools by U Myint Han (MERB).

Organization and Management of Universities and Colleges by U Saw Gibson(Yangon University) and U Thein Htay (OHE),

7. Special Studies

7.1

7.2

7.3

7.4

Economics and Business Education by Oaw Cho Cho Thein (OBE).

The Teaching of Science and Technology by U Khin Maung Kyi (OBE).

The Teaching of English by Or. Myo Myint (Yangon University).

Higher Education by U Myo Nyunt (Institute of Education)