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Chapter 3 Addressing Learners’ Individual Needs 75

CHAPTER

TEACHER INTERVIEW

Brandy DonaldBrandy Donald is in her second year of teaching at

Vista Heights Middle School in Saratoga Springs,

Utah. She teaches seventh-grade Utah history,

including a gifted section. She also teaches a class

called Student Success.

Q: What is the Student Success class about?

A: In Student Success we are catering to the needs of seventh-grade students. There

is a huge jump from elementary school, where you have one teacher who knows

you, and then you come to seventh grade, where you have to keep track of eight

different teachers and keep everything organized. This last summer two other

teachers and I collaborated with the counseling department to develop this class.

We talk about everything from using a planner, to time management, to testing

strategies in different classes. It’s really been an awesome course!

Q: As a second-year teacher, how did it come about that you are teaching a gifted class? Typically this assignment is reserved for the most senior teachers.

A: It was part of my interview. “If you want the job you will get the endorsement [in the

Gifted and Talented program].” In my interview one of the biggest focuses was on how

my teaching was related to differentiating. I really like to find ways for every student to

be successful, whether they are at the top, or the bottom, or somewhere in between.

Q: You are teaching a wide range of students. How do you differentiate your teaching?

A: In my instruction I differentiate process in terms of how I deliver the lesson and

how I deliver the information, maybe by looking at different styles for presenting the

information and by varying it within my class. My hope is that it will connect with

one student—that that one student is going to find some way to really tap into our

curriculum and the content by my way of presenting it.

I like to differentiate product, whether it is an in-class assignment, or through an

assessment, so that they can show me what they have learned. I want my students

to have an understanding of how history makes a difference in the grand scheme

of things. This is hard for seventh graders. So I like to make my assessments very

authentic. They tend to be more project based than the more typical paper/pencil test.

Questions to Consider

1. In what ways do you think

Mrs. Donald sees each

student as exceptional?

2. What tips did you pick up

about how to teach to all

the students in a class?

3. Based on Mrs. Donald’s

job interview experience,

what did she say that could

help you in preparing for

your first interview?

4. Mrs. Donald is striving

to maintain a balance

between being a teacher

and having a life outside of

school. At this time, how

good are you at doing this?

3Addressing Learners’ Individual Needs© Brandy Donald


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76 Part I� �Today’s Teachers, Students, and Schools

Q: How do you think about each student being different, or in what ways do you see each student being exceptional?

A: Across my classes I have both ends of the spectrum. I think each student comes with a unique

set of skills and experiences and things to offer. When I teach, I really want to connect with that.

If I just teach to the middle, I am missing a whole lot that is within each student. For example, in

my 260 students this year I have 42 with IEPs [Individualized Education Programs]. They have

different skills within their IEPs. My job is to find ways to include them in what’s going on in class;

it’s important for them to be an active part, rather than excusing them from parts of the lesson.

Q: What brings you joy in teaching?

A: I am always waiting for the moment when students make a connection to something in

their own life. You know, history is interesting. There are a lot of great stories, but my

philosophy in teaching history is that I want to make it matter to my students. When I see

students making the connections, that is what makes me happy. Also, you see so many

kids that just hate school. I think it really takes making that personal connection with

whatever you are doing in class to make them enjoy the class.

Q: What advice do you have for future teachers?

A: There are going to be moments when you are stressed out. Moments when you are

challenged, or you are not quite sure how to handle something. Moments when you

might think, “Why am I doing this?” or “Why did I sign up for this job?” You have to go

back to that place when you had thought in your head you wanted to become a teacher.

Remember what motivated you to pursue this path in the first place.

Second, I think it is important that you become involved in your teaching, but you still

need to be a well-rounded person. I am still a new teacher, but I tell first-year teachers

to try not to take work home every night. In the end you can burn out. You will not be an

effective teacher if there is not a place where you are a person outside of being a teacher.

For example, I am a runner. I run half marathons. I don’t place: I just do it for fun.

Learning OutcomesAfter reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Summarize both the different ways that students develop and the implications of their individual needs for

increasing their learning.

2. Describe at least four ways to distinguish students in terms of their academic ability.

3. Describe the major categories used by schools to identify and categorize students with disabilities.

4. Explain the responsibility school and teachers have to effectively serve students with disabilities.

5. Identify strategies for working with students that are exceptional in other ways, including gifted and talented,

struggling, and at risk.

6. Examine implications for teaching and learning that can occur when you see each student as exceptional in his

or her own way.

Master these objectives using an online action plan at edge.sagepub.com/hall2e


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INTRODUCTIONWhat were your thoughts when you first read the title of this chapter? Did you think something like, “Yeah, sure, another simplistic education slogan”? Or did you think something like, “Well, I suppose in some way(s) each student can be thought of as having individual needs”? Thinking about student learning in terms of how each student is unique or exceptional is essential to becoming an exceptional educator. As Mrs. Donald reflected in her interview, exceptional educators use their insights into how each student learns to continually adapt instruction, thereby increasing the learning of all students. Note also that she finds joy in seeing her students make connections between what she is teaching and their lives. As you will discover toward the middle of this chapter, she also sees the humor in the antics of middle school students.

In this chapter we will introduce a variety of ways of viewing each student as being exceptional. Some of these ways come from research, some are based in laws, others are based on characteristics of students, and a few will be drawn from interesting ideas about how to best facilitate all students learning. Keep in mind that these really will be “introductions.” Later on in your teacher education program and as your career unfolds, you will learn more about different ways of seeing each student as exceptional.

The key objective for this chapter is to help you begin developing a repertoire of ways to see each student as unique. As you will hear often, teachers are supposed to differentiate instruction. This means customizing your teaching in ways that facilitate learning for each of your students. One important challenge for you will be determining the basis for differentiating. Will you look at only students’ past grades? Will you consider their family backgrounds? Do you think that it makes a difference if the subject is reading, mathematics, or science? What about their performance in your class? Some students will grasp new ideas quickly, and others will struggle. Which indicators will you emphasize as you investigate how each of your students is exceptional?

DO ALL STUDENTS DEVELOP IN THE SAME WAY?

Teaching middle school is really funny. I find myself laughing constantly—such a

contrast from teaching high school. There are times when middle school students are

just goofy! They don’t get what is going on. They fall out of their chairs. I don’t know

how teachers could stay in middle school if they didn’t see the humor.

—Mrs. Donald

In her interview, Mrs. Donald described some of the behaviors that she sees as characteristic of middle school students. High school teachers and teachers of elementary school will offer different descriptions of how they see students at their level of schooling. Each of these stereotypes will emphasize certain characteristics. However, as with all generalizations, you need to be careful when applying them to individual students. At the same time, to what extent do you think these descriptions of typical students are valid? What these descriptions reflect is a developmental model of how children grow and how they learn. In other words, there are predictable phases and stages to child development that represent another way to see each

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student as exceptional. In other words, teachers need to adapt instruction in ways that are developmentally appropriate for each student.

Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentIn your psychology courses you will study different models and theories about how thinking develops as children grow up. Probably the model that you will be most familiar with is that of Jean Piaget. In his model the way children think changes in major ways as they develop, from infancy through adolescence. Two of his main ideas are important to consider here: maturation and activity.

MaturationAccording to Piaget, the way that thinking changes as a child grows older is genetically programmed. Parents and teachers cannot have much effect on this programming. Providing safety and keeping children healthy are important supports, but the ways children think will develop at the pace that is set biologically.

ActivityChildren learn by interacting with their environment. Infants, for example, are limited in their ability to interact due to not having developed muscular control and having limited eyesight. As their neuromuscular system develops, their interactions with their environment become more dynamic and their thinking changes as a result.

As you should recall from your psychology courses, Piaget identifies four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Within each stage, the way in which children reason and think is different. It is important to keep in mind that Piaget sees that all children will go through these four stages in sequence. They will not skip a stage. Also, there are age ranges associated with each stage.

Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 Years)This is the stage when infants rely on their basic senses to learn. Seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling are the main sources of information. At the earliest part of this stage infants think of objects as only existing when the object is present. Later on in this stage children are able to purposefully interact with objects in their environment. These are physical interactions. In other words, they can “reach out and touch something.”

Preoperational Stage (2–7 Years)Being able to recall what happened in the past, keeping track of information, and planning for the future are important parts of thinking. These skills have to be learned. These are mental processes, not physical ones. Developing the ability to use words and gestures is part of the preoperational stage. Learning words that represent objects happens during this stage. The tendency is to focus on one element only, such as height and not width. At this stage children’s thinking is mainly self-centered, inasmuch as they often hold the assumption that others feel as they do.

Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 Years)The indicators of students at this stage include their coming to understand that changing the shape of a material still keeps the material the same. They also understand that such changes can be reversed. Another aspect of student thinking at this stage is the ability to classify, such as placing cities within states and states within countries. Furthermore, they can see different ways to classify objects such as by shape or by color.

Deeper Look 3.1Read more about the

cognitive stages of

development.


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Formal Operational Stage (11 Years to Adult)At this stage students continue to have all of the ways of thinking that they developed during the earlier stages. Now they can imagine what might happen. They can do deductive reasoning: “If college graduates earn more money, then I should go to college.” They can think inductively, such as constructing generalizations: “The kids in theater and band are doing things besides going to subject classes.” At this stage they can do what we call “thought experiments”: they can imagine what an action or activity would entail and what would happen if it were to take place.

Human Brain DevelopmentThere are other developmental models that we could consider. A useful contrast is to turn to the findings from neuroscience research. Not that long ago this area of research had little that teachers could apply in their classrooms. Now, the topic of brain development has significant implications for thinking about teaching and learning. The findings from neuroscience research also represent new ways to see each child as exceptional.

The basic metaphor in neuroscience for talking about thinking and learning is called brain architecture. At its simplest, we are talking about how the brain is wired. It turns out that brain architecture is not just a matter of genetics. Researchers have established that characteristics of developing brain architecture in young children are heavily shaped through interactions with the environment and personal experiences.

Another basic finding from the studies is that there are certain developmental stages or sensitive periods where certain experiences have specific effects on how the brain develops. With infants, for example, basic sensory, social, and emotional experiences are necessary. Furthermore, at each sensitive period, development of different parts of the brain is more affected. As stated by the Center on the Developing Child, “The basic architecture of the brain is constructed through an ongoing process that begins before birth and continues into adulthood. Early experiences affect the quality of that architecture by establishing either a sturdy or a fragile foundation for all of the learning, health and behavior that follow” (Center on the Developing Child, n.d., p. 1).

Different Neural Circuits Develop at Different AgesBrain architecture is composed of neural circuits. Interestingly, these circuits are organized in hierarchies. In other words, some neural circuits have to be in place before others can develop. Also, the circuits within each hierarchy process certain kinds of information. For example, one hierarchy has the set of circuits for analyzing visual information. Another set of neural circuits processes auditory information. There are other circuits for learning a language, planning next steps, and interpreting emotions. Within each hierarchy those that process lower-level information develop earlier.

Again, within the process of brain development there are sensitive periods, and for different parts of the brain these periods come at different ages. In other words, the development of particular neural circuits occurs at different ages. For example, low-level circuits such as analysis of sensory stimuli develop around the time of birth. High-level circuits such as those that process complex information develop much later.

The research findings related to brain architecture have been organized around three mental capacities. The first to develop are the neural circuits related to visual and auditory interactions. Second is development of networks related to learning and speaking languages. The third area of learning has to do with higher-order thinking and problem solving. A visual summary of the findings about development of brain architecture in relation to these capacities is presented in Figure 3.1. Notice how significant the early years are for the developing brain.


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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 40 60−1−2−3−4−5−6−7−8−9

Decades

Adult levels of synapses

YearsMonthsMonths

Age

Bir

th

Time courses for

synaptogenesis

Experience-dependent synapse formation

Neurogenesis in the hippocampus

Concepti

on

Death

Higher cognitive functions

(prefrontal cortex)

Receptive language area/speech production

(angular gyrus Broca’s area)

Seeing/hearing

(visual cortex/auditory cortex)

Source: Charles A. Nelson, University of Minnesota (2000).

Figure 3.1 ● Human Brain Development

Impoverishment Effects Can Be Long LastingThe findings from brain research document that when the environment for early development of the brain is impoverished the effects are long lasting (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2012). When there is not a positive and appropriately stimulating approach to social, cognitive, and language development, neural networks may not develop fully or in the same ways. This risk is especially problematic during the sensitive periods. At those ages, the neural networks are growing even more rapidly. If there is extreme stress, for example, the functioning and architecture of particular neural circuits can be altered. The result can be that the brain does not process basic information as well or as completely. In a hierarchical model, if the foundation is not strong, the higher functions will be less efficient, or perhaps will not work well at all. When limited or incorrect information is being produced at the lower levels, then the higher levels of brain functioning may not receive complete or accurate information. This can result in higher cognitive functions not working efficiently.

The Brain Has PlasticityContrary to what was thought for a long time, the brain architecture and its neural circuits continue to adapt throughout adulthood. In other words, even when there was not an optimal environment during the sensitive periods, there is a continuing capacity to learn. However, at these later times the experiences have to be customized more carefully and targeted toward the particular neural circuits. Another way to think about this is that the architecture of each student’s brain is exceptional. When teachers strive to address each student’s way of functioning, more learning will be possible. This is not always easy, but teachers most certainly need to understand that learning always is possible and learning can be a lifelong process.


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Implications of Developmental Models for Teaching and LearningHopefully you are seeing some of the similarities across the developmental models. Each has phases. Each has a predictable sequence and assumes that these sequences cannot be skipped. Development is related to chronological age, and development is based in interactions with the environment. Also, there is extensive research behind each model.

Often policymakers, administrators, parents, and even some teachers will start pressing for ways to speed up a child’s development. The story is often told that when Piaget was questioned as to how to do that, his response was to label it as “the American question.” Regardless of the developmental model, the experts will state that little can be done to accelerate development. What they will emphasize is that children who have caring, supportive, and rich environments in their early years will be ready for school and will progress well.

These developmental perspectives offer important ways for teachers to see each student as exceptional. Each student is developing at his or her own rate based on experience and age. Past experiences affect development, and if those experiences included toxic stresses, such as extreme poverty or abuse, then the brain architecture will be different (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2012). As a teacher you need to appreciate that your students will bring different cognitive, emotional, and social capabilities to school based on their past experiences. Your task is to understand where each of your students begins and to differentiate your instruction in ways that build from there. Do not assume that any of your students cannot continue to develop. They may be ahead or behind in terms of developmental perspective, but, as the neuroscience findings indicate, our brains have plasticity. It is our task to provide a supportive and rich instructional environment so that each student can continue to develop.

WHAT ARE SOME WAYS OF DISTINGUISHING STUDENTS IN TERMS OF ACADEMIC ABILITY?

Obviously, students can be differentiated based on academics, advanced or not.

There are some other ways, for example, I think students can be exceptional

socially: Some kids know how to interact with adults. They are great with other

kids, and really get along with others. They tend to do well on my group projects.

I don’t know if this is recognized at school a lot. Typically, they are expected to sit

down, be good, and listen.

—Mrs. Donald

For better or worse, most teachers probably first think about students being exceptional in terms of their intelligence. They may think of some students as being smarter than others. This really is too simplistic a view. Think about your own academic ability and that of some

© iStock/Melhi

Contrary to what many people have believed, the adult brain has the capacity to continue to learn.


stress and development.


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of your classmates. Some will be better with language arts while others will be better with math or science. Each has strengths in terms of learning certain subjects. There will likely be some other areas where learning is more difficult. Simplistically, we can talk about these differences in terms of intelligence. However, as we describe next, the meaning of the term intelligence is complicated.

In the past there was a tendency to see intelligence as a single score on a special test. For example, when the authors of this textbook were in school we had to take an intelligence quotient (IQ) test, which was the dominant way at that time of determining a student’s ability to learn. Neither we nor our parents were likely to be informed of the results, but schools would group students based on their IQ scores. We and our parents would speculate about our IQ score based on what we thought of the other students in

the same class. Today scholars and teachers consider multiple ways to think about the meaning of intelligence. It can refer to how easy it is for particular students to learn new material. Or it could refer to how much a student knows. Other aspects of intelligence could refer to creativity and problem solving, or one’s ability to be reflective about one’s learning.

Intelligence as One AbilityOver the years psychologists have examined intelligence in many ways and in relation to many types of tasks. Those who view intelligence as a single ability refer to it as general intelligence. This ability entails information processing and would be used with all types of cognitive tasks. However, for any particular tasks there will likely be specific abilities, such as language development, memory, and auditory perception. General intelligence as it relates to learning in school is measured with standardized tests.

The story of how these tests became a part of our system of education dates back to the early 1900s. The Minister of Public Instruction in Paris wanted to determine a way to identify students early on who would need extra help in their schooling. In response, Alfred Binet developed a battery of tests for students between the ages of 3 and 13. Students’ scores on these tests could then be compared with how well other students of the same age had done.

The label of IQ or intelligence quotient was added when the tests were revised at Stanford University, becoming known as the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales. IQ then became a comparison of a student’s score with that of others in the student’s age group, with the score of 100 being the average. Interestingly, in its original forms this test was administered orally, rather than by having students read and write. In general, a higher IQ score does correlate with higher achievement in school. Contrary to what you might think, when the number of years of education and IQ scores are compared with accomplishments as an adult, the correlations are not very high. Other abilities can play a major part in success in the real world.

Multiple Intelligences (MI)As you can quickly see, the construct of intelligence can be very complicated. More than 70 specific abilities have been identified by research psychologists. For teachers, a more useful approach is the Multiple Intelligences (MI) theory of Howard Gardner. Gardner theorized that there are seven abilities or intelligences (Table 3.1). Each person will have strengths in some abilities and weaknesses in others (Gardner, 2011).

Sometimes an effective strategy for increasing

learning is to group students with similar interests and assign

them a special project.

© iStock/nadya Lukic

Video Link 3.3Watch a video to explore the

Stanford-Binet IQ test.

Deeper Look 3.2Read more about

multiple intelligences.


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Gardner’s theory has not been accepted widely by psychologists. However, teachers can use the seven intelligences as a useful framework for seeing each student as exceptional in one or more ways. Students will vary in the degree of ability they have in each of the seven areas. Just as Mrs. Donald pointed out in the interview for this chapter, students will not be equally successful in learning if only one, or two, types of instructional strategies are used.

You can begin by thinking about each student in your class and which of the multiple intelligences are their strengths. As Mrs. Donald observed, when she has a class with more bodily/kinesthetic students she needs to make sure to use instruction and assessment strategies that get them up and moving around.

There are several simple-to-use tests of MI that can be found easily on the Internet. Several of these are free for you to use, as long as you are not copying them for publication. You will immediately see the logic behind each test question: for example, asking whether you have music going on in your head, or if you like to be physically active. Two words of caution in regard to these tests: First, there is little research evidence to support their validity, and second, the responses are simple ratings along a continuum, from low to high. In your teaching, you can more accurately check your students’ intelligences through interviewing and observing them at work and at play.

© Thinkstock images/Comstock/Thinkstock

Musical ability is one of Gardner’s multiple intelligences that teachers can use to increase student learning.

Source: Gardner, H. (2011). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York, NY: Basic Books. Copyright © 2011

Howard Gardner. Reprinted with permission of Basic Books, a member of the Perseus Books Group.

Verbal/Linguistic Intellignece

Involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals.

Logical/Mathematical Intelligence

Consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically.

Visual/Spatial Intelligence Involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more-confined areas.

Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence

Entails the potential of using one’s whole body or parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements.

Musical/Rythmic Intelligence

Involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns.

Interpersonal Intelligence Is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others.

Intrapersonal Intelligence Entails the capacity to understand oneself, and to appreciate one’s feelings, fears, and motivations.

Table 3.1 ● Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple IntelligencesVideo Link 3.4Watch a video about multiple

intelligence theory.

Video Case 3.1Multiple Intelligences and Instructional Strategies

1. In what ways does

Brinden Wohlstattar

incorporate kinesthetic

learning activities into

her instruction? What

are the advantages of

using these strategies?

2. How does Lisa

Sigafoos incorporate

visuals into her

teaching? What are

the benefits of using

these strategies?


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Implications of Academic Abilities for Learning and TeachingClearly intelligence and academic ability are important factors for teachers to consider. But be careful not to think about intelligence as one simple idea or score on a test. In terms of Gardner’s multiple intelligences, each of your students will have a different profile. Many will be excellent at speaking and writing (Verbal/Linguistic), some will be good at understanding mathematics and science (Logical/Mathematical), and others will be fully engaged with music (Musical/Rythmic). Your challenge will be to devise instructional approaches that take advantage of the rich diversity of all your students. Do not teach as your authors regularly find teachers doing: students seated in a block, the teacher standing and talking at the front, short teacher questions followed by right or wrong student answers, and students then completing desk assignments. This might be all right once in a while. Unfortunately, we see too many teachers using only this approach and doing it the same way every day. Exceptional students should have exceptional teachers that take into account student differences.

Using Multiple Intelligences to Develop an Instructional MatchAlthough there are criticisms of Howard Gardner’s MI model, it provides a way of thinking about the importance of teachers matching their instructional approach to the different ways that students learn. There are several free questionnaires on the web that can be used with students to determine which of the multiple intelligences they prefer.

Learning Styles of Students in One ClassPart I:Study the data presented in Table A with this question in mind:

1. What do you see as the overall distribution of students in terms of their learning styles?

Table A Distribution of Student Multiple Intelligences (1 = Low, 5 = High)

StudentVerbal/Linguistic

Logical/Mathematical

Visual/Spatial

Bodily/Kinesthetic

Musical/Rythmic Interpersonal Intrapersonal

Anne 4 5 3 3 4 2 1

Bill 5 4 2 4 5 4 4

Charlie 1 3 4 4 4 5 4

Elizabeth 2 3 1 3 3 3 4

Fran 2 3 2 5 2 3 4

Juan 2 2 3 5 4 5 4

Maria 3 4 1 3 5 4 4

Roberta 2 4 3 2 4 3 2

Do not read farther until you have developed your answer to the question.

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

UNDERSTANDING AND USING EVIDENCE


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Part II:Read the rest of this feature only after you have developed your analysis of the MI distribution in Table A.

One way to summarize the student information is to count how many of the students had high and low scores for each intelligence. For example, in Table B, how many students scored high (4 or 5) and how many students scoredlow (1 or 2) on each intelligence?

Table B High and Low Multiple Intelligences Scores for Students in One Class

NumberVerbal/Linguistic

Logical-Mathematical

Visual/Spatial

Bodily/Kinesthetic

Musical/Rythmic

Inter-personal

Intra-personal

High 5 1 4 1 1 1 2

Low 2 4 1 4 6 4 6

Matching Instruction to MIThe underlying importance of using the MI model is to have teachers think more carefully about the extent to whichtheir instructional strategies match up with their students’ learning styles. When there is a match, there should be greater learning. Now that you have studied the students in Table A, consider the following questions.

1. In developing several weeks of instruction, which styles would you want to strive to match more and which less?

2. What instructional strategies would you use to have a greater match?

Do not read farther until you have developed your answer to these questions.

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

Matching Instruction to MI ScoresOne place to start your lesson planning would be to look for those intelligences where the students scored lowest. Of the eight students, six scored lowest on Musical/Rythmic and Intrapersonal, which would strongly suggest thatmatching instruction to these intelligences would be less likely to be successful.

Five students scored highest on Verbal/Linguistic and four scored highest on Visual/Spatial. Having lessons thatare based in reading, writing, and talking would match up. In this case, having students active and moving aroundwould seem to be less important.

Another important consideration is the subject being taught. These students would be ready for language artsand English classes. However, if these students were in a math class, there would likely be difficulties since only oneindicated that she was Logical/Mathematical. It would be very important to take advantage of the higher scores onVisual/Spatial by using many manipulatives, charts, diagrams, and pictures.

This discussion is only meant to be illustrative. In your teaching it will be important to be aware not only of howyour students score in terms of intelligences, but also how you score. For example, for the students presented here,if you are predominantly Logical/Mathematical you would need to be careful not to have your main approach to instruction always be based in this intelligence.

WHO ARE STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES?

In my 260 students this year, I have 42 with IEPs [Individualized Education Programs]

in my general classes. Kind of a lot to deal with. They have different skills within their

IEPs. Finding ways to include them in what’s going on in class and for them to be an


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active part of it, rather than excusing them from parts of it. I think that something

that is best practice for IEP students is best practice for all students. So, I really try

to teach with that in mind. I am not just making sure they get into the lesson: I am

trying to make it the best for all students. There are students who learn in different

ways. I think there are lots of ways they can get to the same results.

—Mrs. Donald

Thirteen percent of the school population has an identified disability, which is defined as a long-lasting condition such as visual or hearing impairment or a condition that substantially limits basic physical, emotional, or mental activities (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2015). The nation’s Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 (IDEA), originally enacted by Congress as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, was established to make sure that children with disabilities had the opportunity to receive a free and appropriate public education. The law has been revised over the years, with the most recent amendments passed by Congress in December 2004 as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA). IDEA requires that students with disabilities be educated with regular students whenever possible and in as normal an environment as possible. IDEA guides how states and school districts provide special education and related services to 6.4 million eligible children between the ages of 3 and 21.

All teachers are expected to implement the Individualized Education Program (IEP) for each student with identified disabilities in their classrooms. The IEP is developed by parents, teachers, special educators, and other specialists such as a school psychologist or occupational therapist, and indicates the accommodations and special services that must be provided to that student. IEPs will be updated annually.

Providing services to these students usually involves a team of professionals and assistants, depending on the severity of the disability. The special educator may team-teach a class with a regular teacher or serve as a resource teacher who works with students on the development

of skills. Students with severe disabilities such as physical conditions that require feeding tubes should be assigned a teaching or health assistant to help provide the necessary accommodations.

Identifying Students With DisabilitiesYou may be asking yourself, “How does a student get identified as needing special education services?” That process is defined in the IDEA and must be carefully followed. First, a teacher or other education professional can refer a student for an evaluation. Often, a student who is not making progress, even after several different strategies have been tried (see the information on Response to Intervention later in this chapter), is referred for an evaluation. A parent who is concerned about his or her child can also request an evaluation verbally or in writing—the school may not do the

assessment before the parent has given permission.

The evaluation must be completed in a reasonable amount of time after the referral has been made. The child must be assessed in all areas of the suspected disability. For example, a child who may

© iStock/huePhotography

Students with disabilities will likely

need accommodations at least some

of the time.


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have a visual disability would have the appropriate type of vision assessment. A child who may have a learning disability would take assessments designed to evaluate that disability. Once all the assessments have been completed, a group of professionals along with the child’s parents weigh the results and determine if the child meets the definition of a disability as outlined in IDEA.

If the team decides the student meets the criteria, then the student is eligible for special education and related services. Related services refers to services such as speech-language therapy, psychological services, school nurse services, transportation, and/or occupational therapy that are necessary to help a child benefit from special education.

Within 30 calendar days after the determination is made, an IEP team must meet to write an IEP team for the child. To do this, a team of educators, related service personnel, and the parents meet. The student can also be a part of this team if appropriate. The team meets at a time agreeable to the parents and to the school and discusses the child’s assessment results, the child’s progress in school, and any other relevant information. Based on this discussion, the team develops and writes the IEP that includes annual goals for student progress. (See a section later in this chapter for more information about what is included in the IEP.) If the parents do not agree with the IEP, they may go through an appeal process.

The school is responsible for making sure that everything listed in the IEP is carried out. The school must measure the child’s progress toward the annual goals and share that information with the parents.

Categories of DisabilitySchool professionals categorize children with disabilities to determine the most appropriate services for them when they are students. Figure 3.2 shows the number of students being served for the different disabilities. Nearly two in five students receiving special education services have a specific learning disability, which makes it difficult for them to read, write, or compute. The second largest group of students receiving services (about 20%) consists of those with speech or language impairments.

This section provides a very brief introduction to the categories with the largest number of students. You should take at least one course during your teacher preparation program to provide an overview of these disabilities and understand the accommodations necessary to help students with disabilities learn.

Learning DisabilitiesStudents with learning disabilities usually comprehend the material being studied, but it takes them more time or they need a different strategy to access the information. The problem is that they can’t understand or use spoken or written language easily, which affects their ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. These students are in regular classrooms with accommodations, which are purposeful additional supports or adjustments in instruction. Their IEP will specify the accommodations to be used in the classroom and in testing situations. In mathematics, it could allow the student to use a calculator. Student work might be modified with fewer questions or a shorter reading assignment. Extra time may be required to complete an assignment, or the student could be allowed to use a computer for writing assignments.

Speech ImpairmentSpeech impairment is a communication disorder. A student might stutter or be unable to produce certain words or sounds. Some students cannot process language (i.e., they can hear


students with disabilities.


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directions but cannot repeat them), preventing them from following the teacher’s directions for an assignment. Students may be able to comprehend at the same levels as other students, but they may not be able to put their thoughts into words due to difficulties with word retrieval and recall. They may have trouble understanding directional prepositions such as under and above. These students should be receiving support from a speech pathologist. In the regular classroom, teachers may have to allow additional wait time for the student to process the question and to respond to it. Just because these students take extra time for processing or speaking does not mean that they do not comprehend and will not perform well academically.

Intellectual DisabilityStudents with this disability have significant problems in cognitive functioning and in using socially appropriate behaviors for their age. The most severely affected of these students participate in life skills classes to prepare them to function independently as adults. The majority of these students are classified as mildly intellectually disabled and spend most of their school time in regular classrooms. The IEPs for these students require work modified to skill level, more repetition of work, and shorter time periods for work, with breaks built into their schedule.

Emotionally DisturbedStudents who are emotionally disturbed exhibit behaviors that impact their ability to learn, and that cannot be explained by other intellectual, sensory, or health factors. They have trouble maintaining appropriate interpersonal relationships with their classmates and teachers. They may always be unhappy or depressed. They may develop physical symptoms and fears

Figure 3.2 ● Percentage Distribution of Children Ages 3–21 Served Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, Part B, by Disability Type: School Year 2012–13)

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

Specific Learning Disability

Speech or Language Impairment

Other Health Impairment

Autism

Intellectual Disability

Developmental Delay

Emotional Disturbance

Multiple Disabilities

Hearing Impairment

Orthopedic Impairment

Source: Kena, G., Aud, S., Johnson, F., Wang, X., Zhang, J., Rathbun, A., Wilkinson-Flicker, S., & Kristapovich, P. (2014). The condition of

education 2014 (NCES 2014-083). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC.

Note: Deaf-blindness, traumatic brain injury, and visual impairments are not shown because they each account for fewer than 1% of

children served under IDEA. Due to categories not shown, details do not sum to total.


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89Chapter 3 Addressing Learners’ Individual Needs

associated with personal or school problems. The behaviors sometimes manifest themselves in outbursts in the classroom. These students’ behaviors may be evaluated by professionals who may indicate the need for therapy. Many of these students have experienced abuse or family problems, or another traumatic incident that has affected their behavior. Students with severe behavior problems that interfere with their learning and the learning of their classmates may be removed from classrooms until they are stabilized.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)Rather than being a narrow set of factors that can be easily classified, the autism label represents a range of factors and variations in intensities that are referred to as a spectrum. Autism is a developmental disorder that appears in the first years of life. Parents may detect something when their two-year-old has difficulties with social interactions and/or with verbal and nonverbal communication. The child may be slow to develop language and may not play with others. Autism is related to abnormal development of the brain. The causes are not understood at this time, although there are some indications that genetic factors are important. Although vaccines are widely talked about, there is no research evidence that they are a cause of autism.

An early diagnosis is important, and treatment programs are intensive. If school-age children have atypical irritability or aggression, they may need to take a prescription drug. Teachers need to work closely with parents; if the student is in a treatment program, the teacher needs to be sure to know about it and to use complementary strategies in the classroom.

Abi Speaks

Teaching children puts forth new

adventures, delights and challenges every

day. Finding and utilizing the best curriculum

and instructional materials for children is

critical—particularly as they mature and

become fixed in their ways and habits. It

can indeed be difficult for any of us to learn

new material and new ways, but for a child

with ASD [autism spectrum disorder] who is

functionally nonverbal— the word difficult might well be replaced with impossible.

I teach a class specifically designed for

providing intensive instruction to children

with ASD. My students exhibit a range of

interference with communication, social

skills, and academics. Abi, diagnosed with

ASD and functionally nonverbal, radiated

facial expressions of sheer joy when she saw

digital photo stories I created comprised

of her classmates’ photos and voices. The

digital stories utilized creative photoshopped

pictures of the child displayed in a storyboard

format. The child recorded the story line

(which used words from Abi’s reading

vocabulary) over the pictures to produce a

digital story that she could view and hear.

It is important to understand that the child

must be able to speak into the microphone to

create these verbal digital stories!

At the end of the third year of working

on many words with the now 10-year-old

Abi, she could see and say (with some

interference help) the words horse, a, car, and ball. I upped the ante to get a few more

words from Abi by collecting photos of some

of her favorite items and people. I took

pictures of Abi, her toy dog Pete, her mother,

and a few other animals that had made their

way to the class’s show-and-tell (a bunny, a

horse, and a skink, which is a type of lizard).

Teachers’ Lounge

© Julie J. Conn

(Continued)


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Other DisabilitiesThese categories include students who are blind, deaf, deaf/blind, or who have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), physical impairments, seizure disorders, or cerebral palsy. The number of students in these categories has more than tripled since 1991 (NCES, 2014). This growth may be due to the greater move toward inclusion of all students with disabilities in regular classrooms. Another reason may be the increased knowledge and research that have led to more diagnoses of many disabilities, especially ADHD. These students should be part of the regular classroom as much as possible. Students with the most severe disabilities may receive much of their instruction in a special education classroom and join students without disabilities at lunch and during specials such as music, art, and physical education. The multiple disabilities included in this group are more likely to be determined by medical evidence than by other forms of evaluation.

How Do Schools Serve Students With Disabilities?Students with disabilities will be in your classroom. A critical factor in working with them effectively is to remember that they are more like regular students than unlike them. However, you are likely to have to make accommodations to promote their learning. Some will be challenged to learn quickly, while others will have been formerly identified as having some type of disability. They will have a formal IEP. Students with IEPs may have extra support, such as an aide. There also will be a special education resource teacher with whom you will consult regularly.

The school should have special educators available to advise you on the implementation of students’ IEPs. One of the problems is that most schools have not been designed for some of the needed accommodations. Whiteboards are too high and desks too low for students in

This is where I must tell you that Abi’s mother

had never heard Abi call her Mom, or any

other name, for that matter. The closest Abi

had come to saying Mom was an “mmm”

sound! We worked day after day on trying

to have Abi say the correct word with each

picture. I promised Abi she could make a

photo story if she would keep working hard to

voice out and pronounce the words.

Finally, the day came when I thought I

could get a controlled voice from Abi! I

arranged the photos in no particular order

in the digital photo story web tool and sat

Abi in front of the microphone. She looked

at each picture and excitedly spoke one

by one: “me,” “Momma,” “Pete”! The first

three words were absolutely beautiful! She

continued to do her best to say “bunny,”

“horse,” “lizard,” “skink,” and “The End.”

We projected the story on the whiteboard

screen, and the whole class watched as Abi

spoke! Abi watched the children and was

excited at their reactions. What an amazing

postproduction party we had!

Abi went home from school. In the course of

the evening she looked at her mother, and

said, “Momma.” I know this because her

mother, in tears, immediately called to share

the historic event! Abi’s mother had waited

more than ten years to hear that word!

“Never give up the dream.” As a teacher

you are charged to find just the right

ingredients to make sure each child grows

and flourishes!

Abi’s photo story can be seen at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w5GNEZRiOmE.

Julie J. ConnExceptional Children

Sugarloaf Elementary

(Continued)


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wheelchairs, and ramps are not always available. Computers, amplification devices, books in Braille, and other educational resources will provide students with disabilities the opportunity to learn at the same level as other students.

InclusionInclusion is the integration of students with disabilities into the regular classroom. The goal is to have students with disabilities in regular education as much as possible with as much interaction with the regular teacher as possible. Students with disabilities and without disabilities are in the same class, but they do not always do the same work, depending on the nature and severity of the disability. Teaching and medical assistants may be assigned to work on skills development and accommodations with the students with disabilities in the classroom. Special educators may provide services to the students at defined times during the school day.

About 95% of school-age students with disabilities in 2012–13 were enrolled in regular schools. In full inclusion, students with disabilities and other special needs receive all of their education in the regular classroom; they are never found in segregated settings with only other students with disabilities. In reality, three in five students with disabilities spend most of their school days in regular classrooms, receiving special instruction or services from special educators, a speech-language pathologist, a school nurse, or a school psychologist. Students who are most likely to be placed in segregated classes are students with intellectual disabilities and students with multiple disabilities (NCES, 2015).

However, students should not be pulled out of the regular classroom during language arts and mathematics lessons. For example, if students are pulled out during reading instruction to be tutored in reading, they are not getting more reading instruction. Instead, they are receiving alternative reading instruction. Because music, art, and physical education classes also provide the opportunity to develop social skills with students without disabilities, students with disabilities are almost always integrated into these classes.

Some people question whether there is a negative impact on general education students when students with disabilities are included in their classrooms. In an analysis of more than 100 research articles focused on this issue, one group of researchers found that in the overwhelming majority of cases (81%), there were either positive or neutral effects for students without disabilities (Kalambouka, Farrell, Dyson, & Kaplan, 2007). In a recent study, Fruth and Woods (2015) found that there was no significant difference in the performance of students without disabilities in inclusive classrooms than in noninclusive environments in reading, science, and social studies. Interestingly, students without disabilities scored significantly higher in noninclusive math classes.

Individualized Education Programs (IEPs)Earlier in this chapter we described how students are identified as needing special education services and described the process for developing an IEP. The purpose of an IEP is to set reasonable learning goals for a child, and to clearly state the services that the school district will provide for the child. Because it is individualized, each IEP is unique, but all IEPs contain certain types of information, including (but not limited to) the following:

� The child’s present level of educational performance (sometimes called PLOP or PLP). This section describes how the student is performing in school and includes information on districtwide and statewide testing. It explains how the disability impacts the student’s ability to learn the general education curriculum and handle functional activities such as socializing.

Deeper Look 3.3Read about preservice

teachers’ preparation

for inclusion.

Audio Link 3.1Learn more about

inclusion in schools.


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� Annual goals for the child. Team members decide what they think the child can reasonably accomplish in a year. These goals should be realistic and measurable.

� The special education and related services to be provided to the child, including supplementary aids and services (such as a communication device or speech therapy).

� A description of the accommodations or modifications that will be provided to the student. Accommodations are changes in how a child shows what he has learned. Modifications are changes in what is taught to or expected of a student. (For more information about accommodations and modifications, see the next section of this chapter.)

� How much of the school day the child will be educated separately from nondisabled children or will not participate in extracurricular or other nonacademic activities such as lunch or clubs. IDEA requires participation at the fullest level possible. This is called the least restrictive environment (LRE).

� How (and if) the child is to participate in statewide and districtwide assessments, including what modifications to tests the child needs.

� When services and modifications will begin, how often they will be provided, where they will be provided, and how long they will last.

� How school personnel will measure the child’s progress toward the annual goals and how they will inform parents of their child’s progress.

� When a student turns 16, the IEP must include a plan for postgraduate transition. The transition plan outlines the services that will be provided to the student to help him or her graduate from high school and achieve post–high school goals.

A student’s IEP is reviewed by the IEP team at least once a year, but it can be reviewed more frequently if the parents or school asks for a review. The same process for the initial development of the IEP must be followed when it is reviewed.

At least every three years the child must be reevaluated. This evaluation is often called a triennial, and includes the same kinds of assessments used in the original determination evaluation. The purpose of the triennial is to find out if the child continues to be a “child with a disability,” as defined by IDEA, and what the child’s educational needs are. However, the child must be reevaluated more often if conditions warrant or if the child’s parent or teacher asks for a new evaluation.

Accommodations and ModificationsA critical component of special education is the individualization of instruction to meet the specific needs of each student. Different terms are used to describe changes that may be made—accommodations and modifications are the most commonly used terms to describe ways that instruction may be changed so that children with disabilities can be successful. These terms are often used interchangeably, although there are some differences in their meanings.

In general, an accommodation refers to a change that helps a student work around or overcome a disability. The change is in how a child does his or her work at school, not in what is being taught. For example, a student who is deaf may have an interpreter in the classroom, signing so that the student always understands and is a part of what is happening in the classroom. A modification, however, refers to changes in what a student is taught or expected to learn. For example, a modification for a student with a mental impairment could be changing an assignment to make it less demanding and more appropriate for the student’s ability level.

Video Link 3.6Watch a video of an

IEP meeting.


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Modifications or accommodations are generally made in the following five areas:

Scheduling. For example,

� Giving the student extra time to complete assignments or tests,

� Allowing the student to take frequent breaks, or

� Breaking up testing over several days.

Setting. For example,

� Working in a small group,

� Working one on one with the teacher,

� Providing special lighting, or

� Allowing the student to use a separate room or place to study.

Materials. For example,

� Providing audiotaped lectures or books,

� Giving the student copies of teacher’s lecture notes, or

� Using large-print books, Braille, or books on CD (digital text).

Instruction. For example,

� Using more than one way to demonstrate or explain information,

� Reducing the difficulty of assignments,

� Reducing the reading level,

� Using a student/peer tutor, or

� Providing study guides or review sheets.

Student Response. For example,

� Allowing answers to be given orally or dictated,

� Using a word processor for written work,

� Using sign language, a communication device, Braille, or native language if it is not English, or

� Using a modified answer sheet.

What is most important to know about modifications and accommodations is that both are meant to help children improve their learning.

Parental InvolvementWe know that one of the most effective means of helping students succeed is to engage families in their student’s education. This is even more important when a student has a disability. Parents of students with disabilities must be involved with school professionals in the process of determining the best treatment for their children. Classroom teachers need to work closely with all the parents.

In a survey of parents of special education students, parents indicated that, for the most part, they were satisfied with their students’ educational experiences, especially with the special education services received and the efforts made by their schools to keep them informed (Newman, 2005a). Families of most students with disabilities were very involved in supporting their children’s educational development at home, especially through homework support—more so than

Audio Link 3.2Hear about parental

involvement in schools.


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parents of students without disabilities. Parents’ involvement with the school included attending meetings, parent–teacher conferences, supporting classroom activities, and volunteering. Many families of youths with disabilities hold high expectation for the children’s future success, which has been shown to relate to higher engagement and achievement among these students (Newman, 2005b).

Disproportionate PlacementContinuing concerns exist about the overidentification of students with disabilities that is based on the students’ ethnicity or family background. For example, students receiving special education services are disproportionately male, African American, Latino, American Indian, English language learners (ELLs), or whites from low-income families (NCES, 2010). Of students in special education, 15% are African American as compared with 6% who are Asian American (NCES, 2014). White and Asian American students are overrepresented in gifted classes (Yoon & Gentry, 2009). Educators should monitor their consideration of making referrals of students to be tested for placement in these classes to be sure that there is a clear learning need and that there is not an underlying bias of some sort.

Response to Intervention (RTI)When you visit classrooms, it is likely that you will see students performing at different levels; some will be struggling. There will be a variety of reasons—maybe they have had a lot of absences, maybe they have learning difficulties, maybe they are ELLs—and maybe they haven’t had consistent teaching. For whatever reason, they are beginning to fall behind. A strategy called Response to Intervention (RTI) or Response to Instruction (RTI) has been implemented in many schools as a strategy for identifying these students and to help them before they get too far behind. This process can also prevent many of these students from being identified as needing special education services when that is not the case.

The RTI process begins with screening of all children in a regular classroom. Interventions are provided to struggling learners at increasing levels of intensity (often called tiers). Progress is carefully monitored and based on individual student response to the intervention.

In the earliest or lower tier of RTI, many students who may be having some difficulties will be given small interventions. Most of these students will improve and no other interventions are needed. However, if they don’t show progress, a more intensive set of interventions will be applied. For those small number of students who still do not show progress, additional interventions will be administered. Often, but not always, these will be done through special education services.

Although there are many ways to implement RTI in a school and classroom, its purpose is to make sure that each student is evaluated individually, that struggling students are identified early, and that all students receive what they need to be successful in school. We will describe RTI more fully in Chapter 13.

WHAT ARE SOME OF THE MOST COMMON WAYS OF CATEGORIZING STUDENTS?

Before I got my teaching job at Vista Heights, I was out of a job for a year. History

teaching jobs are hard to come by. In the meantime, I got a job doing what they call

academic coaching at another junior high. That is where I got to work with students

more on a one-on-one basis. If they were failing their classes, I would pull them


parent and family

engagement in education.


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out. I would help them figure out what it was in

their habits or their previous schooling that was

preventing them from getting good grades.

—Mrs. Donald

Another all-too-frequently used strategy for characterizing students is to label them as being representative of a certain stereotypic group: “She should be in the GATE [gifted and talented education] program.” “He is homeless. You know he’s living in a car!” Other students will be labeled as at risk, or as having limited English proficiency, or for having an IEP. All too often these labels are used as rationalization for a student not doing well in school. At the same time, these labels represent another set of categories that can be useful in considering ways that each student is exceptional. Let’s review some of these labels in relation to how they can help us see each student as exceptional.

The following is a brief introduction to some of the major categories. Others, such as ELL, have been introduced in other chapters, so we won’t return to them here. As your teaching career unfolds, you will discover that your colleagues, as well as administrators, researchers, and policymakers, are always creating new stereotypic categories. Be careful not to be trapped into seeing any of these as more than superficial generalizations. In other words, while learning about some of these commonly used categories you need to be mindful of not using them as excuses for why some students are not learning.

One of the authors of this text had an experience related to this type of simplistic labeling. While studying implementation of a standards-based approach to teaching mathematics in one of the U.S. Department of Defense school districts (based in Germany), he heard teachers refer to “those Abrahams children.” Several teachers went on to exclaim, “Well, you know those kids can’t learn this way.” Not knowing if these children were from a particular part of Germany, or who they were, the author asked a colleague to explain who/what were Abrahams kids. It turns out that there is a type of armored vehicle that is called the Abrahams tank. Some teachers had decided that the children of the military personnel who worked with these tanks were not as able to learn through a standards-based approach. They were categorized as being less able to learn simply because of the work of their parents.

Socioeconomic Status (SES) as a Way to See Each Student as ExceptionalTeachers need to be very careful to not have low academic expectations for students because their families are poor. Although there are identified characteristics of low-, middle-, and high-income families as a group, teachers should be very careful in applying these stereotypes to individual students. From the very first day of their school experience, expectations are set. Too often, for example, the middle- and upper-class kids are expected to go to college. The same expectation is not presented to poor students, or those who have recently arrived from another country. They are not picked to lead groups and are not encouraged to participate in

© Martha Campbell


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extracurricular activities. It appears to be an unspoken assumption that these students are being prepared to take the jobs that most other people are unwilling to take.

At the same time, there are some very real differences in students based on class and culture. The excellent teacher seizes on these differences as keys for helping each student learn, rather than as reasons to discount each student’s potential. This is not meant to say that students will not have deficits: they most certainly will. This is true regardless of class and culture. Students of higher socioeconomic status (SES) will have learning challenges, as will students from lower SES. It is the job of the teacher to identify needs, deficits, and keys to learning for each student

and to address these in ways that lead to each student learning the most. Several of the themes about differences based in social class and culture are highlighted next.

Gifted and Talented Education (GATE)One of the major challenges facing each teacher, school, and community—as well as the nation—is how to enhance learning for the brightest students. In a recent synthesis of surveys of teachers reported by the National Association for Gifted Children (n.d.), the pattern is clear. The more able children are not receiving the learning opportunities they need. Four major themes were identified:

1. Academically advanced students are not a priority at their schools.

2. Curriculum is not appropriately challenging for advanced students.

3. Teachers are not trained to meet the needs of advanced students.

4. There is a lack of accountability and reporting.

Responses to some of the survey items illustrate the seriousness of the problem. For example, “Seventy-seven percent of teachers agree that getting underachieving students to reach proficiency has become so important that the needs of advanced students take a back seat.” This condition is likely a direct consequence of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (2002), which focused schools singularly on bringing up the test scores of low-achieving students. Schools were not sanctioned if the performance of students at grade level did not increase.

Only 10% of teachers report that “advanced students are likely to be taught with curriculum and instruction specially designed for their abilities.” Here is another opportunity for you as a teacher to have joy in your teaching. Be sure to implement instructional approaches that engage and challenge the gifted students in your class.

What do you think happens when gifted students are not challenged? Surprisingly, many of them drop out of school. Researchers have identified several predictors for gifted student dropout (Landis & Reschly, 2013). Study the Challenging Assumptions box to learn about the findings from these studies.

Each student brings a unique set of

knowledge and experiences to the

classroom that can be used to enrich learning.

© iStock/Aldo Murillo

Video Link 3.8Watch a video about gifted

and talented students.


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Struggling Students

Students have so many things they are dealing with. Maybe sometimes

I know, maybe sometimes I don’t. When students are having trouble at school, it

is not always due to academics. There could be a lot of other things going on in

their lives. If teachers don’t recognize that, or don’t think about that, it is almost

a disservice to their students. They are people too. Yes, they are kids, but

they are also people. They have emotions, feelings, and things they have to

deal with.

—Mrs. Donald

There will be times as a teacher when you will have a student who should be learning, but is not. This can be perplexing and frustrating. Based on what the student has done in the past, you are certain that she or he should be doing well now, but something has changed. Students can be struggling for many reasons. If adjusting instruction doesn’t work, then you need to look farther afield.

Challenging AssumptionsAre gifted students at less risk of dropping out?

The Assumption

Much has been written about the risk of students from lower SES backgrounds dropping out of school. They have more limited vocabulary. They are likely to have less support from family members. Expectations will be lower about the possibility of their going to college. Gifted students certainly are smart enough to do well in school, so it would seem that they are less likely to drop out. Of those that do drop out, are their reasons the same or different from the reasons for the less academically able?

Researchers have identified some common experiences of gifted students who later drop out of school (Landis & Reschley, 2013). These students report being bored in school; they are often put in classes that are not challenging and filled with busy work that is “intellectually insulting.” They report they sleep in class, do a poor job on

homework and class assignments, and are likely to skip class and have higher absentee rates. It is not surprising that these students also have more behavior problems and spend time with other students who drop out, and who use illegal drugs and alcohol. Many students feel as if they don’t fit in at school.

Implications

The first very important implication for teachers is to not assume that just because one of your students is bright, she or he will not be at risk of dropping out. In some ways the indicators of being at risk that have been identified for regular students seem to apply for gifted students. Developing supportive relationships, knowing family backgrounds, and establishing a classroom climate that is safe will be effective for all of your students.

Source: Landis, R., & Reschly, A. (2013). Reexamining gifted underachievement and dropout through the lens of student engagement. Journal for the Education

of the Gifted, 36(2), 220–249.

Audio Link 3.3Learn more about programs

for underachieving students.


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Some students struggle due to not having the required prior knowledge. Students who are new to the school, or new to your classroom, may not know how things are done here and struggle. In other cases a family situation such as a parent losing a job can be a cause. Students from low-income families may struggle not only because they are poor, but perhaps also because they are being pressured by fellow students from more economically well-off families. At some time most students will struggle. When you detect that a student is struggling, you should strive to find out what’s going on.

Effective teachers believe that all students can learn and do not give up on students. You will have to be careful not to stereotype the academic ability of students based on their race, SES, gender, or the presence of a disability.

At the same time there are some very real differences in the experiences of students based on the gaps in the opportunities they have been provided. A good teacher seizes on these differences as keys to helping each student learn, rather than as levers that discount a student’s potential. Most students will face some academic or other challenges as they progress through school regardless of their cultural memberships. It is the job of the teacher to know when students are struggling and to intervene as soon as possible to help them get back on track.

The Importance of VocabularyA major theme in neuroscience is the critical importance of the first five years in a child’s development (see Figure 3.1). Researchers in other fields have identified related patterns that are important indicators of a child’s cognitive development that also are indicators of their readiness for school. One of the most important of these is vocabulary.

The findings from studies about the size of vocabulary of young children are summarized in Table 3.2. The overall patterns and themes that emerge from these studies are profound. Children in extreme poverty families are exposed to significantly fewer words than are children in working-class families. The number of words heard doubles again for children in professional-class families. Keep in mind that these studies are for groups of children. The findings may, or may not, apply to each of the students you teach, even if they fall in a particular economic category.

Look at the last column in Table 3.2. The accumulating effect is that across the first four years of life, children from higher economic classes generally hear millions of words more than their peers from low-income families. This is a characteristic of how each of your students is exceptional that requires you to develop in-depth understanding about how best to design instruction. Please keep in mind that the implications of these differences apply all the way through high school. It is not only teachers in elementary schools who need to consider size of vocabulary. Secondary teachers also need to be aware of differences in vocabulary size and be sure to address development of academic vocabulary within each lesson. Based on these data, one important question is, “What could society and educators do to dramatically increase the vocabulary of students who have not had opportunities to develop the vocabulary that is necessary for academic success in schools and the economy?”

Take a close look at Table 3.2. The significant differences in the quantity of words heard is not the only pattern in the data. Depending on family economic status, there are significant

All students will struggle at times.

Teachers need to be ready to reach out

with support and encouragement.

© iStock/monkeybusinessimages

Video Case 3.2Addressing Learners’ Individual Needs

1. Make a list of at

least 20 different

strategies these

teachers identified for

addressing all learners.

2. What are indicators

of understanding

these teachers look

for in their students?

3. What can teachers

learn from parents

that will help their

students learn?


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differences in what is said to children. Distinctions are made between affirmations—offering positive comments and supports—and prohibitions—that is, rebukes, or telling the child not to do something. Notice how the proportions of affirmations and prohibitions change across the three family statuses. The quantity changes, but the real significance is that the ratio changes—prohibitions are a relatively small proportion of the words heard by children in the professional families. We need to ensure these patterns do not continue in our interactions with students in classrooms.

You might think that even if some students begin school with a more limited vocabulary they will catch up. Unfortunately, the vocabulary gap based on family status does not shrink as students move through elementary school. Instead it increases. It is estimated that a child’s vocabulary doubles between grades 3 and 7. The problem is that if some third-grade students begin the year with a vocabulary size that is half of that of others, doubling it does not lead to their catching up. Instead, they are falling farther behind.

An obvious implication from the data presented in Table 3.2 is that you will need to be cautious in making predictions about the size and type of vocabulary your students will bring to your classroom. Regardless of family status, your students will each have heard a different quantity of words. They also will have heard words of different quality. It will be very important for you to estimate the size of vocabulary each of your students brings to class.

Those of you who plan to teach in middle and high school cannot escape the vocabulary gap and its consequences. Students who leave elementary school with half the size of vocabulary of their peers will most certainly have trouble keeping up when they are in high school. Without adequate vocabulary size, students cannot solve mathematics problems, read literature, or engage in safe science laboratory investigations. All teachers need to post key vocabulary for each lesson and need to continually work on reducing the vocabulary gap.

Here is an example of a successful strategy used by one high school: One year in a high school in Douglas County, Colorado, all of the teachers agreed to work together on increasing the vocabulary size of all their students. A list of words was established for each week, and all the teachers engaged in helping students understand and use the words. They did this because the previous year students scored lower on the verbal part of the SAT than the staff thought they should. What do you think happened? Yes, the following year SAT verbal scores were up.

Table 3.2 ● Vocabulary Development in the Early Years

In a typical hour, the average child hears:

Family StatusActual Differences in Quantity of Words Heard

Actual Differences in Quality of Words Heard Words Heard in 4 Years

Welfare 616 words 5 affirmations, 11 prohibitions

13 million

Working class 1,251 words 12 affirmations, 7 prohibitions

26 million

Professional 2,153 words 32 affirmations, 5 prohibitions

45 million

Source: Adapted from tables in University of Oregon. (n.d.). Big ideas in beginning reading. Center on Teaching and Learning, University of Oregon, Eugene.


the vocabulary gap.


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Students at RiskAnother major grouping of students is those who are at risk. Behind the label is the suggestion that for one reason or another these are students who may fall behind in learning, have fallen behind, and/or are at risk of dropping out of school. For you as a teacher, this is another way that some of your students may be exceptional: they are at risk of dropping out.

The reasons come right back to the ways outlined in this chapter and the importance of seeing each student as exceptional. For example, students from low-income families are more likely to be at risk. Students who move a lot and do not stay in one school are at risk. Students in schools where there is not physical and/or cultural safety are at risk. Very bright students may be bored with the level of assignments. Family issues, threats in their communities, missing meals, and health problems also can place students at risk.

A key time of risk is when there are transitions from one school to the next. The move from elementary school to junior high/middle school is a risky time, as is the transition to high school. One of the authors was working with a high school in California that was able to identify 108 students who disappeared between the spring of eighth grade and the following fall’s beginning of ninth grade. No one had any idea what had happened to those students.

This anecdote illustrates a related major concern: the high school graduation rate. Depending on which statistic is used, across the United States one-third or more of the students who begin high school fail to graduate. However, do not assume that only secondary teachers are responsible for preventing kids from dropping out. As you will read here, it is in the elementary and middle school years where much of the problem begins.

Dropping Out: Early Warning IndicatorsMany opinions are offered to explain why the graduation rate is not increasing, and many solutions are proposed for fixing the problem. Most of these address some characteristic of schools (“High schools are too large”), blame someone else (“Well, if they had learned to read in elementary school we wouldn’t have this problem”), or advocate a particular solution (e.g., small learning communities, homeschooling, more/less technology). The contributing factors can be different for each student; however, for students in general there are several predictors that you should keep in mind.

Sixth-Grade Students at Risk. Researchers at Johns Hopkins University have identified four indicators that predict a student’s potential to not graduate on time. The study was done by examining the records of students in the Philadelphia public schools. The records of the students were studied from the time they were in sixth grade until one year after high school graduation (Neild & Balfanz, 2006).

The researchers identified four indicators that if in place for sixth-grade students would likely lead to their not graduating from high school on time:

� Attending school 80% or less of the time

� Receiving a poor final behavior mark

� Failing math

� Failing English

Deeper Look 3.4Read about factors related

to students dropping

out of high school.


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You might think that students would need to score poorly on a combination of these four indicators to be at risk. However, the researchers concluded that a sixth-grade student with any one of the four indicators has only a 10% to 20% chance of graduating high school with his or her peers.

High School Students at Risk. Recent research shows that ninth grade is a make-or-break year—as stated earlier, this is an important transition year. More students fail ninth grade than any other grade in high school, and the students who are held back are more likely to drop out. Research in large urban school districts has shown that there are two powerful indicators of whether a student will complete high school (Heppen & Therriault, 2009). The first is course performance, including course credits earned and course grades. For example, first-year high school students in Chicago Public Schools are considered on track if they earn at least five full-year course credits and earn no more than one F in one semester in a core course. On-track students are more than three and a half times more likely than students who are off track to graduate from high school in four years.

The second most powerful indicator is attendance rate. Even moderate levels of absences (one to two weeks in the first semester of high school) were associated with lower rates of high school graduation. The biggest risk factor for failing ninth grade is the number of absences during the first 30 days of high school (Heppen & Therriault, 2009).

First-Grade Students at Risk. Identification of indicators of students at risk of dropping out are now being identified as early as the end of first grade. For example, the Montgomery County (Maryland) school district has examined data related to students who were in the district’s schools from first grade to high school graduation. For the class of 2011, they identified 523 students who had dropped out (West, 2013). They identified four indicators:

� Overall GPA of 1.2 (a grade of D)

� Below-grade level in reading and/or math

� Suspended one or more times (in or out of school)

� Absent from a class three or more times

Keep in mind that these are data from a more-affluent school district. In schools with more poverty, more ELL students, and fewer school and community resources, each of these factors is likely to be even more impactful. An important implication is that as early as first grade, teachers have a responsibility to be sensitive to the risks of their students dropping out in the future. Reducing the risk of students dropping out is not something that can be left solely to high school teachers and administrators.

District and State Early Warning Systems. A number of states, as well as many schools and school districts, are now tracking these kinds of indicators to develop an early warning system to identify students who are at risk of dropping out. With this information, teachers and administrators hopefully can intervene in effective ways to make it more likely that all students will graduate from school.

Twice Exceptional (2e)Yes, there are many factors and categories that teachers can use to see each of their students as exceptional individuals. In chapter 2 and throughout this chapter, concepts,


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models, indicators, and research findings have been introduced for seeing each student as an individual. More than likely each student represents a unique combination of these factors and categories. One such case is the student who is gifted in one area, such as mathematics, and at the same time is behind in reading, or can’t sit still. These students are twice exceptional or 2e. They are academically able in some areas, and they also have an identifiable disability. Often teachers fail to understand that just because Sarah is quick to understand a science concept doesn’t mean that she can easily manage her attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

WHAT IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING ARISE FROM SEEING EACH STUDENT AS EXCEPTIONAL?The concepts, descriptions, and study findings we’ve discussed in this chapter make it clear that students can be exceptional in many different ways. Each of these descriptions and categories can be helpful guides for teachers to teach in ways that greatly increase student learning. At the same time, overuse of labels and making simplistic generalizations can be harmful. We always need to keep in mind that generalities will not nicely fit each individual student. For example, gifted students can be at risk, and ELL students can excel. There are many possible factors that can contribute to each student succeeding or failing to achieve at grade level and with each subject. Also, just because a student is experiencing one or more of the risk factors does not guarantee she or he will be a failure.

You as the teacher will be making the difference. You as a teacher need to use all of the indicators, possible disabilities, SES, GATE, performance in earlier grades, and your own observations and assessments to identify the different ways that each student is exceptional. Regardless of their entering profile, it is your job to devise ways to match instruction with each student’s ways of learning. Outstanding teachers will be aware of each student’s potential, as well as any at-risk indicators. They will use all of these concepts and insights as information to help construct a classroom learning environment that is safe and centered on everyone’s learning.

One way to think about your classroom is to consider its climate (Thapa et al., 2013). Climate studies measure the practices and norms. For example, are there many specific rules for students to follow, or do students have more autonomy? Are there consistent applications of rules, or is there very relaxed interpretation of rules and expectations? A related term for describing the overall feel of a classroom or school is culture.

Culture of the ClassroomEach classroom has its own feel. Even a quick walk-through leaves an impression of the role of students and teachers, and what is important in this classroom and the school. What is displayed on the bulletin boards, the seating arrangement, the sounds, who is talking, and what they are talking about are indicators of the role of students and the importance of learning. These characteristics are related to school and classroom climate.

Indications of What’s ImportantSome classrooms will be overflowing with posters, charts, bulletin boards, and book displays. Other classrooms will be barren. Before judging these different classrooms, it is important


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to discover the meaning behind each. One easy starting point for understanding the full classroom is to examine the source of the displays. Are the displays primarily the teacher’s? Or are they primarily the work of the students? The meaning of the fullness will be different depending on the answer to this question. You could also check to see which subject(s) is represented. In elementary schools aspects of language arts most certainly will be on display. But is there equal representation of mathematics? Are there any indications of science or the performing arts?

In many high school classrooms there are apt to be only a few posters or charts on display. Here, too, what about student work? In the science classroom are there clear signs related to lab safety? Are there any symbols to suggest that one content area can be related to another? For example, are there writing activities in physical education, or do English classes connect with mathematics problems?

The Meaning in the SymbolsThere are many other aspects of classroom culture. Another that is important has to do with norms of student behavior. Is the teacher addressed as Ms., Mr., Mrs., Dr., or by first name? Speaking of symbols, how is the teacher dressed? Jeans and scuffed-up shoes give one meaning. Men wearing ties and women dressing professionally yield a very different meaning. When one of the authors was teaching high school science, all the science teachers wore white lab coats. There could be lots of meanings and interpretations related to this symbol.

Important Classroom CharacteristicsThe research related to classroom culture offers some guidance to teachers. As you would expect, certain characteristics of the classroom environment are associated with higher levels of student learning. Classrooms that are perceived to have greater cohesion, clear goals, and less disorganization and conflict are associated with greater student learning (Freiberg, 1999). Interestingly, these characteristics of classroom culture appear to be more important for low-income students, which again points out the interconnectedness of all the factors.

Safe and Caring Classroom EnvironmentAnother important consideration for you as a teacher will be safety in your classroom. There are two major components to classroom safety: physical and cultural. Physical safety is about the potential for students (and you as a teacher) to be injured. Accidents can happen at any moment. Teachers need to organize their classrooms in order to prevent injuries. They also need to be prepared to respond if an injury occurs.

© Jupiter images/brand X pictures/thinkstock

Teachers must be vigilant in their monitoring for safety in their classrooms and throughout the school.


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Begin by checking your classroom for the placement of wastebaskets, electrical cords, uneven carpet, open desk drawers, situations where students might be tempted to climb, stacks that could fall on students, and access to dangerous materials such as scissors. As a teacher you are responsible for the physical safety of your students.

There is another type of classroom safety that you may have not thought as much about—cultural safety. Cultural safety is based in the unique background and experiences that each student brings to the classroom. A classroom is culturally safe when each student feels safe in terms of being who he or she is. There is shared respect, there is learning together, and the teacher and students listen to each other.

There are several elements that you can employ in developing cultural safety. One obvious method is to incorporate instructional strategies that reduce language barriers. With so many students coming to school speaking languages other than English, an important step is to use strategies that do not isolate them. Leaving non- or limited-English-speaking students out of instruction has to be avoided. Instead think about strategies that can take advantage of the other language. For example, engage yourself and your students in learning the other language by listing key vocabulary on the board in both languages. Have other students help the limited- English student to understand and accomplish instructional tasks.

Other elements to consider in ensuring cultural safety include anticipating and respecting religious differences, holidays, and the many different symbols of respect and disrespect. As you should be aware, in different cultures the same action or symbol can have very different meanings. For example, in some cultures eye-to-eye contact is avoided. In others you do not touch a person with the left hand. In the Chinese culture teachers are held in very high regard. The dates of major holidays will be different. All of these values and related symbols can be important resources for you to help each student learn.

Bullying Can Come in Two WaysAnother component of the classroom environment is the many ways that students can be victims of bullying. You probably already have in mind the first way that bullying occurs, which is some threat to physical safety. We have become more aware of incidents such as students hitting and shoving others, and their damaging books and clothing of other students. There also are the unsafe toilet areas and the gang fights after school.

However, don’t forget about the other major type of safety—cultural. Students can be bullied based on their clothing, their limited skill in speaking English, or their being “too white” or too much of a “geek.” Jocks often bully band members, or vice versa. When any of these types of bulling occur, students will feel less safe, and less learning will take place.

Implications of Class and Culture for Teaching and LearningEach of your students in some ways will be exceptional within each of the elements of culture and the various situations that have been introduced in this section. As a teacher you will need to establish ways of respecting these differences while at the same time reflecting on how each can be used as a resource to help each student learn. In other words, as a teacher one of your tasks is to create a learning-centered classroom culture. This means that the students feel safe physically and in terms of their culture. The learning-centered classroom culture is one of respect. In the learning-centered classroom there is a shared belief in the importance of having


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all students learn. Table 3.3 provides a list of suggestions that you can use to check on the extent to which the culture in your classroom is learning centered.

An Example of Using Student ExperienceOne neat example of linking students’ cultural background to instruction can be seen in the movie Stand and Deliver (Musca & Menéndez, 1988). This movie is about an exceptional high school math teacher, Jaime Escalante. Mr. Escalante was teaching algebra in a high school in East Los Angeles. An important instructional tactic is to use metaphors. In other words, to use something in the students’ background of experiences that can be connected to the content of a lesson. In the movie Mr. Escalante is explaining negative numbers. He uses the metaphor of going to the beach and lifting up a handful of sand. This leaves a hole in the sand, and he has the equivalent amount of sand in his hand. In other words this action illustrates minus one.

This metaphor works with these students since there is a cultural match. The students have had related experiences (going to the beach), and it is an accurate representation of the concept being taught. Too often teachers use examples and metaphors that their students have not experienced. One that may help illustrate the problem of mismatches with you is the platypus. Assuming you have never seen a platypus, how big do you think one is? The size of a medium-sized dog? Bigger still? Or do you think platypuses are very small? Actually they are much smaller than most think, perhaps 12 to 18 inches long. The point here is that

Table 3.3 ● Elements and Characteristics of a Learning-Centered Classroom Culture

Physical Safety

1. Chairs, electrical cords, drawers, and other items will not trip students.

2. Supplies and tools, such as scissors, are stored in appropriate containers and kept in secure locations.

3. Chemicals and other dangerous materials are stored in secure areas. This is especially critical for science classrooms and labs.

4. Immediate emergency aid supplies are readily available.

5. Appropriate levels of lighting cover all areas of the classroom.

6. Classroom safety rules are posted.

7. The physical environment is attractive and supports learning.

Cultural Safety

1. There is a welcoming and caring atmosphere.

2. Students have a say in planning for instruction.

3. There is a shared respect for differences in religious views, holidays, and dress.

4. Instruction takes into account the unique knowledge and experiences of each student.

5. Metaphors and examples are based in student knowledge and experiences.

6. There is not only hope, but also a clear expectation that each student can and will learn.

7. Student work is shared and displayed.


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106 Part I� �Today’s Teachers, Students, and Schools106 Part I� �Today’s Teachers, Students, and Schools

you need to carefully select examples and metaphors so that they match the background and knowledge of your students.

Constructing a Learning-Centered Environment Is an Important ChallengeDeveloping a classroom culture that facilitates positive relationships between students and teachers, and between students, is a process. Classrooms that are learning centered have been constructed through the efforts of the teachers and the students. Yes, it begins with the teacher, but it also requires engagement of all the students. As a teacher, you will bring content knowledge and skill in instruction to your classroom. Your students will bring their skills, interests, and aspirations. They also will bring a wealth of experiences as well as their worries. Overall, see each student as exceptional in his or her own way and set expectations that each student will be a successful learner in your classroom.

�� CONNECTING TO THE CLASSROOM ��

In this chapter, we described a number of ways to address the individual needs of students. Below are the major topics discussed in this chapter.

1. For all ages the brain is plastic and can change through experience.

2. Teachers should understand that there are multiple ways to think about intelligence.

3. Teachers should be familiar with the different types of disabilities and implications for learning and teaching.

4. The interventions and accommodation for students with disabilities will be critical in helping students with disabilities learn at high levels.

5. Vocabulary development should be a key component of lessons for all students, and especially students from low-income families.

SUMMARY � ● � ______________________________________

The major theme in this chapter has been the importance of seeing each student as an individual and exceptional in some ways. Key themes follow:

� Developmental models can be used to see each student as exceptional.

� Neuroscience is providing ways to understand how the architecture of the brain relates to learning.

� There are multiple forms of intelligence.

� Many different categories, labels, and concepts can be used to describe students.

� Each of your students will represent a unique combination of these categories.

� Some students will have identified disabilities.

� Do not use the various concepts and labels to judge students poorly.

� Use the unique ways each student is exceptional to design and match instruction so that all of your students are learning.


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Chapter 3 Addressing Learners’ Individual Needs 107Chapter 3 Addressing Learners’ Individual Needs 107

CLASS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS � ● � _________________

1. A sampling of the different ways that students can be categorized as exceptional has been introduced in this chapter. Which of these can be used to describe you as an exceptional student?

2. What do you see as implications of the various developmental models for the organization of the curriculum, the design of instruction, and the structure of schools? In other words, are schools and the curriculum organized in ways that reflect what is known about child development?

3. What have you seen teachers do to establish classroom cultures that are physically and culturally safe?

4. What do you see as implications for you as a teacher of the various factors associated with students dropping out of school? What can elementary and secondary school teachers do to compensate for the potential harmful effects of these factors?

5. In this chapter, one of the topics was developing an understanding of the risk factors associated with lower SES families. What do you know/think about possible risk factors that would be more closely associated with students from high SES families?

Test your understanding of chapter content. Take the practice quiz.

KEY TERMS � ● � ___________________________________

accommodations 92activity 78affirmations 99at risk 100brain architecture 79cultural match 105cultural safety 104developmental 77developmentally

appropriate 78differentiate 77general intelligence 82

inclusion 90Individualized Education

Program (IEP) 86intelligence quotient (IQ) 82learning-centered 104least restrictive environment

(LRE) 92maturation 78modifications 92multiple intelligences (MI) 82physical safety 103prohibitions 99

response to instruction (RTI) 94

response to intervention (RTI) 94specific abilities 82stereotypes 77transitions 100twice exceptional (2e) 102values 104vocabulary gap 99

Strengthen your understanding of these

key terms with mobile-friendly eFlashcards.

SELF-ASSESSMENT � ● � _____________________________

WHAT IS YOUR CURRENT LEVEL OF UNDERSTANDING AND THINKING ABOUT ADDRESSING LEARNERS’ INDIVIDUAL NEEDS?

One of the indicators of understanding is to examine how complex your thinking is when asked questions that require you to use the concepts and facts introduced in this chapter.


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Answer the following questions as fully as you can. Then use the Complexity of Thinking rubric to self-assess the degree to which you understand and can use the organization ideas presented in this chapter.

1. Use several of the concepts introduced in this chapter to describe ways that you see yourself as exceptional. How have teachers used, or ignored, these factors in relation to your learning?

2. Risk factors have been identified as strongly predictive of students not graduating from high school. What are implications of these factors for instruction and different levels of schooling?

3. Two developmental models of student learning were introduced in this chapter. What are some of the implications of these with regard to organization of the curriculum and design of instruction?

4. You can expect that you will have several students in your classroom who have a recognized disability. In order for you to be effective in instruction, what will you need to know about the way each of those students is exceptional?

Parts & Pieces Unidimensional Organized Integrated Extensions

Indicators Elements/concepts

are talked about

as isolated and

independent entities.

One or a few concepts

are addressed,

while others are

underdeveloped.

Deliberate and

structured

consideration of

all key concepts/

elements.

All key concepts/

elements are

included in a view

that addresses

interconnections.

Integration of all elements

and dimensions, with

extrapolation to new

situations.

Identifying characteristics of exceptional students

Names one or two

indicators, such as

low-income family,

or failing a subject,

without placing them

into an overarching

category.

Only describes one way

that a student could

be exceptional, such as

gifted.

Describes and

compares several

ways that students

can be exceptional

and compares one to

the other.

Describes and

compares several

ways that students

can be exceptional

and compares

one to the other,

and suggests

implications for

classroom culture

and instruction.

Presents an integrated

view of different ways

that each student can be

exceptional, describes

related characteristics

of classrooms and

instruction, and identifies

areas where s/he plans

to develop more in-depth

understanding.

Complexity of Thinking Rubric

STUDENT STUDY SITE � ● � ___________________________


Review � Practice � ImproveGet the tools you need to sharpen your study skills. Access practice quizzes, eFlashcards, video, and multimedia.


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Addressing Learners’ Individual Needs

FIELD GUIDE for Learning More About...

To further increase your understanding of the different ways to see each student as exceptional, engage in the following field activities.

Ask a Teacher or Principal

Ask a teacher or principal to describe the different ways that he or she sees students being exceptional.

Make Your Own Observations

Talk to a well-regarded teacher about the ways that she or he strives to learn about the learning-related background of each student. Then inquire about examples and strategies she has used to engage students who have brought an unusual set of priorexperiences to the classroom.

When you visit classrooms for your clinical experiences, ask students to describefor you ways that they see themselves as exceptional. Ask how their background of experiences is helping them learn. Have there been aspects of their background thathave hindered their learning? Follow up by asking in what ways their teachers take advantage of their special strengths. Or do they?

When you are assigned field experiences, check out the neighborhood around theschool. What are the typical homes and businesses like? Do you see indicators in the community that the school and learning are important? What ideas does your walking around give you for examples and community features that can help you make connections with all of your students?

Reflect Through Journaling

The premise in this chapter is that exceptional teachers need to see each student as being exceptional. In other words, each student is special, unique, and brings to learning a particular set of background knowledge and experiences. A good place foryou to start your journaling following the reading of this chapter is to address thisquestion: How do you feel about the following statement: “Teachers should understandthat each student is exceptional in unique ways and should use that information when they plan instruction”?

Many teachers will not be comfortable with this idea. Also, many teachers will be at a loss to think of a broad spectrum of ways to consider each student as exceptional. Therefore, the second part of your journaling task is to make your own list of indicators and categories for seeing each student as exceptional. Next to each indicator, note ideas for how you could take advantage of each student’s exceptionalities to facilitate his or her learning.

Chapter 3 Addressing Learners’ Individual Needs


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110 Part I� �Today’s Teachers, Students, and SchoolsPart I� Today’s Teachers, Students, and Schools

Build Your Portfolio

With a teacher education classmate, find two or three students who recently dropped out of high school. Interview them about their reasons for leaving. Do their reasons relate to the two major factors identified in the Heppen and Therriault report? What do they suggest would be necessary for them to return to school?

Develop a classroom culture observation guide that could be used to assess physical and cultural safety. Try the guide out in one or two classrooms. Develop a short presentation about your findings.

Read a Book One of the important components of brain development is activity. Total Participation

Techniques: Making Every Student an Active Learner, by Persida Himmele and William Himmele (2011, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development), presents strategies and activities for engaging students in active learning. The book covers K–12 and also addresses higher-order thinking and formative assessments of academic progress.

In his book Our Kids: The American Dream in Crisis (2015, Simon & Schuster), Robert D. Putnam describes the challenges that today’s students have in moving up the SES ladder. The author uses the stories of real people from around the country to illustrate how class boundaries have hardened, and this has greatly reduced social and economic mobility.

Search the Web The Neag Center for Gifted Education and Talent Development: Planning instruction for the more academically able students takes special effort. In anticipation of your becoming a teacher, take the time now to develop a two- or three-week set of lessons that will be purposely aimed at gifted students. You will find many sources on the web that can help with this assignment. One good place to start the search is The Neag Center for Gifted Education and Talent Development at the University of Connecticut (http://www.gifted.uconn.edu).

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: Explore some of the websites related to Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences (MI) Theory. Assess yourself by taking some of the MI tests. What come out as your strong and weak intelligences? How strongly to do you agree/disagree with these scores? Keep in mind that these are just general estimates.

Part I� �Today’s Teachers, Students, and Schools


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SEE TEACHERS IN ACTION

VIEW VIDEOS OF REAL TEACHERS IN CLASSROOMS. YOU’LL SEE EXAMPLES OF:

• Becoming a Teacher

• Valuing Student Diversity

• Addressing the Standards

• Effective Grouping Arrangements



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or post, copy, not do - us.sagepub.com · chapter 3 addressing learners’ individual needs ......

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