Organisation of Irrigation Schemes

The three Levels of the Irrigated Agriculture System

• Irrigation Sector Level– At the highest level, the primary constituents are policy makers (E.g the government level ) , concerned with the overall performance of the sector vis-a-vis other sectors ,

• Agency Level- here various institutions share responsibility for management of inputs and services that support the irrigation farming community (government departments, parastatals, private companies NGOs),

• The irrigation system level. – Where the allocation , distribution and utilisation of water takes place.

• Focus of this module is on the Irrigation system level.

Objectives of an Irrigation System• Adequacy- a measure of the degree to which water

deliveries meet soil-plant- water requirements .,• A system that has adequacy objectives anticipates

delivering water in sufficient volume at appropriate times to avoid potential yield reductions caused by periods of water shortages that create plant stress,

• Equity- an expression of the share for each individual or group that is considered fair by all system members.

• Reliability- An expression of confidence in the irrigation system to deliver water as promised

Organizational Structure. • The success of an organization depends partly on its

structure (the way in which tasks and responsibilities are formally allocated among its members) and partly on its management process (the way in which decisions are taken within the existing structure).

• The choice of an appropriate structure will depend on a large number of factors specific to the particular objectives and context of the organization concerned.

• In other words, there is no single "ideal" structure which is best for all organizations in all circumstances

Dimensions of Organisational Structure

• Organizational structure has a horizontal and a vertical dimension. • The horizontal dimension is concerned with the way in which the

various essential activities can best be differentiated (in accordance with the specialist skills required for each activity) and then coordinated in order to have an efficient and effective organisation.

• The vertical dimension is concerned with the way in which responsibilities are distributed among members working at different levels of the organization and its component units.

• Important factors affecting the choice of an appropriate form of horizontal organization at the project level are the size of the project area, the nature and objectives of the project implementers.

• Other important factors include the objectives of government and the character of existing institutions in the area concerned.

Organizational chart of a State Farm (Kufra Production Project, Libya , Source FAO,1986)

Types of Irrigation Schemes

Large Commercial Projects: • In Zimbabwe these usually include private

company estates such as Hippo valley and Triangle and government owned estates such as ARDA estates.

• Usually greater than 200 ha or more (FAO, 1986). In Zimbabwe can be more than 10 000ha

• Usually run commercially and require a substantial professional staff to manage them.

Medium-sized Commercial/Individual Projects

• In Zimbabwe these are usually comprised of individually owned commercial farms made up of white commercial farmers, and resettled A2 farmers,

• Usually run more or less along commercial lines and require a considerable input of professional staff to operate and maintain them.

Small Scale Individual Projects

• In Zimbabwe usually include old resettlements , A1 farms and individual plots in communal areas.

• Stand alone units are normally run on semi commercial to subsistence basis.

Formal Communal Irrigation Schemes,

• In Zimbabwe these are schemes located in communal areas and were set up by government or non governmental agencies.

• Farmers own plot or plots usually ranging from 0.25ha to 0.5ha within an irrigation scheme.

• Usually main objective is food security and are normally run on subsistence bases.

• A farmer irrigation management body (IMC) usually coordinate activities in the scheme.

• Can be farmer, government or jointly managed.

Informal Communal Irrigation Schemes • Schemes that are established informally by communal people

using their own initiatives. • Individual irrigators usually own pieces of land within the

scheme• The irrigators themselves are entirely responsible for the

activities of water distribution, repairs and maintenance and financing, though they may be dependent on outside support for extension advice and input supplies.

• Group members are often willing to accept stringent discipline from their selected leaders, who are accountable to them.

• The most common example of these schemes in Zimbabwe is the wetland or dambos farming in areas such as Domboshawa and Mahusekwa and river diversion schemes mostly found in the Eastern Highlands .

Irrigation Cooperatives• Many types of cooperatives exist but here reference is

made to a particular type in which a group of farmers associate to develop a common irrigation system for their properties, and jointly farm the land.

• Such a type of cooperative occurs mostly among progressive farmers and is generally found in developed countries.

• In Zimbabwe it can be in the form of A1 and A2 farmers who pulled together resources to either jointly develop infrastructure or to run the schemes or engage in crop production e.g. Chifundi Scheme in Mash West.

• It is often financially attractive to farmers because they enjoy the advantages e.g. pulling together of resources and expertise.

The Organizational Structure at Communal Schemes

• There is a particular need to establish farmer management groups at the Scheme. e.g. Irrigation Management Committees, IMCs

• On large and medium-sized irrigation projects, this generally leads to the need for water users' groups (Water Users Associations, WUAs) to be formed for the purpose of organizing water distribution and maintenance work in shared infrastructure.

• There will almost always be a need for intensive extension work on water management and irrigated farming especially in the early stages of an irrigation project.

Organization at the Government Level

• Here reference is made to the organizational structure at the national and provincial government levels,

• This often have a very significant influence on an irrigation project's performance.

• As far as horizontal relationships between departments are concerned, it is desirable that collaboration between irrigation and agriculture be very close even if they are not in fact part of the same Ministry.

• This is particularly important for the purposes of achieving a balanced and integrated approach to project planning.

• Invaluable support can also be given to the improvement of management practices at the project level through a central research agency with responsibilities for directing and coordinating field experiments on crop water requirements, optimum irrigation intervals, etc., in different agro-climatic regions of the country.

• The results of these experiments can then be tested on each irrigation project and adapted to its own particular circumstances.

Organization at the Government Level Cont.

• The nature of the vertical relationship between the higher level of government administration and project management is of great importance.

• If the project manager is to perform his function well it is essential that so long as his appointment is in the hands of government, very substantial authority and autonomy of decision-making should be delegated to him.

• At the later stages of a project's development the manager may automatically acquire greater autonomy if a policy is followed for e.g of retaining the revenue.

• In the absence of such a policy of devolution of powers to or a project authority, however, the government must ensure that the project manager and his senior staff are in a position to act as relatively independent managers, not simply as passive administrators of policies laid down for them at higher levels.

State Farms

• Often established where the land is nationalized or where land reform processes have taken place.

• The purpose of establishing a State Farm can be to maximize agricultural production or to gain experience on newly reclaimed lands for its later transfer to farmers as settlement projects. The first type is the most commonly found.

• Much disappointment exists all over the world with the performance of State Farms, despite all the production inputs normally being provided at their optimum level.

• However, it is often found that the production levels are higher in private farms and their operating costs may be similar to those of the State Farms.

• The management of a large State Farm, with all the numerous and complex activities that it involves, is extremely difficult under the limitations usually imposed on public institutions.

• Some of the reasons which often hamper the management of State Farms are; – Late release of government funds for operating the farm, – unavailability of inputs at the time needed, – lack of involvement by the government officials in the potential benefits, – and large bureaucracies,

State Farms Cont.• In order to maximize the productivity, there is a noticeable

tendency to use highly capital intensive technology for the water distribution systems and machinery for the agricultural practices.

• This in turn means that the management of these farms must be highly technically qualified.

• Unfortunately such personnel are not abundant in developing countries and they are more attracted by positions in the main offices than by those in the field.

• Lack of properly trained personnel is often a serious limitation for the development and operation of State Farms.

• The organizational structure of State Farms is characterized by a number of units covering the main development and production activities. An example is shown in Figure below.

Organizational chart of a State Farm (Kufra Production Project, Libya , Source FAO,1986)

Irrigation Settlement Projects• These aim at improving the economic and social welfare of landless people or poor

farmers by providing them with irrigated land and agricultural production means. • The greatest difficulty in managing an irrigation settlement project successfully

arises from the fact that most of the settlers have a low educational level, practically no financial resources and, occasionally, even no experience in agriculture.

• To upgrade them from their subsistence level to farmers living on commercial agriculture is a huge task, that require a lot of effort and time, frequently 15 or 20 years.

• According to FAO 1986, the key to the success of a settlement project is that government officials must initially be responsible for and perform many of the tasks, only giving the farmers simple and straightforward tasks which they can carry out with their own means.

• As time goes by, it may be possible to transfer more and more of the tasks and responsibility to the farmer.

• Insecurity of land tenure becomes a particularly inhibiting factor, since farmers have no long-term interest in investing in their own land.

• According to FAO, 1986, a policy is followed in Spain, where new settlers are probationary tenants during the first 5 years of the transitional stage but are subsequently allowed access to a permanent title to their land if they satisfy the government authorities with regard to their standards of farming and irrigation.

Irrigation Scheme Management • The degree of intervention by the government in undertaking irrigation

related functions indicates the main types of schemes, which are: i. Farmer Managed:• The farmer or irrigator has overall management control. These can be

commercial, communal , resettled schemes, individual small holder schemes in communal areas, estates and plantations and irrigation cooperatives.

ii. Government Managed Schemes: The government has overall management control. These are also very numerous and are found in many countries (Zimbabwe, Spain, Turkey, Bolivia, Iraq, most of Ecuador and Kenya). These include state farms and communal schemes.

iii. Jointly Managed Schemes: There is joint management control by farmers and government officials. Usually the main irrigation system is managed by government officials while the infield irrigation infrastructure such as field canals are controlled by farmers or their associations.

Government Managed SchemesAdvantages• Availability of experts,

– O&M, extension, research• Availability of capital for O&M,

inputs• More equitable distribution of

water- less water related conflicts • More orderly cropping

programmes and hence easier to implement irrigation schedules and disease control,

• Can allow scheme to be well established before slowly being handed over to farmers.

• Committed/productive farmers are selected/retained in the communal scheme

Disadvantages• Sometimes officials are not

motivated or are inexperienced•Rigid or bureaucratic decision making process can effect operations,•Operations can be affected by late disbursements of funds•Interference in decision making and operations,•Sometimes lack of accountability resulting in poor O&M practices•At communal schemes, there is lack of commitment as farmers feel they don’t own the scheme.•Profits usually diverted from farm,• Can create a dependency syndrome• All the above factors can result in

sub optimal crop production.

Farmer Managed Schemes• Advantages• Decision making process

streamlined – efficient/faster/flexible

• Normally there is a sense of ownership and commitment,

• Efficient utilisation of funds and re ploughing of profits into the operations esp. on large scale schemes and estates.

• Hence good performance ,Esp on large scale commercial farms and private estates,

• Disadvantages• Lack of resources, esp.

Communal schemes• Could be susceptible to

lack of skills/ expertise, esp. in Communal schemes

• Dominance by certain individuals can result in marginalisation and conflicts, esp. In Communal schemes

• →Poor performance esp. In communal schemes

Jointly Managed Schemes• Advantages• Decision making process

streamlined – efficient/faster/flexible

• Normally there is a sense of ownership and commitment,

• Availability of experts,– O&M, extension

• Availability of capital for O&M,• More equitable distribution of

water- reduced conflicts• Farmers benefit from skills

transfer,• Better production levels than

farmer managed communal schemes

Disadvantages•Rigid or bureaucratic decision making process,•Operations can be affected by late disbursements of funds•Interference in decision making and operations,•Conflicts of interest,•Sometimes there is no sense of ownership.

The Management Function on Irrigation Schemes

• There are two main elements in the management of irrigation projects.

• One is the overall management function, which has much in common with the management of any other kind of organization.

• It is concerned with the direction and coordination of the decision-making processes within the project area and its purpose is to get all those involved in the process (farmers, staff, external government agencies) to work towards the achievement of the project's objectives.

• The other element is the management of specialized activities (water distribution, maintenance, irrigation assistance services, crop production etc) which are peculiar to irrigation projects.

• These activities have certain characteristics calling for particular kinds of management skills and styles of operation.

Overall Direction and Coordination

• The most important tasks of the project manager include: - setting objectives and priorities (short-term, medium-term, long-term); - directing the annual

planning and budgeting processes; - directing the formulation of detailed work programmes for staff members within each of the

project's units; - monitoring and training staff and farmers to implement the programme; - supervising the day-to-day implementation of the programme, identifying problems that arise

and finding solutions for them; - monitoring project performance against objectives; - monitoring staff performance against agreed work targets; - seeking the opinion of the project's clients (the farmers) about the quality of the services

provided to them; - identifying strengths and weaknesses and recommending appropriate remedies for the

weaknesses.• For the last of these tasks - the diagnosis of causes for poor project performance -

the project manager will require a system of monitoring capable of identifying the relative importance of the following factors as influences on performance: – i. Resources (finance, manpower, equipment).– ii. Skills (technical, management, communication). – iii. Motivation (material incentives - salaries, bonuses, promotions; non-material incentives -

job satisfaction, recognition of good performance by senior officials).