on the theory and physics of the aether

Volume 1 PROGRESS IN PHYSICS January, 2006

On the Theory and Physics of the Aether

Ole D. Rughede

Copenhagen, DK-2200 N, Denmark

E-mail: [email protected]

Physical Space is identified as the universal Aether Space. An Aether Equation isdeduced, predicting the Temperature of the Cosmic Background Radiation TCMBR, andindicating that G and c are universal dependent variables. The strong nuclear forceis found to be a strong gravitational force at extreme energy densities of the neutron,indicating a Grand Unified Theory, when gravity is a process of enduring exchange ofradiant energy between all astrophysical objects. The big bang hypothesis is refutedby interpretation of the Hubble redshift as evidence of gravitational work. Conditionsfor application of STR and GTR in the scientific cosmological research are deduced.

Gravity must be caused by an agent acting constantlyaccording to certain laws; but whether this agent bematerial or immaterial, I have left to the considerationof my readers.

Newton. Letter to Bentley, 1693.

We assume to find in every point of space a flow in alldirections of radiant energy from all astrophysical objects,meaning that space everywhere has a specific energy U [erg]and an energy density u = U/V [erg/cm3], which of courseis a local variable depending on the position in space.

The radiant energy will we name the “Aether”, and sinceit is present throughout the Universe, we will call space the“Aether-Space”. Presuming the aether the medium sustainingall physical fields and forces, the aether-space is the universalphysical space.

A set of equations can be found for this situation [1] fromwhich may be derived the aether equation with the minimumenergy U at the temperature TAether, which has been confirmedby the COBE observations of TCMBR = 2.735±0.06 Kelvin (1)

κUV = Ghc2,

U = 3.973637×10−13 erg at TAether = 2.692064 Kelvin ,

K = Gc/κL2 = UL/hc = 2.000343×103.

Defining κ ≡ 1 erg/(sec×g2) and V = 1 cm3, it is seenthat if U is a variable, then the Newtonian G and the velocityof light c are dependent variables if Planck’s h is a universalconstant.

At higher energy densities of the aether, such as in thegalaxies, G and c would have other and higher values thanG=6.672426×10−8 cm3/(g×sec2) and c=2.99792458×1010

cm/sec of the aether equation and will need some coefficientρ to G, while the maximum value of c is supposed from apossible coefficient function to be cmax =

√2 c.

To have an idea of the extreme energy densities and theircorresponding ρ-values, we will have a look at the Schwarz-schild solution for the electron, from which to derive G:(2)

Gme/rec2 = 1/ρe = Gm

2e/e

2,

ρeGe2 = c4r2e ,

me = 9.109535×10−28 g ,

e = 4.803242×10−10 esu ,

re = 2.817937×10−13 cm ,

ρe = 4.166705×1042.

Considering the composite neutron, the proton+, andthe neutron-meson− we find that the meson must be themass difference between the neutron and the proton, and thatthe meson must be a special heavy neutron-electron, sincethe free neutron in relatively short time disintegrates into aproton, an electron, and some neutrino energy depending onthe velocities and directions of the parting massive particles.We therefore have with α, the fine structure constant:

mn = 1.674954×10−24 g ,

mp = 1.672648×10−24 g ,

mm = 2.305589×10−27 g ,

mpmm/m2e = αK

2/2π = K3e2/UL =

= ρe/ρp,m = 4.64723×103,

α = 7.297349×10−3,

ρp,m = 8.965996×1038.

As an analogon to the Schwarzschild electron solutionwe find:

ρp,mGmn/rnc2 = ρp,mGmpmm/e

2 = 1 ,

rn= 1.11492×10−13 cm would then be the radius of theneutron, and if the proton is calculated with the same co-efficient ρp,m,

ρp,mGmp/rpc2 = 1 ,

rp = 1.113386×10−13 cm .

52 O. D. Rughede. On the Theory and Physics of the Aether

January, 2006 PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Volume 1

If the neutron-meson should in fact be a heavy electron,and mm/me∼ 2.53, it would make sense if the mass-difference mm−me was the virtual gravitational mass ofthe neutron’s intrinsic proton-electron pair, whence we findfrom a first calculation mvir:

ρp,mGmpme/rnc2 = 9.096998×10−28 g ,

ρp,mGmpme/rpc2 = 9.109531×10−28 g .

We have hereby accounted for a neutron-meson of twicethe electron’s mass, while we need an explanation for theextra mass of 12 electron-mass in the neutron-meson. We willabstain from further calculations here and for the momentconsider it sufficient to have shown a double electron-massin the meson, pointing to the self-gravitation also of thevirtual mass as a probable solution to the deficiency of∼ 4.83×10−28 g meson-mass.

Regarding the self-gravitation of the neutron, it may beshown from a normalization of the neutron’s gravitationalpotential P , that the potential with respect of the centralproton, when the self-gravitation means an increment of themeson-mass from ∼2me to mm, would result in a slight-ly greater value of ρ by a factor of rn/rp=mn/mp==1.001378 (3) from ρp,m to ρn, so that ρn=1.001378ρp,m== 8.978353×1038. We then find from considering the gravi-tational potential of the neutron, as if produced by the centralproton alone in the distance rn, that it leads to the resultingpotential

P = ρnGmp/rn = ρp,mGmn/rn = c2,

ρnGmpmm/rn = Em .

Em=mmc2 is the total energy of the heavily augmented

neutron-electron to the full mass of the neutron-meson,mm=mn−mp. That the virtual gravitational mass of thefree neutron equals one electron-mass may be seen fromthe following equation, which interestingly shows the ratiobetween radii rp and re. It appears then that all the relationalconditions of the free neutron are completely deduced:

mvir = ρp,mGmpme/rpc2 = mmrp/re = e

2/rec2 = me ,

mm = e2/rpc

2.

Having demonstrated that the Newtonian G must be avariable of very great values at extreme energy densities,such as in the composite neutron (ρp,mG∼ 6×1031), it seemsreasonable to believe that the strong nuclear force is causedby such extreme values of the Newtonian gravitational factor.

We therefore assume that the neutron-meson would beable to bind two protons in the atomic nucleus by orbiting insuch a way that it shifts constantly between the two protons,of which the one may be considered a neutron, when the otheris a proton and vice versa in constant shifts of constitutionin the neutron-proton pair of a nucleus.

The binding orbit may hence be thought of in a mostsimple theoretical illustration as the meson following an Ovalof Cassini around the two heavy electrically positive chargedparticles, forcing them to the constant shifts of neutron-proton phase. And as will be known, the Lemniscate is theextreme curve of the Cassini Oval, with the parameters a = b,where the strong particle-binding would break in a proton anda free neutron that may possibly leave the nucleus.(4)

Of course, the real conditions of an “orbiting neutron-meson” cannot be made really lucid, since we know that theinteraction is rather a question of probability of distributionof charges and masses, when we observe the weak magneticmoment of the electrically neutral neutron.

However, it seems that the strong nuclear force may beaccounted for as a very strong gravitational force at extremeenergy densities, to which it is remarked that in the galaxies,with their very intense radiation from stars and gasses, wemay also expect special dynamics due to the variablility ofthe factor G, which would therefore account for the observedgalactic differential velocities and probably would explainalso the so-called “problem of missing mass in the Universe”.

As in fact gravitational action according to the aetherphysics is an electromagnetic phenomenon of energy ex-change in Planck quanta leaving an enduring train of im-pulses unto the gravitating masses, it seems that a unificationof the four fundamental forces in nature may be expectedfrom consideration of the physics of the aether.

From the aether equation we have found the constantK. Considering the composite neutron, mp+mm=mn, wehave the mass relation and the energy-charge relation:

(mpmm)/m2e = K

3(e2/UL) = K2(e2/hc),

Eere = Emrp = Eprm = e2.

It further follows that KΦ/c = Gmxmy/L2 for any pair

of gravitating masses in mutual distance L = 1 cm, when theradiant flux Φ [erg/sec] is Φx,y =κmxmy .

We will therefore show that a radiant aether flux Φ isthe common cause of the Coulomb force and the extremelystrong force of gravity in the neutron, manifest as the strongnuclear force

e2/r2n = ρp,m [(KΦp,m)/c]× [L2/r2n] =

= ρp,mGmpmm/r2n dynes ,

e2c/r2n= ρp,mKΦp,mL2/r2n= ρp,mGmpmmc/r

2n erg/sec ,

e2/mpmm = ρp,mKκL2/c = ρp,mκUV/hc

2 = ρp,mG ,

e2/G = ρp,mmpmm =M2JS .

For any pair of fundamental particles of unit charge ± esuthere seems to exist a dimensionless factor of proportionalityρ1,2, which, if made a coefficient of G, will balance theelectrostatic Coulomb force and the Newtonian force of

O. D. Rughede. On the Theory and Physics of the Aether 53


gravity at any distance between the charged particles. For anycharged pair of mass1 and mass2 the factor of proportionalitywill be ρ with the Johnstone-Stoney mass squared e2/G as aconstant: ρ1,2=M

2JS/(m1m2).

Demonstrating the validity of the foregoing derivations,it may be shown that, with the magnitude found for the co-efficient ρp,m, the dimensions rn, rp, and rm of the neutronmassesmn,mp, andmm are most easily given by the follow-ing simple relations:

ρKκmL2/c3 = ρGm/c2 = r ;

as is with ρe and me the Schwarzschild radius of the elect-ron re.

Generally, provided a local value of ρ can be found orestimated, the local gravitational potential P at any distanceR from the center of a gravitating mass M will be:

P = ρGM/R (cm/sec)2.

When, however, all ponderable matter is constituted as asum of charged particles, and the force of gravity as shown isan electromagnetic phenomenon by energy exchange in theaether space between any pair of masses via a radiant fluxΦ [erg/sec], which is proportional to the product of the twomasses, we generally have with some local value of ρ theNewtonian force between M1 and M2:

F = ρGM1M2/R2 = ρκM1M2UV/hc

2R2 =

= ρK [Φ/c]× [L2/R2] dynes .

The radiant flux KΦ may be thought of as aether energyat the velocity of light, which is bound in the line of distanceR between the gravitating masses, representing the gravitat-ional energy KΦL2/Rc and the equivalent virtual gravitat-ional mass KΦL2/Rc3 that belongs to the binary system. Itshould therefore be added to the sum of gravitating massesfor calculations of total potential and force including theself-gravitation of the aether energy in Φ.

In the composite neutron, however, only two elementarycharges are acting, the proton’s + e esu and the meson-electron’s−e esu. The latter is an ordinary electron, when theneutron disintegrates, and we have no idea whatsoever of avariation in the elementary charge e = 4.803242×10−10 esu.We conclude from the neutron equation, as from Schwarz-schild’s electron solution:

e2/r2n = ρp,mGmpmm/r2n ,

e2/mpmm = ρp,mG ,

that gravity is an electromagnetic phenomenon, and that itis the relation shown herein between charges and masseswhich governs the gravitational force between the neutron’sproton and electron at the extreme energy density of the freeneutron.

Presumably, it is the gravitational interaction betweenthe free neutron and all other masses in the aether space,by enduring energy exchange with the radiant energy of theaether, that makes the neutron unstable by emitting moreenergy to the aether field than is absorbed in the same intervalof time. This loss of energy is by radiation at the cost of themeson-mass, which diminishes, meaning a loss of mass andof the neutron’s energy density, thereby a reduction of thecoefficient ρ, of G. That means an increase in rn, the radiusof the free neutron, to a considerably greater dimension asa so-called “cold neutron” until the proton and the neutron-electron part with a random measure of the electron-meson’sbinding energy as a massless supply of neutrino-energy tothe aether.

The aether energy represented in the radiant flux Φ is,according to the theory, present in the aether space of infiniteenergy as random radiation at all wavelengths and in alldirections to and from the gravitating systems. Therefore theaction of gravity is immediate, say if one of the gravitatingmasses is suddenly increased, while any change in the grav-itating system will result in a signal which propagates in theaether space as a gravitational wave with the velocity of light.Such a signal may therefore be thought of as a modulation ofthe present radiant aether energy. The flux Φ is not a flow ofenergy from mass 1 to mass 2 and back again. It is a resultof the energy exchange in all directions between the aetherand the complete system and its single gravitating masses.According to the aether theory we have:

α(Kme)2 = 2πmpmm g2,

m

[e2/hν]× [Gm2e/λ

2] = [LΦp,m/U ]× [h/λ] erg .

Aether energy which is absorbed by a mass is immedia-tely re-emitted randomly to the aether, and in all directions.The action of gravity means work by impulses hν/c = h/λboth at absorption and radiation of energy, while reflectionmeans a double-pulse [2]. The gravitational work done bythe aether causes an increasing loss of aether energy, shownin the Hubble-effect of increasing redshift with distance ofall light from distant sources. The universal redshift thusis evidence of gravitational work, and not of any universalexpansion interpreted as a Doppler-effect. The redshift is incomplete accordance with the gravitational effect describedby Einstein’s theory of relativity, where we have to discrimi-nate between two types of gravitational effects: (1) the localredshift of a single mass also deflecting passing rays of light;(2) the redshift of distance called the Hubble redshift.

The speculative big-bang hypothesis therefore seemsabsurd and way beyond rational science, since General Rela-tivity has meaning only in application to a finite physicalspace of known and observable contents of masses andenergy, while the Universe is for all reasons of an infinitemightiness beyond some apparent limit of observation, and


January, 2006 PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Volume 1

when the idea of the Newtonian gravitational factor G asan universal constant cannot be upheld. The multitude ofindividual “galactic worlds” of very different types and agesin some general ongoing process of creation and decay by ageshould, on the other hand, be an obvious goal for scientificcosmological research.

The loss of energy to gravitational work is replenished bythe stars and all the energy producing astrophysical objectsby irradiation of new energy into the aether space at thecost of their masses. It seems clear that there ought to exista feedback effect working to keep the aether at a constantenergy level, which, however, may be left to future research.

The replenishment of free radiant energy to the aether-space by irradiation of Planck quanta at the velocity of lightis, as seen from the aether equation, regardless of any localcoefficient ρ:

hν/c = κUV/(Gc2λ) = (U/Kc)× L/λ ;

Khν = U × L/λ .

By the foregoing presentation of the theory and physics ofthe aether we have shown that gravitation is an electromag-netic phenomenon, and that the force of gravity is the resultof an enduring exchange of radiant energy between massand aether, by which the energy of the fundamental particlesfluctuates consistently with the QED-findings regarding thefundamental charge/mass proportion of the electron.

The theory of the aether thereby seems to confirm alsoEinstein’s finding 1928 [3] that “The separation of the grav-itational and the electromagnetic field appears artificial”, —when, of course, the aether-space is the seat of all physicalfields and forces.

In modern 5-dimensional Kaluza-Klein Theory the spe-cific space energy of the aether, or some identical localaether-parameter, such as for instance TAether Kelvin, wouldapparently represent the 5th dimension.

Provided the speculative unphysical STR is defined witha local energy density u of the aether space, and with thecondition that u shall be constant all over the actual physicalspace, ensuring a constant light-velocity c, the SpecialTheory of Relativity is a valid physical theory confirmedby observations.

Provided in any application of GTR the λ-term is definedwith the parameters of a black body radiation of energydensity u at the temperature TAether in the actual finite physicalaether space, and provided the local coefficient ρ to theEinsteinian gravitational factor χ is estimated correct, theGeneral Theory of Relativity may be applied to a first ap-proximation.

STR and GTR thereby should be useful sub-theoriesin the Theory and Physics of the Aether which, as heredescribed, appears as a natural continuation and extension ofDrude’s famous Physik des Aethers [4]. In thermodynamicsit should be noted that gravitational energy exchange by

radiation is a reversible process in open systems, thereforein no matter of the 2nd law.

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to Mr. Jeppe Kabell for the typesetting inLATEX, and for his meticulous and patient help in correctionsand proof-readings. For kind encouragements I thank withspecial gratitude the late professors Joseph Weber and PaulE. Kustanheimo, as also Emeritus Professor Bent Elbek,Professor Holger Bech Nielsen, Dr. Ole Remmer, and M.Sc. Frank Mundt.

Endnotes

(1) Since the aether is a perfect boson-gas, we have with a==8πV/c3 and b= kT/h, when ζ(x) is the Riemann ζ-function, L=1 cm, V =1 cm3, m=1 g the following sol-utions:

pV/kT = a2b3ζ(4) , U = ah6b4ζ(4) ;

p = u/3 , pV = U/3 ;

R/N = RG/NA = k = 1.380662×10−16 erg/Kelvin;

RT = ah2b4ζ(3) = kTN ;

RAether = 5.464489×10−14 erg/Kelvin ;

NAether = a2b3ζ(3) = 3.957876×102;

S = 4U/3T = Rζ(4)/ζ(3) = 4Ghc2/3kV T ;

SAether = 1.968074×10−13 erg/Kelvin ;

κ = Φ/m2 = χhc4/8πUV = 4Ghc2/3SV T ;

χ = Einstein’s gravitational factor ;

Φ/L2 = (Gm2/L2)× (4hc2/3SV T ) = κm2/L2.

(2) When for every mass m it holds that E=mc2, and thede Broglie wavelength λB=h/mv, we have for v= c thatEmλB = C =hc. When further the fine structure constant isα=2πe2/hc, a precise theoretical value of the NewtonianG may be derived from iterations on the shown Schwarz-schild solution for the electron and the very well knownvalue of α.

This theoretical value of G, which of all physical mag-nitudes is the most difficult to measure experimentally,is the universal Newtonian constant G= 6.672426×10−8

cm3/(g×sec2) at the minimum specific energy of the aetherat the defined universal mimimum temperature TAether== 2.692064 Kelvin=TCMBR according to the theory of theaether. At any higher aether temperature TAether>TCMBR, thusat a proportionally greater local energy density u erg/cm3,uAether>uCMBR, the Newtonian constant becomes a variable:ρG>GCMBR by a dimensionless coefficient of proportion-ality.

According to the aether equation we furthermore findKEmλC=UL, confirming the derived magnitudes of Uand G with utmost precision; thereby also the predictedtemperature TAether comparable with the experimental valuefrom measurements of TCMBR.

O. D. Rughede. On the Theory and Physics of the Aether 55


The relation K =UL/EmλC=UL/hc may be of in-terest in particle physics as in wave mechanics, since ac-cording to Planck the fundamental particles may be regardedas oscillating electromagnetic energy in standing waves, withthe oscillator parameters L [cm] andC [Farad], in which casewe have for the elementary charged particles of energy Em,and besides for the electron of energy Ee=mec

2 especially:Em = hν = mc2 = hc/λB = C = mLCω

2; Ee = Em(e) == e2/re .

(3) One finds from the small factor 1.001378=rn/rp=mn/mp,

rnmp/rpmn = reme/rpmm = 1 ,

reme = e2me/mec

2 = e2/c2 = rpmm ,

rnmp/reme = rn/r′p = rn/(rn − rp) ,

rn − rp = r′p = e

2/mpc2 ,

rememn/mmmprn = 1 ,

[e2/mmmp]×mn/rnc2 = 1 ,

e2/(mmmp) = ρp,mG ,

e2/G = ρp,mmmmp =M2JS ,

ρp,mGmn/rn = c2,

that both ρp,mG and the Johnstone-Stoney mass M2JS can

be derived with extreme precision alone from the founddimensions rx and masses mx, when at the same timeshowing correctly that the meson-mass mm and the proton-mass mp are both charged with e esu, whereas no electriccharge occurs at the neutronmn. It is such an overwhelmingdemonstration of the valid derivation of all the found dim-ensions, that no doubt seems possible.

The small extension r′p= 1.534×10−16 cm of space theproton-radius up to the neutron-radius, which in fact wouldbe the radius r′p of the proton, if calculated strictly likethe radius of the electron according to the Schwarzschildsolution, is the thickness of an outer spherical shell surround-ing the central proton of the free neutron, is why we may saythat the volume of this spherical shell of extremely narrowdepth r′p is the location of the bound heavy neutron-meson.

Calculation of r′n= 1.532×10−16 cm= e2/mnc2 retains

the ratio 1.001378= r′p/r′n and the exceedingly small dif-

ference r′p− r′n= 2.113×10−19 cm< 0.002 pro mille of the

neutron radius rn. If of any relevance at all, it will have toawait the results and precision of future research.

(4) From two protons in a torus of radii rp and re may begenerated the family of Cassini Ovals in planes parallel withthe torus axis. The Lemniscate may be seen in a section cutin a plane parallel to the axis through a point on the insideof the torus, i. e. in the distance (re− rp) from the axis.

The mutual distance of the protons in the Lemniscate is2√(re)2− (re− rp)2= 4.488×10−13 cm, or 4.031×rp cm

apart (according to Pythagorean calculation).

In case of a change of radii, re→ rp, or contrary rp→ re,the torus will degenerate into a non-Riemannian surface withone singularity in the axis.

References

1. Yourgrau W., van der Merwe A., Raw G. Treatise on irre-versible and statistical thermodynamics. The Macmillan Com-pany, N.Y., 1966, Chap. 3–9, 10, Statistics of a photon gas.Blackbody radiation and the laws of Planck and Stefan. (TheDover edition 1982 is an unabridged and extensively correctedrepublication).

2. Einstein A. Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung. PhysikalischeZeitschrift, XVIII, Leipzig 1917, 121–128.

3. Einstein A. Neue Moglichkeit fur eine einheitliche Feldtheorievon Gravitation und Elektrizitat. Sitzungber. K. Preuss. Akad.Wissenschaften, Phys.-Math. Klasse, Berlin 1928, 224–227.

4. Drude P. Physik des Aethers auf Elektromagnetischer Grund-lage. Stuttgart, Verlag von Ferdinand Enke, 1894.


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