Operant Conditioning

(Corresponds to mod. 16)

DeLossa/Psych

Lowell High School, Lowell, MA

Conditioning

Classical Conditioning: Learning by Association

Operant Conditioning: Learning by Reinforcement

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning in that an existing behavior is reinforced by a consequence (a reinforcing stimulus SRF)

Although this seems straightforward, there are a number of complications that make operant conditioning more complicated when it occurs outside its basic form.

The Law of Effect

Edward Thorndike (one of the fathers of operant conditioning) notice the “Law of Effect”: Behaviors with favorable consequences will happen more frequently and behaviors with undesirable consequences will happen less frequently.

B.F. Skinner becomes the theorist most associated with operant conditioning. He is the father of Behaviorism as a branch of psychology.

Critical concepts

Reinforcement refers to any consequence that increases future repetition of a behavior (or the likelihood of that repetition).

Punishment refers to any consequence that decreases future repetition of a behavior (or the likelihood of that diminution).

P.O.V. counts!!

It is the point of view of the “learner” that determines whether a consequence is a reinforcement/reward or punishment.

Different factors determine individual determination of whether consequences are reinforcement/rewards or punishment.

Reinforcements

Reinforcements can be positive or negative:

Positive reinforcement is when a behavior brings about a consequence that is desired.

Negative reinforcement is when a behavior brings the end of a state that is not desired or aversive.

Reinforcement

Primary reinforcement: something that is naturally reinforcing (based on UCS)

Secondary reinforcement: something that must be learned as reinforcing (e.g., money)

Immediate reinforcement is generally more effective than delayed reinforcement.

Punishment

Punishment can be a consequence that is undesirable.

Punishment can also be the end of a state that is desirable.

Why is punishment generally seen as ineffective by psychologists? 1) Doesn’t end the desire to engage the behavior. 2) Adverse psychological effects…

Why is punishment so popular?

Temporary behavioral modification reinforces the behavior and attitudes of the punisher (!)

Socio-cultural norms Few want to admit that punishment actually

has such limited efficacy (possible evolutionary reasons?)

Effective alternative: reinforcement of incompatible behaviors (positive redirection) requires more thought, planning, and training.

Reinforcement Techniques

Shaping: Positively reinforcing behaviors that get closer and closer to the target behavior. (Skinner)

Discrimination is important in Operant conditioning, as well, in terms of allowing the organism to distinguish appropriate responses to different stimuli.

Extinction also is important in that it allows undesirable behaviors to be “unlearned” through the absence of reinforcing stimuli. (Otherwise, we would never be able to change our behaviors.)

Schedules of Reinforcement

When conditioning new behaviors (i.e., when “teaching”), reinforcing stimuli usually are administered on some type of a schedule.

Schedules can be continuous or partial.

Continuous Reinforcement

Good for establishing new behaviors.Problematic in that the absence of the

reinforcing stimulus quickly leads to extinction of the learned behavior. (Think of what would happen if the slot machine paid off every time, but then stopped. Would you put more money into it?)

Partial Reinforcement

Slower adoption of the learned behavior, but better long-term retention.

There are four (4) partial reinforcement schedules:– Fixed-interval schedules (time dependent; end-

of-week tests)– Variable-interval schedules (time dependent;

mix of pop quizzes and announced tests)

Partial Reinforcement (con’t)

There are four (4) partial reinforcement schedules (con’t):– Fixed-ratio schedules (response dependent;

hand in nine homework assignments on time, you can skip the tenth)

– Variable-ratio schedules (response dependent; hand in your homework assignments on time and I will randomly give you a homework pass). Also known as the “lottery schedule” or “gambler’s schedule.”

Cognition and Operant Conditioning

Rats and mazes (Tolman & Honzik, 1930) show the importance of latent learning (learning that takes place earlier and sets down neural networks that can be used to establish later behaviors)

Overjustification effect shows another role of cognition: the loss of motivation by the overuse of a desirable stimulus. (The pay-for-attendance conundrum.)

Role of Biology

As in classical conditioning, operant conditioning works best when it reinforces behaviors that are likely to occur intrinsically within a species: teaching a dog to distinguish smells is intrinsic to the species; teaching it to distinguish fashion styles is not.