When we take a dog down and back we arelooking for the perfect trot for that dog.Ideally, the dog moves at a speed which

allows each leg to be seen, the flight path noted, and thestructure appreciated. The trot is the gait which bestshows balance and scope or reveals aspects which areless desirable. Taking a dog around the ring, so the sidegait can be examined, we generally look for rhythm withappropriate reach and drive. In Warmblood Sport Horse Registries, animals arerecorded by parentage but must also be graded andlicensed once they are mature before given a breedingdesignation. Today’s sport horses are scored numericallyagainst a standard and stallions are often additionallygraded for trainability and temperament. Our currentshow dog fancy strives to similarly reward the elite, thetop “specials,” while also recognizing adequate breedingcandidates and, hopefully, preventing poor specimensfrom passing on their genes. Dogs are examined andjudged against other dogs presented on a particular daywith the breed standard as the ideal. Unlike modern sport horses, today’s responsibly bredshow dogs are not inspected and graded individually.They are not awarded a single numeric score which

defines them and ranks them as dictated by the breedstandard, and follows them throughout their performancecareer. Rather, judges balance what has been defined ineach standard with the animals standing before them,allowing for good and bad days and differences inhandlers and conditioning. Every dog in each breed ofall seven groups must be examined and judged. This taskis so huge that judges work as teams, each coming fromtheir own background. Each judge brings their ownpreferences and understanding of breeds they have beenlicensed to judge to the ring. At the end of the day, onlyone dog is awarded Best of Breed and competes in theirdesignated Group where adherence to the standard is theonly way for judges to sort out the soundest dogs whobest conform to breed type for further competition.

Dissociation at the Trot

The trot is defined as a two beat gait with diagonallimbs moving in unison. Rather than being a pure, twobeat gait, the trot is often a four beat gait with diagonalpairs of feet striking the ground at nearly the samemoment. Diagonal Advanced Placement (DAP) is wherediagonal pairs of feet (in the trot or three beat gallop) do

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not hit the ground simultaneously. In many breeds, the best movinganimals — those most uphill in their movement with freedom ofshoulder, great reach and a strong drive behind — show positivedissociation at the trot. Dissociation is a discernible differencebetween good structure providing superior movement and poor(occasionally immature or unbalanced) structure providinginadequate movement particularly in breeds where spectacular sidemovement is desirable. As diagonal pairs strike the ground, if the rear paw hits first, it istermed positive dissociation of the trot. For many breeds, this isthe most desirable movement, especially in dogs who work atspeed or over distances. If the front foot hits first, it is negativedissociation of the trot. Often a negative dissociation makes theanimal appear to move on the forehand. Illustration “1a” shows positive dissociation at the trot.Illustration “1b” shows negative dissociation of the trot. These areidentical drawings, the only change has been to balance, rotatingthe drawing to change which leg of the diagonal pair hits theground first. We can easily see’ how “1b”’s rump is higher than hisshoulders and his hind foot moves further behind him than “1a”who moves with uphill balance. The dog in “1b” is movingdownhill, and his rear “bounces” behind him as he moves. Trueuphill movement is the result of proper balance with the reach anddrive available from good conformation combined withsuspension. Without both, even a dog with superior structure wouldfail to exhibit this kind of reach and drive. This is the main reasonpuppies need time to grow and gain dexterity and control of theirlimbs before having a successful show career. It is important to recognize that positive dissociation at the trotand negative dissociation at the trot both come from reach, driveand that moment of suspension, or hang time. This is not the sameas disunity where a dog’s front legs may hover over the ground orthe dog may have a broken rhythm to his gait. Disunity is alwaysbad movement. An example of disunity is the trained display of theSpanish Walk in a horse where the front leg takes a huge, high stepand the back leg takes a small, short step. Dissociation comes fromsuspension. Disunity comes from poor conformation. All movement, good or bad, is the result of physics; the

combination of lever lengths and corresponding angles moved bymuscles. For most people, physics can be very confusing; physicsspeaks of torque and angles, lever arms and moment. Think oftorque as the rotation of an object about a pivot point (think ofjoints as pivot points). Just as force is a push or a pull, a torque canbe thought of as a twist. The longer the lever (bone), the bigger thetwist – so we need big joints and strong bones to withstand theincreased pressure as size increases. Crooked levers may twist inunexpected directions, or put undue strain on joints, tendons orligaments, and weak connective tissue may allow joints to wobble,damaging the joint. Bones are not completely straight and we canaffect the amount of curve or the position of variousmarkers/shapes in each bone through breeding choices.

Understanding Movement

When an animal begins moving forward, without jumping, hestarts with a hind foot. The sequence of the walk is four beats, righthind foot-right front foot, left hind foot-left front foot where threefeet are on the ground at any one time (this is the same leg patternas pacing, though with only two feet on the ground at a time). Mostanimals will walk before trotting, even if it is only one hind footsuch as the pattern: right hind foot, diagonal left hind-right front,suspension, diagonal right hind-left front, suspension. The trotincludes a moment of suspension in each stride which is absentfrom the walk. This suspension can be as small as nearly draggingtoes (daisy cutting), or as long as a second. Because they show spectacular differences in lever length andjoint size, it is easiest to examine the hindquarters first. Thehindquarters create movement and are responsible for drive.Another way to look at the hindquarters is to consider it as theengine. Suspension is a product of increased carrying capacity ofthe hindquarters (strength) with greater flexion of the joints (torque)combined with upward thrust (which necessarily includesengagement of the pelvis, belly and back muscles). To achievegood suspension, the dog must push off hard enough to move bothupward and forward with each step. Suspension is as crucial forcollection (short steps) as it is for extended gaits (long steps).

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The Hocks

We’ve all heard it, “That dog’s hocky.” But, what does hockymean? In simple terms, visual examination reveals an undesirableangle at the hock joint (the union of the second thigh and the hindpastern). This joint is the equivalent of your heel (imaginestanding on your toes so the sole of your foot is perpendicular tothe floor). A dog can be hocky and have a different problem thanthe hocky dog standing next to him. The hock must withstandtorque and can make a dog completely unsound or can make hisstride spectacular from one direction but not necessarily soundfrom other viewing angles. Angulation in the hindquarters is not simply the angle at the hockjoint; the stifle balances the hock to provide functional stability andmovement of the hindquarters. The stifle is where the femur andthe tibia/fibula meet and includes the patella. For our purposes, wewill include the pelvis with the spine because of the negligibleflexibility of the sacroiliac (SI) joint, however the pelvis is directlyconnected to the femur in what we generally term the hip joint. When we look at angulation of the hindquarters, we have visualmarkers which helpus determine thedifference betweenstructures which canbe considered scantangulation, mod-erate angulation, orextreme angulation.These markers in-clude the locationand degree of bendof stifle, the distancefrom the point ofhock to the ground,and where the toe

falls in relationship to the point of the buttocks.To find the stifle, rather than visuallyestimating, feel the front of a dog’s hind leg andthe point where it bends. As you straighten theleg, allow your fingers to move below thepatella, to the small area that seems to withdrawcaudally and is softer than bone. This is theactual place where the femur and tibia/fibulameet. The lowest part of the patella can also beused if you find this a better marker. Illustration2 depicts the basic parts of the dog.

Dogs, when standing still, carry roughly 60percent of their weight on their forequarters and40 percent on the hindquarters. If the doglowers his hindquarters, bending the joints inthe hind legs, he can change the apparent anglesof the joints, most perceptively the stifle andhock. This will also allow him to carry moreweight on the hindquarters. He can move withbent hindquarters in two different modes: so hislegs seem to trail behind the point of buttocks,

or so his legs seem to do most of the movement in front of the pointof buttocks.

How Much Angle?

When does adequate angulation become too little? While somebreeds call for the hind pastern to fall directly beneath the pointof the buttocks, this can become so straight that the dog appearspost-legged. Adequate width of thigh and second thigh, usuallywith a longer pelvis, will allow a bend in both stifle and hock; ifthe dog does not carry enough angulation to allow for suchmuscling, he will be post-legged and will be limited in both stridelength and agility. When does ample angulation become too much? We know a dogwho has abundant angulation in the rear must have enough muscleto hold himself with the additional torque long levers put on eachjoint. Unless a breed standard calls for it, conformation such assickle-hocked (where the dog moves his foot from beneath the hockto beneath the center of gravity for the hind leg) should beconsidered too much angulation. If the dog can hold the pose with

his hind pastern perpendicularto the ground naturally andcomfortably, then the abun-dance of angulation is notlikely to cause problems.

Visualizing Angulation

Illustrations 3, 4 and 5 showfour different structures in thehindquarters. Each of thesestructures may be appropriatefor specific breeds. For eachillustration, the assigned lettercorresponds consistently

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throughout, the information was separated for bettercomprehension. Consequently, illustration 3a, 4a, and 5a all referto the same dog. The pelvis is uniformly 20 degrees from thehorizontal, and variations in pelvic angle will be covered in thethird installment of this series. In example “a” the caudal plane of the metatarsus (hindpastern) is perpendicular to the ground, and falls directlybeneath the point of buttocks. Scant angulation can also be post-legged when the entire leg appears to be straight through thestifle and hock. The angle of the stifle in “c” is well-bent, andthe hock in illustration “d” we could define as sickle-hocked.As the point of each hock is the same height and hips are thesame height, all hocks are well let-down though the length ofthe levers get longer. By carefully comparing the angles in illustration 3, we can seesmall differences in structure result from changes in the angle ofeach joint caused by differing bone lengths (levers). Balancedangulation in “b” shows a dog whose toe falls directly beneaththe point of the buttocks when his hind pastern is perpendicularto the ground. Illustration “c” gives us an example of moderateangulation and “d” can be considered extreme angulation withsickle hocks. As the tibia/fibula is lengthened, the tendency of the stifle to twistto the outside during weight bearing will cause a correspondingtwist of the hock to the inside. This is one way a dog might becomefunctionally cow-hocked. However, as we are looking at variousconformations that are sound, we will assume the length of thetibia/fibula is short enough and the width of the dog’s thigh andgastrocnemius (second thigh) are such that he can maintain the leg

in the correct position.

Range of Motion

Dogs with greater angulation and subsequently longerlever arms, have an increased stride length. At this pointin the examination (only looking at the hindquarters),longer legs appear to move more behind the dog makingus think of dogs who are providing negative dissociationat the trot. This is not the case and this aspect will beaddressed later in our investigation as we look at how theback affects movement. Remember, each of theseconformational models is correct for at least one breedand can be found in winning dogs in most shows.

Greater angulation, as we commonly view it, includessmaller angles at stifle and hock, often combined withincreased bone length and results in increased maximumstride length. Longer levers (bone lengths) change thetorque exerted on the joint (increases thrust provided forthe same amount of energy applied), and will also changethe center of gravity for a joint and the muscle/powernecessary to keepthe hindquarterssound and func-tional (to combatany tendency totwist in the wrongdirection). Thecontroversial

issue with long levers andmore torque in the joints islonger levers may in-creasethe wear and tear becausethey require greater musclemass (force) to operate thusrequiring increasing musclemass. Illustration 6 depicts,using the same unitmeasurements for the mod-els in the previous threeillustrations, the dif-ferences in stride lengthavailable to the fourconformations we havebeen examining. Bonemarkers were carefullyadhered to when producingthese illustrations so theyare consistent amongstthemselves. Dogs withgreater angulation have alonger stride lengthbecause of longer hind legsdespite all dogs beingidentical in height.

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Last month, we looked at the structure of thehindquarters in four basic designs, where verysmall changes in lever lengths and the resulting

angles of stifle and hock provided a specific structurewhen viewed from the side that went on to providepredictable stride lengths. This month, we leave thehindquarters and move on to the front assembly. A dog’s front limbs support his torso with a muscularsling. Muscles directly attach to bones which providesupport as well as locomotion, however, they do nothave a bone to bone buttress like in the hind legs (femurto pelvis to spine ). Four variations of shoulders areconsidered for our various breed standards. Bone lengthand angles of the joints all provide a distinct range ofmotion which, in turn, provides a distinct way of trottingwhen paired with the range of motion of thehindquarters. The scapula is attached to the spinal column by fourmuscles. It is not fixed or stationary like the pelvis. Itmoves forward and backwards in relationship to thetorso as the front leg is employed for movement.Because we are concerned with visualizing movementas it relates to the structure and angles of the shoulderassembly, we will not change the positioning of thescapula as it rests against the torso until we understand

exactly how much a leg can move with a theoreticalstationary buttress to the torso. The shoulder blade changes shape depending on thejob the dog was designed to do. Basically, it becomeswider or narrower, relative to length, to supportnecessary muscle structure. But, we know that everybreed and size can have heavier bone or lighter bone asa natural variation. The point is to recognize expectedmovement for identifiable variations in structure. Thiswill help us to both improve our dog’s performance inthe ring and to produce a better dog, while alsorecognizing a puppy’s potential so we might choose thebest structure in a litter. We have all heard of the fabled 45º/90º shoulderangles (measured from the uppermost part of thescapula, to the point of shoulder, and to the top of theelbow). Dogs do not truly have a 45º/90º angle in theirshoulder, although I have included that angle in ourillustrated study so it will be easy to recognize shouldthis fabled angulation walk into a ring. A dog who isslouching, such as a Border Collie who is herding,may exhibit something close to a shoulder angle of45º, but a conformation judge will never see it and wecannot, realistically, train and condition dogs to standfor exam in a slouched posture without creating

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excesses and weaknesses in the entire dog which will ultimatelylead to unsoundness. In addition to the angle of the scapula and humerus whichmakes up the shoulder joint, the angle of the elbow joint(humerus and radius/ulna) and the pastern (radius/ulna andcarpus down through the metacarpus) will be measured usingfour basic designs. Angles at the shoulder and elbow give eachbreed their unique angulation, lever lengths, and torque (twist)potential which we see as movement at the trot. For manybreeds, the trot is an important display of breed type, not simplya soundness check.

Shoulder Design

We know from skeletal evidence and studies, whichinclude multiple dog breeds, that we see a difference in thesize and shape of the scapula depending on what the dog hasbeen bred to do. However, we are only looking at fourspecific shoulder designs as they affect range of motion andultimately how that range of motion effects the dog’smovement at the trot. Small differences between “good,”“better,” and “best” will come from dogs who display theappropriate shoulder type for their breed.

When we measure shoulder angles on a live dog, wecannot feel the ridge of bone that runs along the center of thescapula except in thin dogs. We can feel the arch of bone thatlies at the very top. Likewise, we cannot feel the shoulderjoint itself, we can only feel the point of the shoulder (part ofthe scapula) which lies slightly anterior to the joint itself. Aswith the hock, the elbow has a bone which sticks up abovethe joint and allows the attachment of ligaments and tendonsto more effectively pivot the joint. Because we cannot seemuscle-covered joints, measurements for joint angles will betaken where we can feel them best.

Unlike the hindquarters where we can use the point of thebuttocks to visually determine the angulation of the leg,shoulders are more difficult. Many breed standards talk oflay-back sufficient to allow the foot to fall beneath theshoulder (but not exactly where). We can easily see theposterior line of the elbow and back of the foreleg and wecan feel the arch of the scapula (although not the mostposterior part of the scapula). If we mentally drop a plumb-line from the most posterior aspect of the front end assembly(be it the palpable scapula arch or elbow), we can find outmore about the front legs than we might determine with ourhands or eyes alone.

Illustrations 1 through 3 show various aspects of the frontassembly. Each illustration allows an increased understandingof the structure from the skeleton to the outline and how itmay appear when hair and muscles are included. By usingthree levels of information, the drawings are less clutteredand provide a clear connection between structure and whatto expect from each conformation. The angles have beenmeasured using specific points as consistently as possible.These illustrations do not represent any single dog, but serveas a framework of information.

As we use the plumb-line (in, well, plumb) as a guide,we can see four possible shoulder assemblies. The first is

the minimal lay-back necessary to allow the foot to fall beneaththe scapula. This is the conformation of a dog with a short scapulaand humerus and provides a very straight-fronted dog(illustrations 1-3a). This conformation lacks a forechest, has aneck that is placed farther forward and generally includes ashorter rib cage. Unless the scapula (and humerus) are extremelyshort, the dog will appear to have a shorter neck. Both scapulaand elbow touch the plumb-line, and the point of the shouldertells us the humerus and scapula are approximately the samelength. Wrinkles may appear at the base of the neck when it isheld in an upright position.

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The second assembly has an upright scapula (illustrations 1-3b).Because the humerus has adequate angle, this conformation usuallyhas a forechest. The easiest way to distinguish this conformationis the scapula is positioned anterior to the plumb-line and is veryupright (measure point of shoulder to the posterior arch of thescapula). The neck is often short and is carried lower (wrinklesappear at back of neck when neck is moved to an upright position).Pasterns may slope forward as the dog attempts to put his feet underthe center of gravity of that limb. The third assembly has a scapula with normal/adequate lay-backbut a humerus that is too short and upright. This is sometimesreferred to as “terrier fronted.” Illustrations 1-3c show thisconformation which lacks a fore-chest because the elbow ispositioned anterior to the plumb-line. The humerus appears short andupright. Because the humerus ismore upright, dogs with thisconformation may move in a morehackney-like (lifting the foreleghigh) gait as the foreleg is movedforward with centrifugal forcepivoting through the elbow. The fourth model approaches theoften imagined perfect assembly(illustrations 1-3d). This is easy tosee with a pronounced forechest,moderately long and higherstationed neck, a scapula and upperarm that are both long and of equallength. The scapula is well laid backand the upper arm is well under thethe body allowing both the scapulaand the elbow to fall on the plumb-line. The fallacy of the correctassembly is it is modeled at 45degrees, with a 90 degree angle between the scapula and humerus.For those breeds whose foot needs to fall under the scapula, eithera or d would be correct as long as the plumb-line touches bothpoints (as well as any shoulder which falls between those depictedin a and d in layback).

Break-over

No matter what gait the dog is in, the foot has only two distinctphases during each stride. The easiest way to visualize this is tosee if the foot is on the ground or in the air. Swing phase is thatportion of the stride where the foot is in the air, swinging forward.Stance phase is when the foot is on the ground, bearing weight. Itbegins the moment the heel hits the ground and continues throughbreak-over until the toe leaves the ground. As the body movesforward, the foot rolls from the heel onto the toe. Break-over beginsas the heel lifts off the ground, and ends when the toe leaves theground. Break-over is not one single moment but the last half ofthe stance phase for each leg, for every stride, in every gait. Thelength of the toes on a foot determine the amount of time a foot isin break-over. Short toes allow a much quicker break-over while alonger toe provides a longer break-over and the foot spends more

time in contact with the ground. A fast break-over allows for aquicker stride (such as a trotting type dog), a longer toe providinga longer break-over would encourage a better grip for a runningdog who has more time in the air (such as a double-suspensiongallop type of dog). Toenails can affect the stride of the dog because they affect thetiming of the break-over on harder surfaces. A short nail does notinterfere with break-over, but does not allow any grip on slipperyor irregular surfaces. A long nail will delay break-over because theentire foot does not leave the ground until the last toenail leavesthe ground. Long nails can delay break-over which will make thefoot hesitate on the ground for a fraction of a second.

This is not simply a physicsissue with long toenails. A dog usesproprioceptors in his toenails tohelp determine and maintain hisbalance and posture. A dog withlong nails on a slippery surface willreach out and grasp with the nailsdespite the possibility of bettertraction with their pads alone. Thisis a case of proprioceptors in actionas the dog attempts to navigate thedifficult surface. Because of thisgrasping response and the delay ofbreak-over caused by long nails,show dogs should be shown inshort nails and on the mat when thesurface may be slick such as onpolished concrete.

Visualizing Movement

Illustration 4 shows us theanticipated movement that goeswith each conformation. With

shoulder c, normal forward reach would not cause the elbow tobend excessively, however, the limited reach of the shoulderjoint combined with the momentum of the foot coming forwardwill cause the elbow to bend and encourages the higher,hackney-like movement. In comparing shoulder a to shoulderd, changing the length of the scapula and the humerus allowsfor a much greater reach in shoulder d without changing the trailof the leg (that moment after break-over before the foot isbrought forward). Shoulder b has a greater trail, which wouldallow the leg to be much further under the body when break-over occurs, causing a dog to balance further forward (on theforehand) when moving. Knowing how the structure of the four shoulder types will affectmovement is not the same as going shopping and picking out thecorrect shoulder for your new puppy. We have to deal with existinggenetics, dwindling gene pools, the breed standard (as written), andeach judge’s perception on the right shoulder for your breed.Shoulders are often the weakest point of a dog and the hardest tochange due to a lack of understanding of a shoulder’s design,whereas hindquarters seem to have great ability to change in ageneration or two. However, without a good shoulder, the dog hasno “reach,” only the “drive” provided by the hindquarters.

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The first article in this series dealt with thehindquarters, the second with the front assembly.Now we need to bridge the gap between the two.

For it is the design of this bridge which provides theoutline of the dog which is often one of the mostrecognizable components of breed type. The bridge iscomprised of the head, neck, withers, back, loin,sacrum and coccyx or tail. The ribs and belly musclesare an integral part of the bridge and provide thefoundation on which the rest relies. Because the hindquarters are attached to the bridgethrough a hard point of contact, the pelvis, thrustprovided by the hind legs drives straight through thebridge. The hindquarters shape the energy of the dog,energy shapes the outline and determines movement,self carriage, and balance. The front assembly is attached to the bridge bymuscles and connective tissue. This soft connectioncan be adjusted by proper conditioning, but exercisewill only raise the chest higher between the scapulae,effectively lifting the dorsal processes of the spine inthe withers. This is an adjustment in conditioning, notin the lay-on or in the lay-back of the shoulder. The lay-on of the shoulder is how the topmost ridge

of the shoulder attaches to the bridge. This includesthe thickness of the shoulder muscles as well as thedistance between the shoulder blades and where theyconnect to the thoracic vertebrae of the spine. The lay-back is an integral part of the design of the shoulderblade and should include the concept of the plumb-line and the actual design of the front assembly ratherthan simply the lay-back of the scapula. There are a couple of points of interest which aremisunderstood about the topline. The first is that thetopline is not simply the dog’s back. The true back ispart of the topline as are the loin, withers, and croup.The pelvis holds a special function as it is part of boththe topline and the hindquarters, connected to both byjoints. The pelvis allows energy generated by thehindquarters to travel into the body. The angle of thepelvis affects the way a dog engages his hindquartersand how much energy travels upwards versus theenergy that travels straight forward. This directlyaffects suspension. The croup is not the pelvis. The croup sits abovethe pelvis and is comprised of muscular attachmentsand the bones of the sacrum. The croup is anchoredin the anterior/dorsal pelvis, through the sacroiliac

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(SI) joints, but the croup does not generate or transfer energyduring movement. The croup is important, however, becausemost judges and breeders do not differentiate between the angleof the croup and angle of the pelvis. Many standards discussthe croup because it is an integral part of outline, but it is thepelvis which provides the connection between the hindquartersand the bridge. The croup connects directly to the tail. Tail set is affected bythe structure at the insertion of the coccygeal vertebrae into thesacrum or croup. The tail set is how the tail is attached. Tailcarriage is how the tail is carried, usually when the dog movesor is stacked (not just when he’s excited and it’s high or carryingit low in a nervous or submissive posture). The tail is alwaysdirectly connected to the sacrum, but the vertebrae may appearto come out lower than, or higher than, the sacrum. Tail set helpsdefine outline and is a component of breed type. A high tail set is an indication of a shorter sacrum (orcomparatively longer pelvis) which may be parallel to theground. A low tail setusually indicates alonger sacrum com-pared to the pelvis andone that follows theslant of the pelvis fromthe point of hip in thefront to the point ofbuttocks in the rear.The bones of the tailbegin before the pointwe generally think ofas the base of the tailwhich allows a doggreat flexibility inexpression with his tail. The croup, and there-fore the pelvis, connectsdirectly to the loin. TheSI joints allow energyfrom the hindquarters to move through the pelvis and into thevertebrae of the loin. A slight arch in the loin indicates muscleand can help a dog get his pelvis engaged, while a larger archand an angled croup will make a dog appear to have a lot ofdrive and suspension because the hindquarters drive moreupwards and less forward with every step. A long loin with aflat arch will make it very difficult for a dog to angle hispelvis to provide upward thrust and suspension. A short loinwill not flex as much as a longer loin and will help a dogwho uses himself to angle his pelvis to provide upward orforward thrust. A short loin helps a dog use himself, but the width of the loinwill also determine how strong a loin is. A long, thick loin isstronger than a long, thin loin. Loins can be thick with muscle,or they can appear thickened due to excess fat. Muscle makesfor strength, allowing the dog to use his back. A longer loinallows a greater rearward extension of the hindquarters,

especially at a double-suspension gallop. A shorter loin is betterfor big trots with great suspension. The loin connects to the back. Backs vary in length and arecomprised of the thoracic vertebrae. At the front, the vertebraehave tall spinous processes and we call this area the withers.Ribs descend from the thoracic vertebrae, attached through acartilaginous joint. This allows the dog’s spine to be quiteflexible. Ribs also have cartilage on the ventral attachment tothe sternum. Dogs have a small divot in the topline between the thoracicand lumbar vertebrae. This is where the spinous processes ofthe vertebrae change from pointing backwards to pointingforwards. The slight indentation can be accentuated in dogswho are highly fit, especially those with well-developedshoulder muscles. Despite the shape of the topline, the majority of a dog’sbridge has the same number of vertebrae. The neck has seven,the body contains thirteen thoracic vertebrae, and the loin has

seven vertebrae.Despite the sacrumbeing a single, fusedunit, it is made up ofthree vertebrae. Theonly variation amongbreeds is the numberof vertebrae in the tail.Some dogs are bornwith little more than afatty appendage, whileothers have as many as23 individual ver-tebrae. Of course, tailscan be docked so theyconform to a distinctbreed type.

Breed type mayinclude a specificheight-to-length ratio.

Some breeds call for ratios such as 9/10 or 10/11 which alwaysrefers to the height first and the length second. Some breeds callfor a square dog (10/10) while others simply describe a back asbeing level or nearly level to the ground. Height is alwaysmeasured at the withers. Length may be measured from thepoint of the shoulder, or the tip of the breastbone, to the pointof the buttocks in the rear. Check the breed standard to be surewhere to measure as that difference in the front may be as smallas a centimeter in a small dog or as much as a hand (four inches)in a large dog. If your breed has not specified which bonyprocess to use as the front measurement, contact your parentclub and ask them to make this definition clear. While this maybe firmly in the mind of long-time breeders, someone new tothe breed will need this information. The underline is as important to the bridge as the topline. Themuscles of the abdomen, the tuck-up, is necessary to providestrength and support to the topline. The underline must always

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be able to move out of the way as the hind leg comes forward.In the trot, that means an underline that does not inhibitforward motion of the stifle. In a gallop or double-suspensiongallop, which is so important in sighthounds, and someworking dogs, the underline and topline work together. Thetuck-up allows for flexion in the spine and allows for a hingetype action of the body. Shoulder placement affects the balance of the dog, both inmotion and while stationary. Since the shoulder is attached tothe bridge by muscles and not by a bony connection such asthe SI joints which connect the spine to the pelvis, the shouldercan be moved forwards or backwards, and the bridge can beraised and lowered between the shoulders. This movementrelies on muscles. Sometimes a change in muscle length,modified through genetics, can allow for more, or less,forechest. Often, the biggest change we see is throughconditioning. A well-conditioned dog can raise his chestbetween his front assembly, while a poorly-conditioned dogseems to have his chesthang between his shoul-ders. All of this willchange the dog’s sil-houette, his outline,which is as important tobreed type as head, coat,or reach and drive. No matter what theangles are in the frontassembly and the hind-quarters, each dog shouldbe balanced to himself. Adog with a straight frontand a highly-angulatedrear may win and appearshowy, but that may notbe the dog the breed’s genetics should be based on. Mostbalanced dogs will have something to give to their breed’s genepool, while unbalanced dogs are often matched with otherunbalanced dogs in a hope to make that one, spectacularspecimen. Rarely does that one dog come from dogs withinferior structure and balance. A dog who is balanced structurally may still have issues withmovement, especially while they are growing. Some dogs withgreat freedom of movement can overreach or strike the back oftheir front foot with the toe of the hind foot on the same side.This can cause a dog to prefer moving with their hindquartersoffset from their front assembly. This may be changed when thedog uses another gait, like a gallop, but the trot is used in theshow ring because it is the gait which most clearly showssoundness, reach, and drive to a judge. Dogs who move poorly but have reasonable structure usuallyneed to be conditioned or allowed to grow up. Sometimes theydon’t know how to use themselves or they are simply youngand clumsy. Dogs who side-wind may be straightened bymoving their front assembly in front of their hindquarters.

Sometimes a dog needs to move more slowly, or gain strengthin his bridge. Some dogs have trouble getting their frontassembly out of the way and will invert their topline to allowa greater freedom of the shoulder. This type of dog should beconditioned with his head down so he lengthens his back as hestrengthens his bridge. A treadmill may be a great tool in helping a dog learn tostraighten himself and drive from behind. A swimming pool orpond can help dogs condition all of their muscles withoutstressing joints, or galloping in a field can help them build theirbridge muscles. Most dogs can benefit from a combination ofexercise. A very small dog, especially those with heavy coatsthat have been bred strictly as companions, may need far lessexercise and conditioning than a medium-sized dog who wasbred to run, hunt or coach. If the dog lowers his hindquarters, bending the joints in thehind legs, he can change the apparent angles of the joints, mostperceptively the stifle and hock. This will also allow him to

carry more weight on thehindquarters. He canmove with bent hind-quarters in two differentmodes: so his legs seemto trail behind the pointof buttocks, or so his legsseem to do most of themovement in front of thepoint of buttocks. Thishas to do with how hemoves through hisbridge. If he createsenergy upwards, his legsseem to move moreunderneath him, if hemoves parallel to the

ground, the legs may appear to trail behind him more. The dogwho moves with hind legs beneath him will create upwardenergy which will create some small moment of suspensionwhich may result in positive dissociation at the trot. Diagonal Advanced Placement (DAP), as discussed in thefirst article in the series, is not appropriate for all breeds. Alonger bodied dog will have more trouble moving withpositive dissociation of the trot because he has more to liftthrough his bridge to get his hindquarters beneath him. Mosthunting dogs and scent hounds will not lift their front,providing for increased suspension which is a necessarycomponent of positive dissociation, as they move forwardbecause they put their nose closer to the ground. This does notmean these dogs move poorly, and a dog who is “on scent”may, indeed, exhibit negative dissociation at the trot. Theconcept of DAP, and all discussion of bone structure andconformation, is to recognize what is, and what is not, andchoose the most appropriate movement and the structurewhich provides that movement for each breed.

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