orbit issue 85 (march 2010)

1

2

ORBIT

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ISSN 0953 1599 THE JOURNAL OF THE ASTRO

SPACE STAMP SOCIETY Issue No 85 March 2010

Patron

Cosmonaut Georgi Grechko Hero of the Soviet Union

COMMITTEE

Chair Margaret Morris 55 Canniesburn Drive Bearsden Glasgow

GS1 1RX (E-mail MMorris671aolcom)

Hon Secretary Brian JLockyer 21 Exford CloseWeston-Super-Mare

Somerset BS23 4RE

(E-mail brianlockyertesconet)

Compiler of Checklist Hon Treasurer Postal Packet Organiser

Harvey Duncan16 Begg Avenue Falkirk Scotland FK1 5DL

(E-mail duncan1975btinternetcom)

Orbit Editor Jeff Dugdale Glebe Cottage Speymouth Mosstodloch Moray

Scotland IV32 7LE (E-mail jefforbitedaolcom)

Webmaster Derek Clarke 36 Cherryfield Road Walkington

Dublin 12 (E-mail dclarkeutvinternetcom)

Postal Auction Organiser David Saunders 42 Burnet Road Bradwell

Great Yarmouth NR31 8SL

Overseas Representatives

Australia Charles Bromser 37 Bridport Street Melbourne 3205 GermanyJurgen P Esders An der Apostelkirche 10 10783 Berlin

EireDerek Clarke 36 Cherryfield Rd Walkinstown Dublin 12 France Jean-Louis Lafon 23 Rue de Mercantour 78310 Maurepas

Netherlands Bart Beimers NJ Haismasrt 7 9061 BV Gierkerk Russia Mikhail Vorobyov 31-12 Krupskaya Str Kostroma

United States Dr Ben Ramkissoon 3011 White Oak Lane Oak Brook Il 60521 USA

Life Members UK - Harvey Duncan George Spiteri Ian Ridpath Margaret Morris Michael Packham Dr WR Withey Paul Uppington

Jillian Wood Derek Clarke (Eire) Charles Bromser (Australia) Tom Baughn (USA) Ross Smith (Australia)

Vincent Leung Wing Sing (Hong Kong) Mohammed KSafdar (Saudi Arabia)

3

ORBIT

In his new multi part series John Beenen examines the star at

the centre of our solar system

Part Two

RESULTS OF SOLAR INVESTIGATION BY SPACECRAFTS AND PROBES

From the outset of space investigations by spacecraft

and probes one of the goals was scientific research especially of the Sun

PIONEER 5-9 (Sharjah 1964 Pioneer 5

WB3)

March 11th 1960 the Americans launched a

satellite of 43 kg into Space

for measurements of interplanetary magnetic

fields

The four Pioneers launched in the years 1965 to 1968 were meant for measurement of the solar wind the

magnetic field of the sun and cosmic radiation

Together they formed a kind of network for the measurement of the structure of the solar system and

sunstorms

Most Pioneers were very well designed and continued

working for over 30 years Pioneer 6 was contacted in December 2000 thus becoming the oldest still working

satellite in space see table below

SolRad (GRAB GREB) (Belgium SolRad maxicard with WB28 Yv1665 Telecommunication in space

opposite)

One source (HillgerToth) shows that

the Hungary 1965 stamp WB 124 (YvPA273) is not the Transit as in the

text of the Weebau catalogue nor the San Marco-1 as on the stamp but in

reality the SolRad but then also the date is wrong)

Even before the Pioneers the Americans were already

busy with the launching of satellites for so-called solar investigation Called ldquoSolRad GRABrdquo satellites were

launched within the program ELINT (Electronic

Intelligence) Only in 1986 did it become clear that these were espionage satellites and the solar

investigation was just a cover Later the project was rebaptized into GREB (Galactic Radiation Experimental

Background)

The satellites were not launched separately but were a

piggy bag on other satellites accordingly the first satellites were very small The SolRad-1 (19 kg) was

launched on 22 June 1960 in an orbit of 596-935 km It delivered data about the radiation of sunlight and

carried out measurement at the upper layers of our

atmosphere It was this satellite which first detected that interference in radio signals on earth was caused

by eruptions of gamma radiation from the sun

SolRad-3 was launched together with the Injun-1 but the two could not be separated

Finally between 1960 and 1976 12 SolRad satellites entered Space but a couple of them failed to deploy

4

ORBIT

Some SolRads are also known under different names

such as Explorer 30 (SolRad-8) 37 (SolRad-9) and 44 (SolRad-10) SolRad 6B (9 March 1965) also appears

under the names Ferret-12 and Ops-4988

Injun (North-Korea Injun-1 1976 Yv1392S WB 56)

(Injun-6 is depicted on a

stamp of TAAF (Yv50 WB 45

This should not be the Adeacutelie

as given in the Yvert catalogue nor the FR-1

Signe-3 as in the Weebau catalogue)

Three Injun satellites and three Explorer satellites (25 40 52) investigated the

earth magnetosphere They also were first military satellites but also carried out some solar investigation

such as the decay of radioactive radiation

Injun-1 was launched together with the SolRad-3 on

29 June 1961 and weighed only 25 kg Its orbit was 869-992 km A second launch failed and the third one with

a satellite of 52 kg took place on December 13 1962

Injun-6 or Explorer 52 or Hawkeye was launched on June 3 1974 and measured particles and magnetic

fields on the earth magnetosphere in the polar regions

OSO (Orbiting Sun Observatory) (Sharjah 1964 OSO WB 7)

On March 7 1962 OSO-1

was brought into a nearly circle-shaped orbit at an

altitude of 575 km For those days the satellite weighing

200 kg was reasonably

heavy Its first goals were measurements of electromagnetic radiation UV-radiation and radiation in

the gamma-regions Further the measurement of dust particles was foreseen

Contact was lost on August 6th 1963 and the satellite

burned up in the atmosphere on October 8th 1981

After this first satellite eight subsequential OSOrsquos were launched of which only the third one failed see table

below

The first two studied the radiation of the sun in

different wave lengths The other six were pointed to UV and cosmic radiation and the radiation levels of the

van Allen girds They also made neutron measurements and investigated roentgen radiation in

the Milky Way and beyond As the satellites did their

work for over a period of 15 years they were able to investigate the solar cycle quite intensively They took

the first photographs of the corona in visible light and made the first roentgen observations of a solar flare in

its earliest state of development

Also the six OGO (Orbiting Geophysical Observatory)

satellites launched between 1964 and 1968 did observations of the sun and especially the solar wind

Explorer

Also some other Explorer-named satellites carried out solar investigations in one or another form such as

Explorer 21 26 33 34 35 39 43 47 51 en 57 see

table opposite top

Apollo 11 (STome e Principe solar

wind experiment 1980

Yv596 WB 12) (Penrhyn setting up of

solar wind experiment 1989 Yv355 WB 8)

On June 20 1969 Apollo

11 landed on the Moon

Within the framework of the so-called EASEP-

package (Early Apollo Su r f a ce E xpe r ime n t

Package) some time was

reserved for scientific experiments

5

ORBIT

Part of these packages were two experiments with

respect to low and medium energy solar wind (Solar Wind Composition) The experiment was comprised of a

long-sized stroke of aluminium foil of 4000 cm2 which was irradiated for 77 minutes The result was brought

back to Earth In subsequent Apollo flights the

experiment was repeated and showed useful results with regard to the composition of the solar wind The

experiment is depicted on several stamps such as the two shown here and Rwanda (WB 122) Paraguay

(WB 985) Manama (WB 130 10 Dh) Dominica (WB 2) etc etc

Vertikal Starting from November 28 1970 (Vertikal-1) until

October 20 1983 (Vertikal-11) 11 Vertikal satellites were launched in the framework of the Soviet

Interkosmos program On all these satellites

programmes were inserted from different Soviet satellite countries The satellites did not reach an orbit

but aimed for a certain altitude (500 or 1500 km) and then dropped back

At an altitude of about 100 km a capsule was separated and a parachute deployed at 6 km after which the

capsule with instrument could be recovered safely

Part of the measurements made by the instruments

were gamma radiation spectra ion and electron concentrations short-wave radiation of the sun and

micrometeorites The apparatus further measured parameters of the atmosphere and the ionosphere

ARCADAureacuteole (TAAF Arcad-3 1981

YvPA69 WB58 CCCP Arcad-1 1976

Yv4201 WB 341)

The ArcadAureacuteole

Oreol project was a c o - o p e r a t i v e

programme between France and the SovietUnion for

the study of the magnetosphere in the upper regions aurora effects and gamma radiation The first satellite

of a series of three was launched on December 27 1971 the second just two years later at December 26

1973 both satellites with a Kosmos-3 rocket from the

Soviet base at Plesetsk

The positive result of these launchings led to the launch of the third satellite Arcad-3Aureacuteole-3 on

September 21 1981 This spacecraft measured the influence of magnetic storms on the solar wind the

energetic proportion between the ionosphere and the

magnetosphere and the cause and the source of particles causing the aurora phenomena

Prognoz (Soviet Union Prognoz 1978 Yv bloc 128 WB 371)

Satellites of the Prognoz-type were first launched on

April 14 1972 (Prognoz-1) They were meant for

investigations of the magnetosphere and the influence from the solar wind on it At least that was the official

scientific goal But it can be taken for granted that besides the scientific instruments such satellites also

carried a serious military remit

Between 1972 and 1986 12 satellites of this type were

launched the last two as a part of the Interball

6

ORBIT

Magion project The first ten Prognoz satellites were

cylinders in a diameter of about 2 meters and weighed 850-900 kg

Together with the Prognoz-2 the French-Soviet Union co

-operation Satellite Signe I (Solar International Gamma

-Ray and Neutron Experiments) was launched Thereafter Signe II MP was launched together with

Prognoz-6 which detected three large gamma bursts

With the instruments on board of Venera-11 and 12 Prognoz-7 formed part of the Signe 2 project for three-

dimensional measurement of gamma bursts During the

period of September 1978 until June 1979 thirty such bursts were registered

Data from Prognoz-9 were processed together with

those of ISEE-3 and PVO (Pioneer Venus Orbiter

launched on May 20 1978) On August 1st 1983 Prognoz-9 detected an extreme gamma burst

Shinsei (MS-F2) From the base Kagoshima Space Center Japan launched its first satellite for investigation of the sun Shinsei

(New Star) in an orbit of 870-1870 km on September 28 1971

The satellite weighing 66 kg investigated parameters of the ionosphere and radio radiation from the sun

causing occasional interruptions of radio transmissions Some instruments ceased shortly after launch but

others worked properly until June 1973 More scientific

satellites were launched by Japan thereafter such as

HakuchoCorsa-B (1979 1st gamma satellite) HinotoriAstro-A (1981 see elsewhere) TenmaAstro-B (1983

2nd gamma satellite) GingaAstro-C (1987 3rd gamma satellite) AkebonoExos-D (1989 physical properties

of magnetosphere and aurora) YohkohSolar-A (1991

see elsewhere) Geotail (1992 magnetic tail of Earth) ASCAAstro-D (1993 gamma radiation HALCA (1997

radio astronomy) and Nozomi (1998 Mars Explorer) Astro-E (2000 failed) HayabusaMuses-C (2003 new

technologies) ReimeiIndex (2005 satellite technology) SuzakuAstro-EII (2005 severall sources

of gamma radiation) Hinode 2006 see elsewhere)

AkariAstro-F (2006 galaxies) KaguyaSelene (2007 moon investigation) Planet-C (2010 Venus) Astro-G

(2012 radio astronomy) BepiColomboMMO (2013 Mercurius) Astro-H

(2013 supernovarsquos

black holes high energy radiation)

IMP-8 (Gambia 10100 GAM 16

MS Also shown Helios Solar

Max Soho OSO rocket Eclipse IMP)

The next spacecraft

carrying out specific experiments after the

effects of the sun on earth was the American

IMP-8 (Interplanetary

7

ORBIT

Monitoring Platform) also called Explorer 50 and

launched on October 261973

The first goal of the mission was to collect data about the magnetosphere surrounding Earth but also to

measure particles with high energy and plasma

originating from the sun The satellite was partly paused on October 28 2001 but renewed its mission until 2005

as support of the Voyager and Ulysses missions

Especially in combination with the Voyager missions IMP-8 delivered much information about our knowledge of

the solar wind

The first IMP had been launched on November 27 1963

called Explorer 18 After than it was followed by the Explorer-IMPrsquos 21 28 33 34 35 41 43 and 47 IMP-

8 or Explorer 50 was the last one of these series

GOES (Angola GOES 4 1999 M446 Scott 1110c)

In fact the Geostationary Operational Environmental

Satellites (GOES) were no satellites for investigation of the sun but weather

satellites

Orbiting in a geostationary orbit however they carried

out important measurements with regard to radiation from the sun such as gamma proton and electron

radiation The first GOES was launched on October 16 1975 and weighed 275 kg Subsequent GOES satellites

were considerably heavier at around 627 kg

The GOES satellites are managed by the NOAA

(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) and the NASA Even at the time of writing GOES 10-13 are

the basis for the American weather forecast Also some

of the older types are still in working condition eg GOES-3 eg is used as a communication satellite With

the help of these series of satellites a classification was made for solar flares

In the meantime a new series of GOES-satellites is

under development called GOES-R which should be

operational from 2015 Also these series will contain a couple of instruments for the measurement of solar

parameters

Some interesting stamps of GOES have been issued by

different countries such as Chad Niger StLucia and the United Nations A very interesting site for such kind

of information is wwwciracolostateeducirarammhillger

Helios 1 en 2 (Grenada Helios 1976 WB 3637

Helios -1 (December 10 1974) and Helios-2 (Januari 15 1976)

were developed by Germany in co-

operation with NASA They should not be confused with the European

military observation satellites of the same name launched in the

nineties The Helios satellites carried out

investigations of the solar wind and different kinds of radiations

Their results have been connected to those of ISEE-3

and Venera 11 and 12 and provided astronomers with a better three-dimensional insight into the source of

gamma radiation

Voyager (Australia Voyager 2007)

The first Voyager satellite was launched by the USA on

September 5 1977 and the identical second some weeks earlier at August 20 1977 As a principle the

probes were intended for investigation of the far planets Jupiter (I 5-3-rsquo79 II 10-7-rsquo79) Saturn (I12-

11-rsquo80 II 27-8-rsquo81) Uranus (II 24-1-rsquo86) and

Neptune (II 25-08-lsquo89) and some of their moons from which excellent pictures were received which

gave much insight in the structure of our planetary system

But flying through the heliosphere as they did solar investigation could be carried out In the meantime

both spacecraft have reached the borders of our solar system and within the framework of the lsquoDeep Space Networkrsquo they still carry out their measurements

In 1994 Voyager 1 reached the lsquoTermination Shockrsquo at

a distance of 94 AU which was evidenced by a sudden drop in the speed of the solar wind Three years later

Voyager 2 arrived at this point but at a distance of 84 AU and surpassed this limit several times

8

ORBIT

By September 1 2008 it was

taking 15 hours to receive the signal of Voyager 1 at a distance

of 107 AU At this moment this spacecraft is furthest away from

Earth

ISEE (Ascension ISEE-Ace 3 1986 Yv393 WB 34 Chad ISEE-1Explorer 56 ISEE-2 1997)

Also well-known within the series of solar spacecraft is the American ISEE-3 International Sun-Earth Explorer

or Explorer 59

Via its apparatuses it is design is to investigate the

interaction of the solar wind with the earth magnetosphere The project is carried out by NASA in

co-operation with ESA The programme covers three satellites ISEE 1 2 and 3 In the meantime the last one

has been re-baptized into ISEE-ICE (international

Cometary Explorer) for investigation of comets ISEE-1 and 2 were launched together on October 22 1977

ISEE-3 on August 12 1978 After the re-baptism and reprogramming of ISEE-3 into ISEE-ICE on June 10

1982 this spacecraft passed the tail of the comet Giacobini-Zimmer on September 11 1985 and detected

particles in the tail

In March 1986 it also crossed the orbit of the tail of

Halleyrsquos Comet on a distance of 28 million kilometres This is why it often appears in the series of spacecraft

visiting this comet Vega-1 and 2 Giotto and the

Japanese Suisei and Sakigake

The instrument was turned off on May 5 1997 However in 2008 it was observed that the instruments

were still working and consideration is being given to re-use this spacecraft again in 2017-18 for renewed

comet investigation

Magion Magion is a series of small rsquomagnetospheric and

ionosphericrsquo satellites made by the Czech Republic and meant to carry out different measurements on solar

plasma by a satellite and a

smaller subsatellite close by There were five Magion

satellites see table below

Magion-1 was launched as a

pa r t o f t he Sov ie t Interkosmos-18 experiment

and disconnected on October 24 1978 It carried out

m e a s u r e m e n t s u n t i l September 10 1981

Magion-2 was part of ACTIVIYA SC (Interkosmos

24) as the first one in a series of international scientific programs ACTIVIYA APEKS en INTERBALL

Magion-3 was a subsatellite of APEKS SC (Interkosmos 25) and carried out investigations at the

aurora plasma in the neighbourhood of the earth electromagnetic waves radio characteristics and on-

linear wave structures

Magion-4 (C2-X) was part of the Interball-project (see cover above) for measurements of the magnetic tail of the earth Magion-5 finally carried measurements at

the aurora All Magion projects were sponsored by a

great many East-European countries

Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) (Guyana Cress satellite and Solar Max in the hold of STS-41 2000 Lollini 10100 GUY 14) opposite top On February 14 1980 the Americans launched the

SolarMax measuring solar flares In 1984 the satellite

was intercepted by the Space Shuttle Challenger (STS-41-C (613-04-1984) for repairs

No stamps known image from Encyclopaedia Astronomica website

9

ORBIT

With this mission it was observed that the sun shines

slightly brighter when there are more sunspots which is caused by a clearer rim around the sunspots the

lsquofaculaersquo more than annulling the effect of the darker spots The satellite burned in the earth atmosphere on

December 2 1989

H i n o t o r i (Astro-A) (Gabon Astro-A

1982 Yv503 WB 107 but the main

satellite depicted is

the French Signe-3 The Astro-A is the other smaller Satellite at the right

upper side with four small wings)

The Japanese probe for investigations of the solar flares Hinotori (Japanese for Phoenix) also called

Astro-A was launched on February 21 1981

Weighing 188 kg reached an altitude of 600 km and worked until July 11 1982 During his lifetime it

detected 41 solar flares Additionally the electron density temperature and some gamma spectra were

measured

Relikt On July 1 1983 Relikt-1 was launched together with Prognoz-9 Relikt contained a Soviet anisotropic

experiment with regard to cosmic microwave radiation

NB Anisotropy can be defined as a difference in a physical property (absorbance refractive index density etc) for some material when measured along different axes An example is the light coming through a polarizing lens Really the Relikt discovered such an anisotropy

however this was announced only at an astrophysical congress in Moscow in 1992

Relikt-2 was meant to measure the anisotropy of the

lsquoCosmic Microwave Backgroundrsquo (CMB) but with the

disintegration of the Soviet Union and therefore lack of funds it never was launched

AMPTE The Active Magnetospheric Particle Trace Explorers (AMPTE) was a project of three countries and three

satellites launched together at August 16 1984

The CCE (Charge Composition Explorer) was

developed by NASA the IRM (Ion Release Module) was German and the UKS (United Kingdom Satellite)

was British made

The three satellites measured energetic ion spectra

and the composition and charge of the magnetosphere After launch the German probe

released in the near magnetotail two clouds of lithium and barium ions as a kind of artificial tail of a comet

and measured their effect

Vega 1 amp 2 ( S o v i e t - U n i o n 1 9 8 5 V e g a

Yv5227 WB 499

Soviet-Union 1986 V e g a - H a l l e y

Yv5284 WB506)

On December 15 ( Ve ga - 1 ) a nd

December 21 1984

(Vega-2) the Soviet Union launched two

satellites into the direction of the planet Venus Although not a specific

solar mission the probes made some measurements

with regard to solar activity Both satellites reached the planet in June 1985 and dropped landers through

the extreme atmosphere of the planet to the surface Vega-2 reached the surface and measured a pressure

of 91 atmosphere and a temperature of 736degKelvin It transmitted for 56 minutes Vega-1 also reached the

surface but was activated too early and therefore

delivered no results

After that they were redirected for measurements at Halleyrsquos comet in March 1986

To be concluded in our June issue

10

ORBIT ORBIT

In an article first published in Orbit for March 2000 and now refreshed our New York based member Peter Hoffman who was an engineer on the Apollo programme continues his series of recollections of these momentous flights Apollo 13

The decade of the 1970s opened with the American

nation polarized by the war in Vietnam and with NASA unsure of its future After a year with two successful

lunar landings many felt that the time was right to abandon the costly high-tech lunar landing programme

and use the funds to help improve life on earth NASA

budgets were scaled back to their lowest level in nine years and decisions taken that the number of planned

flights to the moon was to be reduced

Meanwhile preparations went ahead for Apollo 13 set for a

launch in the spring of 1970 The

crew of James Lovell Fred Haise and Ken Mattingly were training

hard for the mission At that time I was working at Grumman Corp

and was involved with the

guidance system for the lunar module The weekend before the

scheduled launch Charlie Duke the backup lunar module pilot

came down with a case of German measles He had caught

it from the child of a friend NASA

doctors said that he was not contagious and his illness had been incubating for two weeks

during which time he had been to meetings with all three members of

the crew Lovell and Haise were

determined to be immune but the same could not be said for Mattingly

His backup Jack Swigert started more rigorous training Finally on

the day before launch the decision

was made to replace Mattingly with Swigert for the flight It turned out

that he never did come down with German measles and he took

Swigerts place in John Youngs crew and went to the moon on Apollo 16

Liftoff went smoothly on the afternoon of Saturday 11 April as did the first two days on the outbound journey

to the moon On the evening of the second day the crew gave a televised tour of the lunar module Aquarius

and the command module Odyssey that lasted almost

one hour However the only people that watched it

were those in mission control because the networks felt that it was not newsworthy enough to broadcast

live

Odysseys electric power came from three chemical

power plants called fuel cells Each fuel cell mixed liquid hydrogen and oxygen to produce water The by-

product of this reaction was electricity Mission control wanted Jack Swigert to stir up the service modules

tanks of cryogenic liquid hydrogen and oxygen

In zero gravity the super-cold fluids tended to become

stratified making it difficult to get accurate quantity readings To remedy this problem each tank

contained a fan that acted like an egg beater to stir the contents He turned the fans on waited several

seconds and then turned them off A moment later

there was a loud dull bang and he uttered the famous words Okay Houston weve had a problem

Artistsrsquo impressions of the effect of the catastrophe on Maldives 1970 Fujeira and Mongolia 1971

Swigert had unknowingly triggered an electrical short

in one of the two oxygen tanks causing it to explode The jolt of the explosion caused the fuel cells reactant

valves to snap shut cutting off their supply of oxygen and hydrogen and starving the electrical system It

also closed valves in the propellant lines that fed the

manoeuvering thrusters making it difficult to steady the spacecraft which was turning in response to the

propulsive action of the venting gas The blast caused the computer to stop in the middle of its work and

suddenly restart itself It also tore out part of the

Togo 1970 shows originally slated crew

Maldives1970 shows the crew that flew

11

ORBIT

plumbing for the service modules remaining oxygen

tank and its contents began to leak out

It was only a matter of time before the last oxygen tank would be empty and the last fuel cell dead At that

point Odysseys only source of electricity would be its

batteries but they were needed for re-entry The only choice that they had was to use the lunar module

Aquarius as a lifeboat The LM pilot Fred Haise powered it up Before shutting down Odyssey the

navigation platform on Aquarius had to be aligned properly This could not be done by star sightings

because the debris outside the cabin interfered with

star sightings The alignment had to be done manually using the readings from the platform of Odyssey

Having done this all systems on Odyssey were shut down There was only fifteen minutes of power left

just enough for re-entry

People around the country were being mobilized to

help evaluate the situation and provide support to mission control in Houston Our group at Grumman

was one of them The computer and guidance system that was designed for lunar landing and lift-off would

be called upon to get the crew back home Mission

control asked us to evaluate the capability of doing this We used our simulator to determine that the two

required burns could be done safely

But first it had to be determined if they had enough

consumables to survive the trip home The lunar module was designed to provide life support for two

crewmen for 45 hours That would have to be stretched to over 90 hours for three crewmen There

was plenty of oxygen aboard for the descent and

ascent engines as well as the spacesuits for use on the lunar surface Aquarius had no fuel cells but used

batteries for power They were good for two days of normal operation By turning off all but the

most essential systems there would be just enough battery power to get home Water

was the real problem It was needed to cool

the electronic gear as well as for drinking They had to cut each mans daily ration to

six ounces a fifth of normal intake They drank fruit juices ate hot dogs and other wet

-pack foods instead of those that were

dehydrated

The next problem was that the trajectory to the moon was not free-return as had been

the case on Apollos 8 10 and 11 The constraints on landing site location and proper lighting

conditions for landing forced a hybrid trajectory that

would not automatically return to Earth As a byproduct it also saved fuel

The descent engine was not powerful enough to put

the spacecraft on a trajectory that would take it directly

back to Earth without going around the Moon but a

short burn would put it back on a free-return trajectory

After rounding the moon a five minute burn of the descent engine reduced the time of the trip home from

four to two and one-half days It also changed the splashdown point from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific

Ocean where the recovery force was stationed

Service module lunar module and command module (l-r) and right command module just before re-entry on Ras Al Khaima 1970

When the crew finally got home they were tired cold

and dehydrated but thankful to the resources of the people back home who came up with all of the

procedures that helped make their return possible Just

before leaving Aquarius for the last time they cut off some of the netting from the harnesses that were used

in place of seats and brought it back to earth with them Soon after the flight the three astronauts came

to Grumman to thank all those who took part in getting

them safely home Everyone that was involved including myself was given a small plaque with a

message of thanks for a job well done Each one had the personrsquos name on it was signed by the three

astronauts and contained a one inch square of the netting from Aquarius It is a very nice keepsake of my

part in the mission

References Apollo Expeditions to the Moon edited by Edgar M Cortright NASA A Man on the Moon by Andrew Chaikin Penguin

Peter Hoffman and his piece of history in a recent photo Peter comments that the plaque originally blue has faded with the passing of time

12

ORBIT

The Crew in the Aftermath

Commander - James Arthur Jim Lovell Jr (born March 25 1928)

Born in Cleveland Ohio to a Czech mother Lovells family moved to Milwaukee Wisconsin where he graduated from Juneau High School and became an Eagle Scout His father died in a car accident when Jim was young and for about two years he resided with a relative in Terre Haute Indiana He attended the University of Wisconsin-Madison for two years He continued on to the United States Naval Academy and after graduating

in 1952 entered the United States Navy where he served in the Korean War He spent four years as a test pilot at the Naval Air Test Center (now the US Naval Test Pilot School) in Patuxent River Maryland Lovell was considered for the Mercury Seven but was ultimately turned down due to a medical technicality later deemed insignificant He was selected in 1962 for the second group of NASA astronauts From 1971 - 1973 Deputy Director Marshall Space Flight Center Since 1973 President Fisk Telephone Systems later Executive Vice President Centel Corporation then President of Lovell Communications Chicago in 1999 he opened up Lovells of Lake Forest a classic full service restaurant in the

heart of West Lake Forest In edition to Apollo 13 he was on the Gemini 7 Gemini 12 and Apollo 8 flights

Command Module Pilot - John Leonard Jack Swigert Jr (August 30 1931 - December 27 1982)

Attended Blessed Sacrament School Regis Jesuit High School and East High School Graduated from University of Colorado with Bachelor of Science in mechanical engineering He earned a Master of Science degree in aerospace science from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy New York and Master of Business Administration from University of Hartford in West Hartford Connecticut Served in the US Air Force 1953-56 as fighter pilot on Japan and

Korea He was a test pilot for Pratt amp Whitney 1957

-64 and North American Aviation 1964-66 He was accepted into the Apollo program in April 1966 At that time he was the only bachelor astronaut in the US space program From 1973 - 1977 executive director of the Committee on Science and Technology in the US House of Representatives was elected to the US House of Representatives but a week before he would have taken this seat in Congress he died from complications of bone cancer Hobbies golf handball bowling skiing swimming basketball photography Apollo 13 was his only space flight

Lunar Module Pilot - Fred Wallace Haise Jr (born November 14 1933)

Born in Biloxi Mississippi attended Biloxi High School and Perkinston Junior College (now Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College) He graduated with honours in aeronautical engineering from the University of Oklahoma in 1959 He completed postgraduate courses at the USAF Aerospace Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base in 1964 and the Harvard Business School PMD Program in 1972 NASA career began as an aeronautical research pilot at Lewis Research Center in

1959 He was the first of the 1966 group of astronauts to be assigned to Apollo duties - ahead of some group 3 members

He served on the back-up crew for the Apollo 8 Apollo 11 and Apollo 16 moon missions Apollo 13 was his only space flight He is married to the former F Patt Price of Rogers Texas He has four children from a previous marriage to the former Mary (Sissy) Grant of Biloxi Mississippi Mary M (Margaret) born on January 25 1956 Frederick T born on May 13 1958 Stephen W born on June 30 1961 and Thomas J born on July 6 1970 He retired from NASA in June 1979 and became a manager with Grumman Aerospace before retiring in 1996

A little bizarrely Mongolia decided to commemorate two roughly simultaneous flights in one issue showing a low flying Soyuz

13

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14

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15

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16

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17

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18

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Flight STS-117 Commander Frederick Sturcow Pilot Lee Archambault MS James Reilly MS Steve Swanson MS Patrick Forrester MS John Olivas MS Clayton Anderson KSC Launch Date 8607 AFB Landing Purpose Delivery to ISS Main Payload of S3S4 Truss

Shuttle Story 20078 STSndash117 -118 -120 -122 - 123 -124 -126

250th manned Orbital Mission

STS-117 was flown by Atlantis launched from pad 39A of the Kennedy Space Center on June 8 2007 Damage from a hail

storm on February 26 2007 had previously caused the launch to be postponed from an originally-planned launch date of March

15 2007

The mission also referred to as ISS-13A by the ISS program

delivered to the International Space Station (ISS) the second starboard truss segment (the S3S4 Truss) and its associated

energy systems including a set of solar arrays During the course

of the mission the crew installed the new truss segment retracted one set of solar arrays and unfolded the new set on

the starboard side of the station STS-117 also brought Expedition 15 crewmember Clayton Anderson to the station and

returned with ISS crewmember Sunita Williams

This mission was the 118th Space Shuttle flight the 28th flight

for Atlantis and the 21st US flight to the ISS The launch of STS-117 marked the 250th orbital human spaceflight

On June 11 NASA mission managers announced a two-day extension of the mission adding a fourth extra-vehicular activity

(EVA) These two days were inserted into the mission timeline after flight day 8 This possibility had been discussed prior to

launch Because of launch day and thus rendezvous day

uncertainty the decision to extend was deferred until after launch The repair of the gap in the Orbital Maneuvering System

(OMS) thermal blanket (heat shielding) was conducted during EVA 3

Because of the cancellation of landing

opportunities on June 21st because of weather STS-117 is the longest mission for

Atlantis landing at Edwards Air Force Base on June 22nd

The segments of the ISS to be installed by this crew can be seen in the mission patch

showing lighter on the left in fact in gold in the multi-coloured design Two astronaut

office symbols grow out of the mission number along the bottom

19

ORBIT

Flight STS-118 Commander Scott Kelly Pilot Charles Hobaugh MS Rick Mastracchio MS Tracy Caldwell MS Barbara Morgan MS Alvin Drew MS Daffyd Williams KSC Launch Date 8807 KSC Landing 21807 Purpose Delivery of more ISS Main Payload components

Barbara Morgan Finally In Space

STS-118 to the International Space Station was flown by Endeavour successfully lifting off on August 8 2007 from launch

pad 39A at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) and landing at KSC on August 21 2007

It was the first flight of Endeavour since the STS-113 mission in November 2002 which was the last successful Space Shuttle flight

before the loss of Columbia on STS-107 STS-118 pilot Charles Hobaugh had been the entry team CAPCOM for STS-107 Had the

Columbia not disintegrated it would have been chosen for this

mission which would have been its 29th mission and probably its only mission to the ISS

The mission is also referred to as ISS-13A1 by the ISS programme

The mission added two more components to the International Space Station as well as bringing supplies for its crew

During and after the mission the media focused heavily on a small puncture in the heat shield created by a piece of insulation foam

that came off the external tank of Endeavour during lift-off Foam impact was the cause of the destruction of Space Shuttle Columbia

but the extent of damage was very small in comparison and in a less critical area KSC Launch Director Michael D Leinbach mentioned in

the post-flight press conference that upon initial inspection on the

ground Endeavour appears to be the cleanest post-flight orbiter since Return to Flight On August 31 2007 NASA reported that the

damaged tiles had been removed in the Orbiter Processing Facility and engineers had found no evidence of heat-related damage to the

orbiter structure beneath flight of an Mission Specialist Educator due to the presence of Barbara Morgan The Educator Astronaut Project

is the successor to NASAs Teacher in Space Project which ended with the Challenger disaster in 1986 Also the official STS-118

mission patch included a flame of knowledge that represented the

importance of education and honoured teachers and students everywhere The tip of the flames touched Morgans name on the

patch However NASA Administrator Michael D Griffin clarified at a

post-mission press conference that Morgan was

not considered a Mission Specialist Educator but rather a standard Mission Specialist who

had once been a teacher Morgan had been back up to Christa McAuliffe who lost her life in

the Challenger disaster and had a previous flight postponed after the loss of Columbia

Dominating a very ldquobusyrdquo mission patch design

is the gold astronaut symbol over the starboard S5 truss segment The flame of knowledge on

the left by the name ldquoMorganrdquo represents the importance of education with a maple leaf

beside the name of Williams the Canadian on board The seven white stars in the elongated

pennant trailing behind the shuttle suggestive of the US flag represent the crew

20

ORBIT

Flight STS-120 Commander Pamela Melreoy Pilot George Zamka MS Douglas Wheelock MS Scott Parazynski MS Stephanie Wilson MS Daniel Tani MS Paula Nespoli KSC Launch Date 231007 AFB Landing 71107 Purpose Delivery of Main Payload Harmony module

STS-120 flown by Discovery as the twenty third mission to the International Space Station (ISS) launched on October 23 2007 Also referred to as ISS-10A by the ISS program STS-120 delivered the Harmony module and reconfigured a portion of the station in preparation for future assembly missions STS-120 delivered launch package 10A to the International Space Station (ISS) It consisted of the US Harmony module (also known as Node 2) with four DC-to-DC Converter Unit (DDCU) racks and three Zero-g Storage Racks (ZSR) installed a Power and Data Grapple Fixture (PDGF) for the stations robot arm and a Shuttle Power Distribution Unit (SPDU) Harmony was built for NASA by Thales Alenia Space in Torino Italy as part of an agreement between NASA and the European Space Agency and was the first pressurized habitable module delivered to the station since the Pirs docking compartment was installed in August 2001

Since STS-120 docked to the Pressurized Mating Adapter 2 (PMA-2) on the forward port of the Destiny Laboratory Module installation of Harmony occurred in two stages STS-120 installed Harmony to the

port node of the Unity module After Discovery undocked the stations robotic arm detached PMA-2 from Destiny and moved it to the forward port of Harmony Following the relocation of PMA-2 the robotic arm moved Harmony from its initial position to its final position on the forward port of Destiny The final positioning of Harmony allowed for the later installation of the European Columbus and Japanese Kibō research modules which were to be attached to the side ports of Harmony During STS-120 the P6 solar arrays were moved from the Z1 truss on top of Unity to their final position at the port end of the truss

STS-120 carried the signatures of over 500000 students that participated in the 2007 Student Signatures in Space program jointly sponsored by NASA and Lockheed Martin In celebration of Space Day last May students from over 500 schools around the world signed giant posters Their signatures were scanned onto a disk and the disk was manifested on the STS-120 mission Also during STS-120 the lightsaber used by actor Mark Hamill in the 1983 film Star Wars Episode VI Return of the Jedi was flown to the

station and returned to Earth Stowed on-board Discovery for the length of the mission the prop was flown in honour o f t h e 3 0 t h anniversary of the Star Wars franchise On August 28 2007 Chewbacca from the Star Wars films p r e s e n t e d t h e lightsaber to NASA officials from Space Center Houston in an official ceremony at Oakland International Airport The lightsaber was then flown to Houston where it was greeted by Stormtroopers The lightsaber is now displayed at Space Center Houston

In this mission patch we see the Node 2 module inside the orbiterrsquos payload bay The star on the left representsthe ISS

withmdashin the full colour versionmdashyellow and red points representing the current and future solar arrays On the right

we see our Moon and Mars representing future NASA targets and top left the constellation Orion whose name has been

given to the planned new crew exploration vehicle

In the USA 2007 Star Wars sheet Obi-Wan Kenobi and Anakin Skywaker aka Darth Vader fight with lightsabers

21

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Flight STS-122 Commander Stephen Frick Pilot Alan Pointdexter MS Leland Melvin MS Rex Walheim MS Hans Schlegel MS Stanley Love MS Leopold Eyharts KSC Launch Date 7208 AFB Landing 20208 Purpose Delivery of Payload Columbus lab to ISS

Columbus arrives at the ISS

STS-122 to the International Space Station by Atlantis marked the 24th shuttle mission to the ISS and the 121st space shuttle flight since STS-1

The mission was also referred to as ISS-1E by the ISS program The primary objective was to deliver the European Columbus science laboratory built by the European Space Agency to the station It also

returned Expedition 16 Flight Engineer Daniel M Tani to Earth Tani was replaced on Expedition 16 by Leacuteopold Eyharts a French Flight Engineer representing ESA After Atlantis landing the orbiter was prepared for STS-125 the final servicing mission for the Hubble Space Telescope

The original target launch date for STS-122 was December 6 2007 but due to engine cut-off sensor (ECO) reading errors the launch was postponed to December 9 During the second launch attempt the sensors failed again and the launch was halted A tanking test on December 18 revealed the probable cause to lie with a connector

between the external tank and the shuttle The connector was replaced and the shuttle launched during the third attempt on February 7 2008

Additional payload items were the Biolab Fluid Science Laboratory (FSL) European Drawer Rack (EDR) and European Physiology Modules (EPM) payloads Also carried were the Solar Monitoring Observatory (SOLAR) the European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF) and a new Nitrogen Tank Assembly mounted in the cargo bay of an ICC-Lite payload rack as well as a spare Drive Lock Assembly (DLA) sent to orbit in support of possible repairs to the starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ) which is malfunctioning

Several items were returned with Atlantis A malfunctioning Control Moment Gyroscope (CMG) that was swapped out with a new one during STS-118 and the empty Nitrogen Tank Assembly were placed in the orbiters payload bay along with a trundle bearing from the Starboard SARJ that was removed during an EVA performed by Expedition 16

Stowed within the Official Flight Kit (OFK) Atlantis carried three green

starting flags provided by NASCAR in recognition of the 50th running of the Daytona 500 on February 17 2008 and the 50th anniversary of NASA on October 1 2008

The sailing ship at the bottom right of the mission

patch denotes travel of early exhibitions from the east to the west this mission flew from west to east A

little more than 500 year after Columbus sailed to the

new world the STS 122 crew brought the ldquoColumbusrdquo module to the ISS for new discoveries

Illustration of the ISS after STS-122 highlighting the addition of the Columbus

laboratory module

22

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Flight STS-123 Commander Dominic Gorie Pilot Gregory Johnson MS Robert Behnken MS Michael Foreman MS Richard Linnehan MS Takao Doi MS Garrett Reisman KSC Launch Date 11308 KSC Landing 27308 Purpose Kibo module delivery Payload and crew exchange

Japanese Module added to ISS

STS-123 was flown to the International Space Station (ISS) by Endeavour as the 1JA ISS assembly mission The original launch

target date was February 14 2008 but after the delay of STS-122 the shuttle was launched on March 11 2008 It was the

twenty-fifth shuttle mission to visit the ISS and delivered the first

module of the Japanese laboratory Japanese Experiment Module (Kibō) and the Canadian Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator

(SPDM) Dextre robotics system to the station This component could be used amongst many other purposes to inspect the

shuttlersquos thermal protection system eg in the event of

suspected damage in the launch sequence The mission duration was 15 days and 18 hours and it was the first mission

to fully utilize the Station-to-Shuttle Power Transfer System (SSPTS) allowing space station power to augment the shuttle

power systems The mission set a record for a shuttles longest

stay at the ISS

The SPDM was delivered disassembled on a Spacelab Pallet (SLP) and assembled during three spacewalks

once it was at the station

STS-324 was the designation given to the

Contingency Shuttle Crew Support mission which would have been launched in the event Space Shuttle

Endeavour became disabled during STS-123] It would

have been a modified version of the STS-124 mission and would have involved the launch date being

brought forward The crew for this mission would have been a four-person subset of the full STS-124

crew

The design of the mission patch on this launch cover

shows the shuttle in orbit with crew names trailing behind Both the Japanese module and the Canadian

Dextre robotics manipulator are illustrated and the

status of the ISS as it was when the mission crew arrived is shown underneath the pilotrsquos name

JEM Kibo ELM-PS in the Space Station Processing Facility

JEM Kibo ELM-PS and DEXTR on ISS after STS-123

23

ORBIT

Flight STS-124 Commander Mark Kelly Pilot Kenneth Ham MS Karen Nyberg MS Ronald Garan MS Michaelk Fossum MS Akihiko Hoshide MS Gregory Chamitoff KSC Launch Date 31508 KSC Landing 14608 Purpose Kibo module delivery Payload and crew exchange

Kibo Continued

STS-124 flown Discovery to the International Space Station launched on May 31 2008 at 502 pm EDT moved from an

earlier scheduled launch date of May 25 2008 and landed safely at the Kennedy Space Centers Shuttle Landing Facility at 1115

am EDT on June 14 2008 The mission is also referred to as ISS-

1J by the ISS program

STS-124 delivered the Pressurized Module (PM) of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) called Kibō which was berthed to the

Harmony module whilst the pressurized section of the JEM Experiment Logistics Module brought up by the STS-123 crew

was moved from Harmony to the JEM-PM The Japanese Remote

Manipulator System a robotic arm was also delivered by STS-124 and attached to Kibō The entire Kibō laboratory is being

brought up over three missions

Discovery carried with it replacement parts in a mid-deck locker

for a malfunctioning toilet The crew had been using other facilities for waste until the new replacement parts were installed

on the Zvezda module of the ISS

Flying with the STS-124 crew was an action figure of Buzz

Lightyear Ken Ham pilot of the STS-124 mission brought with him episodes of ESPN Radios Mike and Mike in the Morning and

a plastic microphone stand with the ESPN logo on it Along with those a yellow jersey from Lance Armstrongs record-setting

seven victories at the Tour de France bicycle race the backup

jersey Eli Manning took to the Super Bowl and the last jersey that American Major League Baseballs Craig Biggio wore in a

game were placed inside the orbiters lockers

With the completion of STS-124 the next permanent pressurized

The design of the mission patch on this launch cover stresses

the Japanese contribution with that countryrsquos flag draped over the pressurised module and the word ldquoKibordquo written in Japanese at the bottom of the diamond-shaped patch The

sun shining down on the project represents the increased

hope that the whole world will benefit from the new labrsquos discoveries in space in the fields of biology Earth

observations materials production and communications

JEM Kibō Pressurized Module in assembly

module would not be delivered to the ISS by

a Space Shuttle until the STS-130 mission

24

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Flight STS-126 Commander Christopher Ferguson Pilot Eric Boe MS Donald Petit MS Stephen Bowen MS Heidimarie Stefanyshyn-Piper MS Robert Kimborough MS Sandra Magnus KSC Launch Date 141108 EAFB Landing 301108 Purpose ISS parts delivery Payload and SARJ service

STS-126 to the International Space Station was flown by

Endeavour The purpose of the mission referred to as ULF2 by the ISS program was to deliver equipment and supplies to the

station to service the Solar Alpha Rotary Joints (SARJ) and repair the problem in the starboard SARJ that had limited its use

since STS-120 STS-126 launched on November 14 2008 at

75539 pm EST from Launch Pad 39A at NASAs Kennedy Space Center with no delays or issues Endeavour successfully docked

with the station on November 16 After spending 11 days 16 hours and 46 minutes docked to the station during which the

crew performed four spacewalks and transferred cargo the orbiter undocked on November 28 Due to poor weather at

Kennedy Space Center Endeavour landed at Edwards Air Force

Base on November 30 at 2125 UTC

Two stamps within Bermudarsquos 40trh anniv of Apollo Xi set directly relate to this mission

The starboard SARJ had shown anomalous behaviour since August 2007 and its use has been minimized pending diagnosis and repair Both the starboard and port SARJs were serviced In addition to lubricating both

bearings the remaining 11 trundle bearings in the starboard SARJ were replaced Trundle bearing assembly five had been removed during an Expedition 16 EVA for further examination in December 2007 STS-126 included the Leonardo Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) on its fifth spaceflight Leonardo held over 14000 pounds of supplies and equipment Among the items packed into the MPLM were two new

crew quarters racks a second galley (kitchen) for the Destiny laboratory a second Waste and Hygiene Compartment (WHC) rack (lavatory) the advanced Resistive Exercise Device (aRED) two water reclamation racks spare hardware and new experiments Also included in Leonardo was the General Laboratory Active Cryogenic ISS Experiment Refrigerator or GLACIER a double locker cryogenic freezer for transporting and preserving science experiments The shuttle also carried irradiated turkey candied yams stuffing and dessert for a special Thanksgiving meal at the station as well as an Official Flight Kit with mementos for those who supported the astronauts and helped them complete their mission successfully

Within the design of the mission patch on this launch cover

the inner patch outline depicts the cargo carrier Leonardo In the blackness of space the constellation Orion the Moon

and Mars reflect the goals of the human spaceflight

programme At the top of the design is the gold symbol of

the astronaut office The sunburst powers all of NASArsquos efforts via the solar arrays of the ISS shown near the top of

the design

25

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27

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This year as we mark the 350th

anniversary of The Royal Society letrsquos look at international stamps for winners

of its Copley Medal which lie with our theme

This medal named after Sir Godgery Copley who first donated the funds has been awarded in

almost every year since its inception in 1731 and whilst the criteria have changed a little since then it has been

given for the best piece of scientific research in that year or in recent years In each case the name of the

winner the year and the reference terms of the Award

are given along with an indication of stamps available for that winner Much of this information from various

reference sources has been published in previous editions of Orbit in our two series ldquoA Chronology of

Cosmologyrdquo (begun with edition 41 of March 1999) and

ldquoAstronomers Royalrdquo (from 51 in October 01 onwards) and is presented here refreshed and re-edited

1748 James Bradley (1693-1762) ldquoOn account of his very curious and wonderful discoveries in

the apparent motion of the Fixed Stars and the causes of such

apparent motion

Bradley was an English astronomer who in 1728 announced his discovery of the aberration of starlight an apparent slight change in the positions of stars caused by the yearly motion of the Earth That finding provided the first direct

evidence for the revolution of the Earth around the Sun

Bradley was educated at Balliol College Oxford where he received the BA in 1714 and the MA in 1717 He was instructed in observational astronomy at Wanstead Essex by his uncle the Rev James Pound clergyman and skilled amateur astronomer who introduced him to the famous astronomer Edmond Halley

Bradleys scientific acumen was stimulated by his membership in the Royal Society to which he was elected a fellow in 1718 on the recommendation of Edmond Halley Bradley took church orders and became vicar of Bridstow in 1719 The income from that position was augmented by a sinecure as an absentee rector in a parish in Pembrokeshire Wales which was procured for him by his friend and astronomical collaborator Samuel Molyneux Bradley resigned his church offices when he was appointed in 1721 to the Savilian chair of astronomy at Oxford and thenceforth devoted his full time to astronomy

After the publication of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium by Copernicus in 1543 it became increasingly imperative for astronomers to be able to observe and measure the parallactic displacement of a star--the change in a stars position over a six-month period--to confirm the orbital motion of the Earth around the Sun Such information would provide the empirical

evidence needed to augment the ma thema t i c a l and c o n cep tua l arguments thitherto advanced for the idea that the Sun does not revolve around the Earth In the absence of such evidence for parallax Tycho Brahe the 16th-century astronomer

had not been favourably disposed to Copernican theory Ole Roslashmer the Danish astronomer measured an apparent displacement of the stars Sirius and Vega in the 17th century but his observations were found to be erroneous Robert Hooke one of the founding members of the Royal Society measured the star Gamma Draconis in a series of observations in 1669 for a similar attempt but was forced to report failure

In 1725 using Molyneuxs house as an observatory Bradley attempted to repeat Hookes measurements on Gamma Draconis with a telescope aimed so as to avoid any error resulting from the refraction of light Although he failed to detect parallax because the star was too far away Bradley made one of the two discoveries for which he is famous He observed that Gamma Draconis shifted south in position by an astonishing 1 of arc in three days--the wrong direction and by too large an amount to be accounted for by parallax It is said that the explanation for this phenomenon came to Bradley as he sailed on the Thames observing how the wind vane on the mast shifted position with the varying

motion of the boat even though the wind had not changed direction He concluded that the apparent stellar shift was brought about by the aberration of light which was a result of the finite speed of light and the forward motion of the Earth in its orbit Bradley communicated this discovery to the Royal Society in 1728 shortly after the death of Molyneux On the basis of his quantitative observations of aberration Bradley confirmed the velocity of light to be 295000 kilometres (183000 miles) per second and gave a proof for the Copernican theory

Bradleys star measurements in 1727-32 also revealed what he called the annual change of declination in some of the fixed stars which could not be accounted for by aberration He concluded that this was caused by the slight and uneven nodding motion of the Earths axis (nutation) that resulted from the changing direction of the gravitational pull of the Moon But he withheld this announcement until he had made careful confirmatory observations during one complete set of revolutions of the Moon in its orbit It was for this achievement that The Royal Society of London awarded him The Copley Medal in 1748

Members of the Royal Society in their function as visitors and directors of the Royal Greenwich Observatory recommended Bradley in 1742 to succeed Halley in the post of Astronomer Royal (Halley the second Astronomer Royal had followed John Flamsteed) Bradley received pound250 a year and the then sizable grant of pound1000 for instruments notably an 8-foot (24-metre) quadrant for more precise measurements In 1744 he married Susannah Peach by whom he had one daughter He held his important scientific administrative and consultative position at Greenwich until his death

The bulk of Bradleys observations was published after his death in an atmosphere of acrimony Dispute between his

Astro-Scientists and The Copley Medal

30

ORBIT

heirs and the British Admiralty over the ownership of his work delayed publication until 1798-1805 The German mathematician Friedrich Bessel analyzed and organized his data correcting for the small errors in Bradleys instruments and then computing star positions

1775 Rev Nevil Maskelyne (1732 - 1811) In consideration of his curious and laborious Observations on

the Attraction of Mountains made in Scotland - on

Schehallien

The Rev Nevil Maskelyne was educated at Trinity College Cambridge and was ordained in 1755 He was the third of the c l e r i c a l A s t r ono m e r R o ya l Triumvirate serving from 1765-1811 although unlike his two predecessors the Rev Bradley and Rev Bliss he did not obtain a clerical posting (Fantasy GB stamp design by John Berry who also wrote this section) In 1761 the Royal Society sent Maskelyne to St Helena to observe the transit of Venus to see if he could estimate the distance of the Earth from the Sun However heavy clouds precluded any observations being made which would assist the calculation The long sea journeys were not wasted permitting Maskelyne to ponder a method of deducing longitude by what he termed The Lunar Distance Method published around 1766 and discussed later Meanwhile John Harrison born in Lincolnshire in 1693 taught himself to be a clockmaker and travelled to London to meet the then Astronomer Royal Edmond Halley who introduced Harrison to the great clockmaker George Graham Harrison produced four designs in a quarter of a century in his quest to find a method of discovering longitude at sea H1 performed

ldquosuitablyrdquo his H2 dissatisfied him resulting in H3 which took nineteen years to complete supported by grants from the Board of Longitude These three ldquosea clocksrdquo were quite large and by a coincidence Harrison using a small pocket watch merely to test the accuracy of his clocks discovered that a small timepiece with a high frequency oscillator was much more suitable than his large clocks Consequently he produced H4 and required funds but was frustrated by the Board of Longitude who had lost interest in his endeavours considering that for twenty seven years he had worked on a flawed concept But Harrison now knew that his H4 would provide the Boardrsquos requirement for a device to provide accuracy in calculating longitude H4 failed its initial sea trials but in August 1763 Maskelyne was sent to Barbados to test it and was delighted to find that it performed three times better than the Board of Longitude required performance rate The Board was now anti-Harrison and refused to give him the promised prize and ordered him to explain the secrets of the H4

pocket watch to that copies could be made by other watchmakers Furthermore Maskelyne was ordered to go to Harrisonrsquos house and ldquoseizerdquo his four timekeepers to stop Harrison in a possible fit of pique selling his devices to foreign governments

In March 1993 The Harrison Gallery was opened at Greenwich on the tercentenary of Harrisonrsquos birth displaying these magnificent timekeepers and also in 1993 the Royal Mail issued commemorative postage stamps (as illustrated) It must be pointed out that eventually Harrison did receive and award of pound8750 for his work on discovering how to calculate longitude In 1766mdashthe NMM website says 1767mdashMaskelyne produced the first edition of The Nautical Almanac which included tables enabling navigators to ldquoestimaterdquo their longitude by observing angles between the Moon and specified stars and calculating Greenwich Mean Time Maskleyne carried out extensive alterations to the Observatory during his tenure but in one respect he was frustrated His idea was to build two 12 feet square rooms on either side of The Great Room so that the Equatorial Sector could be move to either room dependent upon the whereabouts of a comet This excellent suggestion was given the ldquothumbs downrdquo Instead conversions were made to form new observatories causing the then Astronomer Royal Sir George Biddel Airy to state in 1855 ldquoI am utterly at a loss to conceive under what circumstances these places were selected rdquo Maskelyne died in 1811 after serving as Astronomer Royal for forty-six years

1777 John Mudge (1721-1793) On account of his valuable Paper containing directions for

making the best Composition for the metals of Reflecting

Telescopes together with a description of the process for

grinding polishing and giving the best speculum the true

parabolic form

John Mudge was an English

physician and amateur creator of telescope mirrors

(I am aware of no philatelic

recognition to date)

1781 Sir William Herschel (1738-1822) For the Communication of his Discovery of a new and

singular Star a discovery which does him particular

honour as in all probability this start has been for many

years perhaps ages within the bounds of astronomic

vision and yet till now eluded the most diligent researches

of other observers

Herschel was a German-born British astronomer who made many important contributions to astronomy

Originally named Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel he was born in Hannover Germany

31

ORBIT

At the age of 19 he went to England working as a music teacher and organist but devoting all his spare time to astronomy and mathematics Unable to procure adequate instruments he constructed and constantly improved his own telescopes

In 1774 with the aid of his sister Caroline he began a comprehensive and systematic survey of the heavens In 1781 he discovered a new planet which he named Georgium Sidus in honor of George III king of Great Britain but which is now universally called Uranus A year later he was appointed

private astronomer to the king a position that enabled him to devote all his time to his astronomic pursuits

He erected a telescope at Slough with a 48-inch mirror and a focal length of 40 ft Using this he discovered two satellites of Uranus and the sixth and seventh satellites of Saturn He studied the rotation period of many planets and the motion of double stars and also cataloged more than 800 double stars He studied nebulas contributing new information on their constitution and increasing the number of observed nebulas

from about 100 to 2500 Herschel was the first to propose that these nebulas were composed of stars He was elected to the Royal Society in 1781 and knighted in 1816 He is considered the founder of sidereal astronomy

1783 John Goodricke (1764-1786) For his discovery of the Period of the Variation of Light in the

Star Algolrdquo

Goodricke who gained a share of the Medal in 1783 was an English astronomer who was the first to notice that some variable stars (stars whose observed light varies noticeably in intensity) were periodic He also gave the first accurate explanation of such periodic variables Goodricke was deaf and mute throughout his life probably because of a serious illness he had contracted in childhood He nevertheless proved to be a bright student and in 1778 he entered Warrington Academy where he excelled in mathematics and his interest in astronomy was awakened After leaving the academy in 1781 he started making his own astronomical observations and in November 1782 he noticed that the brightness of the star known as Algol varied over a period of a few days By further observations he confirmed these periodic variations and was also able to estimate the periods duration with remarkable accuracy (Algols variations in brightness had been noted by an Italian astronomer in the 17th century but Goodricke was the first to establish the periodic nature of these variations) Goodricke reported his findings to the Royal Society and the society awarded him a Copley Medal in 1783 In the remainder of his short life Goodricke discovered the variability of two other stars that are visible with the naked eye More importantly he suggested that the variability of Algol was due to its being periodically eclipsed by a darker companion body this theory was eventually confirmed and forms the basis for astronomers knowledge of the class of stars known as eclipsing variables Goodricke died at age 21 as a consequence of his exposure to cold night air while making his observations

1799 John Hellins (c1749mdash1827) For his improved Solution of a problem in Physical

Astronomy ampc printed in the Philosophical Transactions

for the year 1798 and his other Mathematical Papers

John Hellins FRS was an

autod idact s choo l teacher mathematician astronomer and

country parson



1831Sir George Biddell Airy (1801-1892)

For his Papers On the principle of the construction of the

Achromatic Eye-pieces of Telescopes - On the Spherical

Aberration of the Eye-pieces of Telescopes and for other

Papers on Optical Subjects in the Transactions of the

Cambridge Philosophical Society

Airy was a versatile English s c i en t i s t and seven th Astronomer Royal (1835-81) He reorganized the Royal

Greenwich Observatory installing new apparatus and rescu ing thousands o f observations from oblivion but his hesitation in acting on the calculations of English astronomer John C Adams in 1845 somewhat delayed the discovery of Neptune Airy improved the theory of the orbital motions of Venus and of the Moon and in 1871 he used a water-filled telescope to test the effect of the Earths motion on the aberration of light In 1838 he devised a compass-

correction system for the Royal Navy Airy in 1827 was the first to attempt to correct astigmatism in the human eye (his own) by use of a cylindrical eyeglass lens He contributed also in optics to the study of interference fringes and to the mathematical theory of rainbows The Airy disk the central spot of light in the diffraction pattern of a point light source is named for him In 1854 he measured gravity by swinging the same

pendulum at the top and bottom of a deep mine and thus computed the density of the Earth He was among the first to propose (c 1855) the theory that root structures of lower density must exist under mountains to maintain isostatic equilibrium Airy was knighted in 1872

1846 Urbain Le Verrier (1811-1877) For his investigations relative to the disturbances of

Uranus by which he proved the existence and predicted the

place of the new Planet the Council considering such

prediction confirmed as it was by the immediate discovery

of the Planet to be one of the proudest triumphs of modern

analysis applied to the Newtonian Theory of Gravitation

32

ORBIT

Le Verrier was a French astronomer who

predicted by mathematical means the existence of the planet Neptune Appointed a teacher of astronomy at the Eacutecole Polytechnique (Polytechnic School) Paris in 1837 Le Verrier first undertook an extensive study of the theory of the planet Mercurys orbit and compiled greatly improved tables of the motion of that planet In 1845 he turned his attention to the irregular orbit of Uranus which he explained by assuming the presence of a previously unknown planet Independently of the English astronomer John C Adams ndash see below- he calculated the size and position of the unknown body and asked the German astronomer Johann G Galle to look for it On Sept 23 1846 after only an hour of searching Galle found Neptune within one degree of the position that had been computed by Le Verrier As a result of this achievement Le Verrier received among other awards the Copley Medal from the Royal Society of London and was named an officer in the Legion of Honour A chair of astronomy was created for him at the University of Paris In 1854 Le Verrier became director of the Observatory of Paris He reestablished the efficiency of this institution but some of the uncompromising measures taken raised a storm of protest that was appeased only by his removal in 1870 On the death of his successor in 1873 he was reinstated but with his authority restricted by the supervision of an observatory council During his difficulties as director of the observatory he carried out a complete revision of the planetary theories and compared them with the best observations then available In particular in 1855 he took up the problem of explaining an unusual characteristic of the motion of Mercury He postulated a second asteroid belt inside Mercurys orbit and when an amateur astronomer reported finding an inner planet Le Verrier assumed it was one of the larger of his asteroids and named it Vulcan Further observations failed to confirm the find however The unusual orbital motion of Mercury which includes an advance of its perihelion was completely explained in 1915 by Albert Einsteins general theory of relativity

1847 Sir John Herschel (1792-1871)

For his work entitled Results of Astronomical Observations

made during the years 1834 1835 1836 1837 and 1838 at

the Cape of Good Hope

being a completion of a

telescopic survey of the whole

surface of the visible heavens

commenced in 1825

Herschel shown standing centre in this 1970 GB issue

with his father (left) and Francis Baily centre) was a British astronomer and chemist born in Slough England and educated at the University of Cambridge John Herschels first major task in astronomy was the reobservation of the double

stars catalogued by his father The movements of these pairs of stars about each other offered the best hope of investigating the gravitational forces operating in the universe John was fortunate to find in James South a collaborator who was able to afford the refined instruments best suited for this work The catalogue that they compiled between 1821 and 1823 and published in the Philosophical Transactions in 1824 earned them the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society and the Lalande Prize in 1825 from the Paris Academy of Sciences This work was their only joint undertaking John Herschels sense of obligation to complete his fathers work in astronomy led him to consider a journey to the Southern Hemisphere to survey the skies not visible in England In 1832 he began planning his expedition The revision and extension of his fathers catalogues which he carried out at Observatory House beginning in 1825 was brought to completion and published in 1833 In November of that year John and his family set sail for the Cape of Good Hope with a large reflecting telescope for observing faint nebulae similar in size to Williams favourite instrument He also possessed a refracting telescope for observing double stars The family established their home at Feldhausen a Dutch farmhouse southeast of Cape Town John spent four years of intense scientific activity the clear southern skies allowing much more rapid progress in observing than was possible in England When the family embarked for home in March of 1838 John had recorded the locations of 68948 stars and had amassed long catalogues of nebulae and double stars He had also described many details of the Great Nebula in the constellation Orion as well as the Magellanic Clouds--actually two galaxies visible only in the Southern Hemisphere--and had observed Halleys Comet and the satellites of Saturn In addition his descriptions of sunspot activities and his measuring of solar radiation by means of a device he had invented contributed to the development of systematic studies of the Sun as an important part of astrophysics Upon his return he was made a baronet (1838) and was lionized by the scientific world During the 1840s Herschel worked on Outlines of Astronomy (1849) a book for educated laymen This very successful science text went through many editions including Arabic and Chinese But the bulk of his time was occupied with the Results of Astronomical Observations Made During the Years 1834-38 at the Cape of Good Hope (1847) This work contains catalogsue and charts of southern-sky nebulae and star clusters a catalogue of the relative positions and magnitudes of southern double stars and his observations on the variations and relative brightness of the stars Herschel became President of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1848 He was knighted in 1831 and was created baron in 1850 As a result of his seeking public office Herschel at the end of 1850 was appointed Master of the Royal Mint The strain of the work caused his health to deteriorate he became depressed and in 1854 he suffered a nervous breakdown In 1856 he resigned his post at the Mint He spent his remaining years working on the catalogues of double stars and of nebulae and star clusters

33

ORBIT

1848John Couch Adams (1819-1892)

For his investigations relative to the disturbances of Uranus

and for his application of the inverse problem of perturbations

thereto

Adams shown here on a 1997 British Cinderella with Le Verrier on right was a B r i t i s h mathemat ic ian and astronomer one of two people who independently discovered the planet Neptune the other being Frenchman Urbain Le Verrier On July 3 1841 Adams had entered in his journal Formed a design in the beginning of this week of investigating as soon as possible

after taking my degree the irregularities in the motion of Uranus in order to find out whether they may be attributed to the action of an undiscovered planet beyond it rdquo In September 1845 he gave James Challis director of the Cambridge Observatory accurate information on where the new planet as yet unobserved could be found but unfortunately the planet was not recognized at Cambridge until much later after its discovery at the Berlin Observatory on Sept 23 1846 Adams also showed (1866) that the Leonid meteor shower had an orbit closely matching that of a comet (1866 I) He described the Moons motion more exactly than had Pierre-Simon Laplace and studied terrestrial magnetism After being made professor of mathematics at the University of St Andrews (Fife) in 1858 and Lowndean professor of astronomy and geometry at Cambridge in 1859 he became director of Cambridge Observatory in 1861

1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)

For his researches in physical astronomy

Peter Andreas Hansen was a Danish astronomer who in 1838 published a

revision of the lunar theory entitled Fundamenta nova investigationis ampc and the improved Tables of the Moon (Hansens Lunar Tables) based upon it were printed in 1857 at the expense of the British government their merit being further recognized by a grant of pound1000 and by their adoption in the Nautical Almanac as from the issue for the year 1862 and other Ephemerides A theoretical discussion of the disturbances embodied in them (long familiarly known to lunar experts as the Darlegung) appeared in the Abhandlungen of the Saxon Academy of Sciences in 1862ndash1864

At the time of publication of Hansens Tables of the Moon in 1857 astronomers generally believed that the lunar theory

was at last complete but within about a decade it was noticed and shown by Simon Newcomb that the optimism had been unfounded deviations between computed and observed positions began to grow at a rate showing that further refinement was necessary For some years Hansens theory continued to be used with Newcombs corrections (from the Nautical Almanacs issue for 1883) but it was eventually (as from 1923) superseded by E W Browns theory

Hansen twice visited England and was twice (in 1842 and 1860) the recipient of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society He communicated to that society in 1847 an able paper on a long-period lunar inequality (Memoirs Roy Astr Society xvi 465) and in 1854 one on the moons figure advocating the mistaken hypothesis of its deformation by a huge elevation directed towards the earth (ib xxiv 29) He was awarded the Copley Medal by the Royal Society in 1850 and his Solar Tables compiled with the assistance of Christian Olufsen appeared in 1854 Hansen gave in 1854 the first intimation that the accepted distance of the sun was too great by some millions of miles (Month Notices Roy Astr Soc xv 9) the error of JF Enckes result having been rendered evident through his investigation of a lunar inequality He died on 28 March 1874 at the new observatory in the town of Gotha erected under his care in 1857

1855 Jean-Bernard-Leacuteon Foucault

(1819-1868) For his various researches in

experimental physics

Foucault was a French physicist who introduced and helped develop a technique of measuring the absolute velocity of light with extreme accuracy He provided experimental proof that the Earth rotates on its axis Foucault was educated for the medical profession but his interests turned to experimental physics With Armand Fizeau he began a series of investigations of light and heat By 1850 he established that light travels slower in water than in air In the same year he measured the velocity of light finding a value that is within 1 percent of the true figure In 1851 by interpreting the motion of a heavy iron ball swinging from a wire 67 m (220 feet) long Foucault proved that the Earth rotates about its axis Such a Foucault pendulum always swings in the same vertical plane but on a rotating Earth this vertical plane slowly changes at a rate and direction dependent on the geographic latitude of the pendulum For this demonstration and a similar one utilizing a gyroscope Foucault received in 1855 the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London and was made physical assistant at the Imperial Observatory Paris He discovered the existence of eddy currents or Foucault currents in a copper disk moving in a strong magnetic field

constructed an improved mirror for the reflecting telescope and in 1859 invented a simple but extremely accurate method of testing telescope mirrors for surface defects

34

ORBIT ORBIT

1890 Simon Newcomb (1835-1909)

For his contributions to the progress

of gravitational astronomy

Simon Newcomb was a Canadian-A m e r i c a n a s t r o n o m e r a n d mathematician Though he had little conventional schooling he made i m po r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o timekeeping as well as writing on economics and statistics and authoring a science fiction novel In the prelude to the American Civil War many US Navy staff of Confederate sympathies left the service and in 1861 Newcomb took advantage of one of the ensuing vacancies to become professor of mathematics and astronomer at the United States Naval Observatory Washington DC Newcomb set to work on the measurement of the position of the planets as an aid to navigation becoming increasingly interested in theories of planetary motion

By the time Newcomb visited Paris France in 1870 he was already aware that the table of lunar positions calculated by Peter Andreas Hansen was in error While in Paris he realised that in addition to the data from 1750 to 1838 that Hansen had used there was further data stretching as far back as 1672 His visit allowed little serenity for analysis as he witnessed the defeat of French emperor Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War and the coup that ended the Second French Empire Newcomb managed to escape from the city during the ensuing rioting that led up to the formation of the Paris Commune and which engulfed the Paris Observatory Newcomb was able to use the new data to revise Hansens tables

He was offered the post of director of the Harvard College Observatory in 1875 but declined having by now settled that his interests lay in mathematics rather than observation

In 1878 Newcomb had started planning for a new and precise measurement of the speed of light that was needed to account for exact values of many astronomical constants He had already started developing a refinement of the method of Leacuteon Foucault when he received a letter from the young naval officer and physicist Albert Abraham Michelson who was also planning such a measurement Thus began a long collaboration and friendship In 1880 Michelson assisted at Newcombs initial measurement with instruments located at Fort Myer and the United States Naval Observatory then

situated on the Potomac River However Michelson had left to start his own project by the time of the second set of measurements between the observatory and the Washington Monument Though Michelson published his first measurement in 1880 Newcombs measurement was substantially different In 1883 Michelson revised his measurement to a value closer to Newcombs

In 1881 Newcomb discovered the statistical principle now known as Benfords law when he observed that the earlier pages of logarithm books used at that time to carry out

logarithmic calculations were far more worn than the later pages This led him to formulate the principle that in any list of numbers taken from an arbitrary set of data more numbers

will tend to have the leading digit 1 than any other leading digit In 1891 within months of Seth Carlo Chandlerrsquos discovery of the 14 month variation of latitude now referred to as the Chandler wobble Newcomb explained the apparent conflict between the observed motion and predicted period of the wobble The theory was based on a perfectly rigid body but Earth is slightly elastic Newcomb used the variation of latitude observations to estimate the elasticity of Earth finding it to be slightly more rigid than steel

1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)

For his researches in spectrum

analysis applied to the heavenly

bodies

Shown in a 1986 stamp from Mauretania Huggins was an English astronomer who was one of the first to use the spectroscope with it he revolutionized the observation of celestial bodies In 1863 Huggins showed that stars are composed of elements that occur on the Sun and Earth In examining a nova in 1866 he observed bright hydrogen lines and correctly deduced the emission of a shell of hydrogen gas at a temperature higher than that of the stars surface In 1868 Huggins showed that comets emit the light of luminescent carbon gas and in the same year he tried to measure the radial velocities of stars by the Doppler shift of their spectral lines He and Henry Draper working separately were the first to photograph the spectrum of a comet (Comet 1881 III) on June 24 1881 He was knighted in 1897

1909 George William Hill (1838-1914)

ldquoOn the ground of his researches in

mathematical astronomyrdquo

George William Hill was a US astronomer and mathematician whose work focused on the mathematics describing the three-body problem later the four-body problem to calculate the orbits of the Moon around the Earth as well as that of

planets around the Sun

The Hill sphere which approximates the gravitational sphere of influence of one astronomical body in the face of perturbations from another heavier body around which it orbits was described by Hill

1911 George Howard Darwin (1845-1912)

ldquoOn the ground of his researches on tidal theory the

figures of the planets and allied subjects

35

ORBIT

Sir George Howard Darwin FRS was an English astronomer and mathematician the second son and fifth child of Charles and Emma Darwin

He was admitted to the bar in 1872 but returned to science In 1883 he became Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy at the University of Cambridge He studied tidal forces involving the Sun Moon and Earth and formulated the fission theory of Moon formation He won the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1892 and also later served as president of that organization

1925 Albert Einstein (1879mdash1955)

ldquoFor his theory of relativity and his contributions to the

quantum theory

Albert Einstein was a theoretical physicist His many contributions to physics include the special and general theories of relativity the founding of relativistic cosmology the first post-Newtonian expansion explaining the perihelion advance of Mercury prediction of the deflection of light by gravity and gravitational lensing the first fluctuation dissipation theorem which explained the Brownian movement of molecules the photon theory and wave-particle duality the quantum theory of atomic motion in solids the zero-point energy concept the semi-classical version of the Schroumldinger equation and the quantum theory of a monatomic gas which predicted Bose-Einstein condensation

Einstein is best known for his theories of special relativity and general relativity He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics ldquofor his services to Theoretical Physics and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effectrdquo

Einstein published more than 300 scientific and over 150 non-scientific works He is often regarded as the father of modern physics

1932 George Ellery Hale (1868-1938) ldquoFor his distinguished work on the solar magnetic phenomena

and for his eminence as a scientific engineer especially in

connexion with Mount Wilson Observatory

Hale was an American astronomer known for his development of important astronomical instruments including the Hale telescope (completed 1948) a 200-inch reflecting telescope at the California Institute of Technologys

Palomar Mountain Observatory near Pasadena He was known also for his researches in solar physics particularly his discovery of magnetic fields in sunspots

Following education and research in Massachusetts and Berlin Hale organized (1888-91) the Kenwood Observatory in Chicago where he invented and developed the spectroheliograph an instrument for photographing the Sun in the light of a very small range of wavelengths (monochromatic light) In 1892 he joined the faculty of the University of Chicago and began organizing the Yerkes

Observatory Williams Bay Wis of which he was director until 1904 There he built the 40-inch refracting telescope which remains the largest of its type in the world He established the Astrophysical Journal an international review of spectroscopy and astronomical physics in 1895 In 1904 he organised the Mt Wilson Observatory near Los Angeles under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington DC and was its director until 1923 There he built solar apparatus of great power as well as the huge 60-inch and 100-inch stellar telescopes both of the reflecting

type He began work on the Hale telescope on Palomar mountain in 1928 Hale was an excellent fund-raiser an ability that helped in the establishment of the Yerkes Observatory and the observatories on Mt Wilson and Palomar Mountain He also helped organize the National Research Council (1916) The recipient of many honours he was also elected to most of the worlds leading academies of science

1956 Patrick Blackett (1897mdash1974)

In recognition of his outstanding

studies of cosmic ray showers and

heavy mesons and in the field of

palaeomagnetism

Patrick Baron Blackett OM CH FRS was an English experimental physicist

known for his work on cloud chambers cosmic rays and paleomagnetism He also made a major contribution in World War II advising on military strategy and developing Operational Research His left-wing views saw an outlet in third world development and in influencing policy in the Labour Government of the 1960s

1960 Harold Jeffreys (1891mdash1989)

In recognition of his distinguished

work in many branches of

geophysics and also in the theory

of probability and astronomy

Sir Harold Jeffreys FRS was a mathemat ic i an s tat i s t i c ian geophysicist and astronomer

At Cambridge University Jeffreys taught mathematics then geophysics and finally became thePlumian Professor of Astronomy

36

ORBIT

One of his major contributions was on the Bayesian approach to probability as well as the idea that the Earths planetary core was liquid He was knighted in 1953

Jeffreys received the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1937 the Royal Societys Copley Medal in 1960 and the Royal Statistical Societys Guy Medal in Gold in 1962

1964 Sydney Chapman (1888mdash1970)

In recognition of his theoretical

contributions to terrestrial and

interplanetary magnetism the

ionosphere and the aurora borealis

Sydney Chapman FRS was a British mathematician and geophysicist who was also recognized as one of the pioneers of solar-terrestrial physics This interest stemmed from his early work on the kinetic theory of gases Chapman studied magnetic storms and aurorae developing theories to explain their relation to the interaction of the Earths magnetic field with the solar wind Chapman was President of the Special Committee for the International Geophysical Year (IGY) The idea of the IGY stemmed from a discussion in 1950 between Chapman and scientists including James Van Allen The IGY was held in 1957-58 and resulted in great progress in fields including Earth and space sciences as well as leading to the first satellite launches

1984 Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1910mdash1995)

In recognition of his distinguished work on theoretical

physics including stellar structure theory of radiation

hydrodynamic stability and relativity

Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar FRS was an Indian American astrophysicist who became a Nobel laureate in physics along with William Alfred Fowler for their work in the theoretical structure and evolution of stars

In July 1930 Chandrasekhar was awarded a Government of India scholarship to pursue graduate studies at the University of Cambridge where he was admitted to Trinity College and became a research student of Professor R H Fowler On the advice of Prof P A M Dirac as part of his graduate studies Chandra spent a year at the Institut for Teoretisk Fysik in Copenhagen where he met Prof Niels Bohr

Chandrasekhars most famous success was the astrophysical Chandrasekhar limit The limit describes the maximum mass of a white dwarf star ~144 s o l a r m a s s e s o r equivalently the minimum mass above which a star will ultimately collapse into

a neutron star or black hole (following a supernova) The limit was first calculated by Chandrasekhar in 1930

during his maiden voyage from India to Cambridge England for his graduate studies

When Chandra first proposed this limit during his fellowship at Trinity college in the 1930s it was opposed by Arthur Eddington and much to Chandras frustration none of the established physicists in Europe came to his rescue This episode had a bitter impact on Chandra resulting in his move to the University of Chicago in the United States and in his choice of moving to another research topic Chandra however compiled all his work on the topic of stellar structures into a book for posterity This also subsequently led to his style of working continuously in one specific area of physics for a number of years and at the end of that period compiling a book on that topic As a result Chandra has left us with great expositions on different topics

In 1999 NASA named the third of its four Great Observatories after Chandrasekhar This followed a naming contest which attracted 6000 entries from fifty

states and sixty-one countries The Chandra X-ray Observatory was launched and deployed by Space Shuttle

Columbia on July 23 1999 life

2006 Stephen Hawking (b 1942)

For his outstanding

contribution to theoretical

physics and theoretical

cosmology

Stephen William Hawking CH CBE FRS FRSA is a British theoretical physicist known for his contributions to the fields of cosmology and quantum gravity especially in the context of black holes He has also achieved success with works of popular science in which he discusses his own theories and cosmology in general these include the

runaway best seller A Brief History of Time which stayed on the British Sunday Times bestsellers list for a record-breaking 237 weeks

Hawkings key scientific works to date have included providing with Roger Penrose theorems regarding singularities in the framework of general relativity and the theoretical prediction that black holes should emit radiation which is today known as Hawking radiation (or sometimes as Bekenstein-Hawking radiation) He is a world-renowned theoretical physicist whose scientific career spans over 40 years His books and public appearances have made him an academic celebrity He is an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts and a lifetime member of the Pontifical Academy of Science On August 12 2009 he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom the highest civilian award in the United States

Hawking was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge for thirty years taking up the post in 1979 and retiring on October 1 2009 He is also a Fellow of Gonville and Caius College Cambridge and a Distinguished Research Chair at the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics in Waterloo Ontario

37

ORBIT

Hawking has a neuro muscular dystrophy that is related to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) a condition that has progressed over the years and has left him almost completely paralyzed

2008 Roger Penrose (b 1931)

for his beautiful and original insights into many areas of

mathematics and mathematical physics Sir Roger has made

outstanding contributions to general relativity theory and

cosmology most notably for his work on black holes and the

Big Bang

Sir Roger Penrose OM FRS is an English mathematical physicist and Emeritus Rouse Ball Professor of Mathematics at the Mathematical Institute University of Oxford and Emeritus Fellow of Wadham College He has received a number of prizes and awards including the 1988 Wolf Prize for physics which he shared with Stephen Hawking for their contribution to our understanding of the universe He is renowned for his work in mathematical physics in particular his contributions to general relativity and cosmology He is also a recreational mathematician and philosopher

Penrose earned his PhD at Cambridge (St Johns College) in 1958 writing a thesis on tensor methods in algebraic geometry under algebraist and geometer John A Todd He devised and popularised the Penrose triangle in the 1950s describing it as impossibility in its purest form and

exchanged material with the artist M C Escher whose earlier depictions of impossible objects partly inspired it In 1965 at Cambridge Penrose proved that singularities (such as black holes) could be formed from the gravitational collapse of immense dying stars

In 1967 Penrose invented the twistor theory which maps geometric objects in Minkowski space into the 4-dimensional complex space with the metric signature (22) In 1969 he conjectured the cosmic censorship hypothesis This proposes (rather informally) that the universe protects us from the inherent unpredictability of singularities (such as the one in the centre of a black hole) by hiding them from our view behind an event horizon This form is now known as the weak censorship hypothesis in 1979 Penrose formulated a stronger version called the strong censorship hypothesis Together with the BKL conjecture and issues of nonlinear stability settling the censorship conjectures is one of the most important outstanding problems in general relativity Also from 1979 dates Penroses influential Weyl curvature hypothesis on the initial conditions of the observable part of

the Universe and the origin of the second law of thermodynamics Penrose wrote a paper on the Terrell rotation

In 2004 Penrose released The Road to Reality A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe a 1099-page book aimed at giving a comprehensive guide to the laws of physics He has proposed a novel interpretation of quantum mechanics[

38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT

Grenada 1971 the parachutes open with-in sight of the recovery ship the aircraft

carrier USS Iwo Jima and in the water with flotation collar attached

Yemen Kingdom 1970 Fred Haise is out whilst another of the crew exits the capsule and all safely onboard Iwo Jima and needing

a shave A number of territories simply overprinted previous Apollo issues in 1970

Eg Togo Fujeira and Haiti whilst naturally Hungary and Mali produced elegant results

Unusual British and Italian covers for Apollo 13

2

ORBIT

ADVERTISING RATES We invite advertisers to use ORBIT to reach Astro-Philatelic enthusiasts worldwide If readers have

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Copy Deadline for the June 2010 issue is May 14th by which time all material intended for publication should

be with the Editor

ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION RATES Members in UKmdashpound15

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ASSS website at URL

wwwasssutvinternetcom

ISSN 0953 1599 THE JOURNAL OF THE ASTRO

SPACE STAMP SOCIETY Issue No 85 March 2010

Patron

Cosmonaut Georgi Grechko Hero of the Soviet Union

COMMITTEE

Chair Margaret Morris 55 Canniesburn Drive Bearsden Glasgow

GS1 1RX (E-mail MMorris671aolcom)

Hon Secretary Brian JLockyer 21 Exford CloseWeston-Super-Mare

Somerset BS23 4RE

(E-mail brianlockyertesconet)

Compiler of Checklist Hon Treasurer Postal Packet Organiser

Harvey Duncan16 Begg Avenue Falkirk Scotland FK1 5DL

(E-mail duncan1975btinternetcom)

Orbit Editor Jeff Dugdale Glebe Cottage Speymouth Mosstodloch Moray

Scotland IV32 7LE (E-mail jefforbitedaolcom)

Webmaster Derek Clarke 36 Cherryfield Road Walkington

Dublin 12 (E-mail dclarkeutvinternetcom)

Postal Auction Organiser David Saunders 42 Burnet Road Bradwell

Great Yarmouth NR31 8SL

Overseas Representatives

Australia Charles Bromser 37 Bridport Street Melbourne 3205 GermanyJurgen P Esders An der Apostelkirche 10 10783 Berlin

EireDerek Clarke 36 Cherryfield Rd Walkinstown Dublin 12 France Jean-Louis Lafon 23 Rue de Mercantour 78310 Maurepas

Netherlands Bart Beimers NJ Haismasrt 7 9061 BV Gierkerk Russia Mikhail Vorobyov 31-12 Krupskaya Str Kostroma

United States Dr Ben Ramkissoon 3011 White Oak Lane Oak Brook Il 60521 USA

Life Members UK - Harvey Duncan George Spiteri Ian Ridpath Margaret Morris Michael Packham Dr WR Withey Paul Uppington

Jillian Wood Derek Clarke (Eire) Charles Bromser (Australia) Tom Baughn (USA) Ross Smith (Australia)

Vincent Leung Wing Sing (Hong Kong) Mohammed KSafdar (Saudi Arabia)

3

ORBIT



Part Two





WB3)




fields




sunstorms





opposite)










Background)









4

ORBIT




























below










Explorer


Explorer 21 26 33 34 35 39 43 47 51 en 57 see

table opposite top











5

ORBIT




















Yv4201 WB 341)




















6

ORBIT

































The next spacecraft




7

ORBIT








the solar wind







satellites













parameters













gamma radiation













8

ORBIT




Earth



or Explorer 59















comet investigation






















9

ORBIT




December 2 1989










measured












was British made






Yv5227 WB 499


Yv5284 WB506)


December 21 1984











10

ORBIT ORBIT































live




















11

ORBIT





























dehydrated






















part in the mission



12

ORBIT















13

ORBIT

14

ORBIT

15

ORBIT

16

ORBIT

17

ORBIT

18

ORBIT






15 2007




















19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







3

ORBIT



Part Two





WB3)




fields




sunstorms





opposite)










Background)









4

ORBIT




























below










Explorer


Explorer 21 26 33 34 35 39 43 47 51 en 57 see

table opposite top











5

ORBIT




















Yv4201 WB 341)




















6

ORBIT

































The next spacecraft




7

ORBIT








the solar wind







satellites













parameters













gamma radiation













8

ORBIT




Earth



or Explorer 59















comet investigation






















9

ORBIT




December 2 1989










measured












was British made






Yv5227 WB 499


Yv5284 WB506)


December 21 1984











10

ORBIT ORBIT































live




















11

ORBIT





























dehydrated






















part in the mission



12

ORBIT















13

ORBIT

14

ORBIT

15

ORBIT

16

ORBIT

17

ORBIT

18

ORBIT






15 2007




















19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







4

ORBIT




























below










Explorer


Explorer 21 26 33 34 35 39 43 47 51 en 57 see

table opposite top











5

ORBIT




















Yv4201 WB 341)




















6

ORBIT

































The next spacecraft




7

ORBIT








the solar wind







satellites













parameters













gamma radiation













8

ORBIT




Earth



or Explorer 59















comet investigation






















9

ORBIT




December 2 1989










measured












was British made






Yv5227 WB 499


Yv5284 WB506)


December 21 1984











10

ORBIT ORBIT































live




















11

ORBIT





























dehydrated






















part in the mission



12

ORBIT















13

ORBIT

14

ORBIT

15

ORBIT

16

ORBIT

17

ORBIT

18

ORBIT






15 2007




















19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







5

ORBIT




















Yv4201 WB 341)




















6

ORBIT

































The next spacecraft




7

ORBIT








the solar wind







satellites













parameters













gamma radiation













8

ORBIT




Earth



or Explorer 59















comet investigation






















9

ORBIT




December 2 1989










measured












was British made






Yv5227 WB 499


Yv5284 WB506)


December 21 1984











10

ORBIT ORBIT































live




















11

ORBIT





























dehydrated






















part in the mission



12

ORBIT















13

ORBIT

14

ORBIT

15

ORBIT

16

ORBIT

17

ORBIT

18

ORBIT






15 2007




















19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







6

ORBIT

































The next spacecraft




7

ORBIT








the solar wind







satellites













parameters













gamma radiation













8

ORBIT




Earth



or Explorer 59















comet investigation






















9

ORBIT




December 2 1989










measured












was British made






Yv5227 WB 499


Yv5284 WB506)


December 21 1984











10

ORBIT ORBIT































live




















11

ORBIT





























dehydrated






















part in the mission



12

ORBIT















13

ORBIT

14

ORBIT

15

ORBIT

16

ORBIT

17

ORBIT

18

ORBIT






15 2007




















19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







7

ORBIT








the solar wind







satellites













parameters













gamma radiation













8

ORBIT




Earth



or Explorer 59















comet investigation






















9

ORBIT




December 2 1989










measured












was British made






Yv5227 WB 499


Yv5284 WB506)


December 21 1984











10

ORBIT ORBIT































live




















11

ORBIT





























dehydrated






















part in the mission



12

ORBIT















13

ORBIT

14

ORBIT

15

ORBIT

16

ORBIT

17

ORBIT

18

ORBIT






15 2007




















19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







8

ORBIT




Earth



or Explorer 59















comet investigation






















9

ORBIT




December 2 1989










measured












was British made






Yv5227 WB 499


Yv5284 WB506)


December 21 1984











10

ORBIT ORBIT































live




















11

ORBIT





























dehydrated






















part in the mission



12

ORBIT















13

ORBIT

14

ORBIT

15

ORBIT

16

ORBIT

17

ORBIT

18

ORBIT






15 2007




















19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







9

ORBIT




December 2 1989










measured












was British made






Yv5227 WB 499


Yv5284 WB506)


December 21 1984











10

ORBIT ORBIT































live




















11

ORBIT





























dehydrated






















part in the mission



12

ORBIT















13

ORBIT

14

ORBIT

15

ORBIT

16

ORBIT

17

ORBIT

18

ORBIT






15 2007




















19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







10

ORBIT ORBIT































live




















11

ORBIT





























dehydrated






















part in the mission



12

ORBIT















13

ORBIT

14

ORBIT

15

ORBIT

16

ORBIT

17

ORBIT

18

ORBIT






15 2007




















19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







11

ORBIT





























dehydrated






















part in the mission



12

ORBIT















13

ORBIT

14

ORBIT

15

ORBIT

16

ORBIT

17

ORBIT

18

ORBIT






15 2007




















19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







12

ORBIT















13

ORBIT

14

ORBIT

15

ORBIT

16

ORBIT

17

ORBIT

18

ORBIT






15 2007




















19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







13

ORBIT

14

ORBIT

15

ORBIT

16

ORBIT

17

ORBIT

18

ORBIT






15 2007




















19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







14

ORBIT

15

ORBIT

16

ORBIT

17

ORBIT

18

ORBIT






15 2007




















19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







15

ORBIT

16

ORBIT

17

ORBIT

18

ORBIT






15 2007




















19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







16

ORBIT

17

ORBIT

18

ORBIT






15 2007




















19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







17

ORBIT

18

ORBIT






15 2007




















19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







18

ORBIT






15 2007




















19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







19

ORBIT































20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







20

ORBIT












21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







21

ORBIT

















laboratory module

22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







22

ORBIT












stay at the ISS








crew







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







23

ORBIT


Kibo Continued




























24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







24

ORBIT




















the design

25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







25

ORBIT

26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







26

ORBIT

27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







27

ORBIT

28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







28

ORBIT

29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







29

ORBIT














apparent motion














30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







30

ORBIT




Schehallien









parabolic form










of other observers



31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







31

ORBIT







Star Algolrdquo







country parson



















32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







32

ORBIT










commenced in 1825




33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







33

ORBIT




thereto



1850 Peter Andreas

Hansen (1795-1874)












34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







34

ORBIT ORBIT












1898 Sir William

Huggins (1824-1910)



bodies











35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







35

ORBIT





quantum theory
















palaeomagnetism










36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







36

ORBIT























For his outstanding



cosmology





37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







37

ORBIT







Big Bang







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







38

ORBIT

39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







39

ORBIT

40

ORBIT







40

ORBIT







orbit issue 85 (march 2010)

Documents

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astro space stamp society

derek clarke eire

orbit advertising rates

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