on the fundamental terms of vitruvius's...

ON THE FUNDAMENTAL TERMS OFVITRUVIUS'S ARCHITECTURAL THEORY

PAVLOS LEFAS

Vitruvius unfolds his theory of arehitecture in I, 2, 1-9. In these passages he maintains that

architecture is distinguished from random building practice through a set of principles:

ordinatio, in Greek taxis, dispositio, in Greek diathesis, eurythmia, symmetria, decor,

distributio, in Greek oikomomia.1

There is, however considerable confusion surrounding these terms, and especially

ordinatio, ezuythmia and symmetria. 'Vitruvius assembles terms of aesthetic eritieism,

without clearly distinguishing [them]' comments F. Granger? J. J. Pollitt adds: '[Vitruvius's]

distinction between taxis and symmetria for example is hazy and redundant'.J And P. Gros:

'Malgre un discours qui se veut integralement coherent, il apparalt tres vite que les prineipes

constitutifs de I'art de b1l.tir, te! que cet auteur les definit dans son Iivre I, manquent souvenl

de precision et de pertinence,.4 On the other hand, a number of scholars, just as distiuguished

as the aforementioned, have sought to overeome the apparent incohereuce ill Vitrllvius's

theory. They, however, propose extremely complex interpretations or the lerms appeariug in

I, 2 and their interrelations.s But this is not Vitruvius's style: his lauil,uage may he quile

eonfusing, but, usually, what he says is quite simple.I fully agree with H. Geertmann who notes that 'fellomeni propri del lesto devollO ill primo

luogo essere spiegati con I'aiuto del testo stesso',6 and this is the way I am going 10

1 Vitruvius, De Architectura, I, 2, 1: 'Architectura Qutem cOllsla! ex ordill(J(iollc, qlf(lI~ gfI1N'{' taxis dh"iWf, din.

dispositione, hallc Qutem Graeci diathesin vaci/OJlI, et eurythmia et sY1l111lefritl (!f decor/? et dlSfl'ihllliO!lI', fjlUiC gr(Jctt

oecollomia dieitur =::; 'Now architecture consists of order, which in Greek is called taxis, nnd ()f lirrangcmenl, whichthe Greeks name diathesis, and of eurythmia and symmetry and decor and distribution \vhich in CirecK is calledoeconomia'. All quotations of Latin text and translations are taken from the l..{x~h edition, cd. nnd trans. F. ('iranger

(London 1931), unless otherwise indicated.

2 Vitruvius. De Architectura, Loeb edn. vol. 1,24, n. 1.

3 J. 1. Pollitt, The Ancient view ofGreek Art (New Haven and London 1974) 67.

4 P. Gras. 'Les fondements philosophiques de]' harmonie architecturale scion Vitl\lvc', JlV\ 14 (1989) 13ft".

5 E.g.. J. A. Jolles, Vitruvs Aestltetik, Ph. D. Thesis (Freiburg t905), C. Watzinger. ·Vill\lvstnlllen·. RhM 64 (1909)202 ff., F. Schlikker, Hellenistische Vorstellungen von der Schonheit des Bauwerk /lach Vi/nw, PhJ). thesis (Berlint940) 70 If., R. L. Scranion,'Vitruvius' Arts of Architecture', Hesperia 43 (1974) 494 ff., E. Frownls. 'Vitrnvc et ledessin d'architecture', Le dessin d' architecture dans les socittes Clntiques, Actes du colloque de ,)'tl'(/.vboul'g. 26·28.1. 1984 (Strasbourg 1985) 213 ff., H. Knell, Vitl'llVS Architekturtheorie. Versuch ciller l/lferp}"(~f(J(iolJ (Dannstadt

1985).6 H. Geertmann, 'Teoria e attualita della progettistica architettonica di Vitl1lvio', Le l)ro)el de Vilr1ll'{' (Poma 1994)

7ff.

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181PAVLOS LEFAS: FUNDAMENTAL TERMS IN VITRUVIUS

10 According to the Thesaurus Linguae Latinae, commoditas has the significance of ' ... rectus accommodatusquestatus alieuius rei.' TLL quotes Vitruvius's definition of Order. Again, modica has the significance of Greek metrion;mediocrus, temperatlls, conveniens are its synonyms. C. Fensterbusch. Ze/m Biicher aber Architektllr (Karlsruhe 1964)n. 42, identifies conunoditas with the Greek symmetria. P. Gros, Introduction to book 1II, Les Belles Lellres, p. XXX'

concludes that commoditaslcommodulatio and proportio are the equivalents or approximations of symmetria.

11 I agree with F. Granger in understanding commoditas as implying the notion of balance, and specifically as

'balanced adjustment.'12 Most scholars agree on the 'active' character of commoditas in the definition of ordinaria. So Granger understands'balanced adjustment', and Morgan 'gives due measure'.

J3 OLD lists the reference to Vitruvius' definition of ordinatio in I, 2, 1 under this meaning.

Item symmetria est ex ipsius operis membris conveniens consensus ex partibusque

separatis ad universae figurae speciem ratae partis responsus.

De meme la symetrie est I'accord harmonieux des membres de l'ouvragc mcme et lacorrelation reposant sur une partie calculee entre les parties prises separement et la

configuration de l'ensemble. (Heury)

Symmetry is a proper agreement between the members of the work itself, and relation

between the different parts and the whole general scheme, in 'accordance with a certain

part selected as standard. (Morgan)

Symmetry also is the appropriate harmony arising out of the details of the work itself; thecOlTespondence of each given detail among the separate details to the form of the design

as a whole. (Granger)

of the work itself and, starting from these individual parts of members, constructing the

whole work to correspond. (Morgan)

L'ordonnance est I'adaptation convenable des mesures des membres de I'ouvrage prisseparement et, pour l'ensemble, l'etablissement de rapports aboutissant 11 la symetrie. ElIeest eonstituee de la quantitas, qui se dit en grec posotes. La quantitas est le choix demodules apartir de <membres de> l'ouvrage lui-meme et une realisation harmonieuse deI'ensemble de l'ouvrage apartir des differents parties de ses membres. (Fleury)

In the definition of OrdinatioVitruvius uses two words with similar meaning (coll1l11oditllsand modica)lO both deriving from modus, the Latin word for Greek IIlctron(measui'{:). This

implies that Vitruvius does not speak of a state ofbalanee ll between the members of a work:for this the word commoditas alone would be sufficicnt l

' Vitruvius is speaking probably ofa design, an action by which the members of the work are adjusted to each olber. Thi~;

adjustment is described as modica, which I understand 10 mean Ihat it is carried OUI with 'asense of metron " or ~due measure'. The rectlls accollllllodllluSfjue sill/US is the result of Ihearchitect's work. So I suggest that the flrst part of the dcflnition of ordilllltio be understoodas follows: 'Order is the balanced and measured adjustment of Ihe meiuhcrs of the work

considered separately ... '.According to the Oxford Latin DictionQ/Y the noun ordillatio has the following meanings:

'I) the action of laying out in the correct relative positions, arrangement iJ... 2) the action of

putting in order (something confused), organization', and 'the ordering or regulating'. And

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The confusion surrounding the fundamental terms of Vitruvius's architectural theory

rcsulls: m my OpInIOn, from the way the Roman master uses the word symmetria. I argue thatVltl'llVIUS attaches to it three related, but not identical meanings: a rather general one, a strictone in accordance with the definition he gives in I, 2, 4, and a literal one. All these meanings,however, are compatible with each other. The threefold meaning of symmetria, the frequent

refercnce.to It m D~; Arcllltectura and the central role Vitl'llvius seems to have assigned to itIn tlic ,kllllltIon 01 ordinalio lead to thc assumption that it has a dominating importance inIllS theory 01 archllcctlJl'C.

'I.e principe,' writes P. Gros, 'qui nous apparai't de ce point de vue le plus riche est celuide la syrnmetria. Place en exergue des les premieres lignes du livre IH, il constitue, parmi

toutes les notIons abstrmtes mampulees avec plus ou moins de bonheur par Vitruve, le seulinvariant specifique applicable al'activite architecturale7; and H. Knell notes: 'Im Zentrumstehl sYlllllletria, dic auf ordinatio and quantitas beruht, sowie dispositio ermoalicht'.8 I donol subscribe to this view. I do not think that the use of the word sylllmetria ~y Vitruvius

IllIpllCS.tlJatthc ~llIthor of De Archilectura meant that symmetria is or should be the principlegoverlllllg arelllteetllre. He never states such a thing and, in my opinion, he never lets usilSSlllue it.

I find it hard to believe that Vitruvius referred to the concepts of which 'architecturaconstat' 'architecture consists' without any logical order or assessment of their relativeimportance. I am not convinced that he assigned what is regarded almost unanimously by

modern scholars as the most Important 'component' of architecture (or even its goal) - thatIS sylllll1etna - to fourth place. 'And first, as order demands,' he says at the end of Book H'I will describe the temples of the immortal gods'.9 Matters arc dealt with in order of priority;

thiS IS what anyone would do who wished to address Caesar himself. Let us consider thedefinitions of the terms ordinatio and symmetria as translated by F. Granger (Loeb, 1931),M. H. Morgan (Harvard U. P., 1914) and Ph. Fleury (Les Belles Lettres, 1990).

Ordinat~o .est modica .membrorum operis commoditas separatim universeque

proportlO.n~s ad symm~tnamcomparatio. Haec conponitur ex quantitate, quae graeceposotes dlCltUr. Quantltas autem est modulorum ex ipsius operis sumptio e singulisquemembrorum partibus universi operis conveniens effectus.

Order is the balanced adjustment of the details of the work separately, and, as to thewhole, the arrangement of the proportion with a view to a symmetrical result. This ismade up of Dimension, which in Greek is called posotes. Now Dimension is the takinaof modules from the parts of the work; and the suitable effect of the whole work arisin:from the several subdivisions of the parts. (Granger) b

Order gives due measure to th~ members of a work considered separately, andsymmetncal agreement to the proportions of the whole. It is an adjustment according toquantIty (m Greekposotes). By this I mean the selection of modules from the members

7 Gros, toc. cit. (n. 4 above)

8 H. Knet!, Vitruvs Architekturtheorie (n. 5 above) 34.

9 Vitruviu~, ~e Arch~tectura, n, 10,3: 'Et primwn de deorum immortalium aedibus sacris et de earum symmetriiset proporllOntbus, utI ordo postulat, insequenti perscribam.·

II

the verb ordino means: 'I) to sct out in ordcr, arrangc, ... 3) to make orderly or systematic,organi/J.:', It should be noted that Yitruvius defincs dispositio and not ordinario as the putting

of things in Iiw COII'(:Ct rdntive positions (more on this issue, below), so 'putting in ordcr' orseem 10 be Ihe meanings that besl eonvey Yilruvius's use of the term

14 Cicero N. D. n, 132: .... sic lllldique omni ratione concluditur menfe cOllsilioque divino omnia in hoc lIlundo adsa/utem omnium conservationemque admirabiliter administrari' (ed. H. Rackham, Loeb 1933). Vitruvius was a greatadmirer of Cicero, see De Architectura IX, praef., 17.

1\ Plato, TiIll(Jells, 30A (trans. R. G. Bury, Loeb 1929).

1(, ArhaoUc introduced the concept of art imitating nature, a concept which has retained its validity ever since.Vitruvius ul/.~c,s U~ to respect nature and 10 lemn from nature, and sees in good architecture an imitation - in a broad!)Cn~:;e of' ntHUll\ (;g. in n, 1, 6; 1II, 1,9; V, 2, 2. If nature is ordered, so should edifices be. This attitude is obviouslyinfluenced by Stoic philosophy, too. By 'according to natufe' (Greek kala physin) the Stoics connoted a well-structuredorder of values, ~ee SVF HI, 140-146. Also Cicero De Fill. Ill, 20: '.. selectio ... tum ad extref11Uf11 constansCOIlSCtlfancfuJ/i(! naturae, ill qua primum inesse incipit et intellegi quid sit quod vere bonum possit did;;:; ... finally,choice fully rationalized and in hnrmony with nature; it is at this finat stage that the Good properly so called first

emerges and comes to be understood in its true nature' (ed. & trans. H. Rackham, Loeb 1914).

17 The image of the world as a whole structured according to a strict rank order is vividly expressed in Cicero's N. D.;cf. also the pyramis bonorum in Cic. De Fin. TII, 20-23.

18 OLD lists among others the reference to Cic. De Off., 1, 151 under this meaning.

19 See LSI, sv. taxis.

20 Diels, Vors. 2, I, 15.

21 Diels, Vors. 4, 21, 15 quotes Aetius in writing: 'Pythagoras named the universe cosmol! because of the order

prevailing'. The word cosmos meant initially a well ordered entity, eg. troops, hair, etc., see LSJ,sv. kosmos.

22 Aris!. Metaph., 985 b. 1quote this passage as translated by H. Trendennick (Loeb 1933), except for taxis which 1

translate as 'order' instead of Trendennick's 'arrangement'.

(Jnilnorlt).Wc nmy note tlwl the !<ornan cultural environmenl of the late first century BC favoured the

undenwlI1ding of Ihe world as a well·struetured and ordered whole. Cicero concluded that"Ihus all considerations from every viewpoint demonstrate that everything in our world is

wonderfully ordered by divinc intelligence and design for the welfare and preservation ofall"" . a vielV not far from that of Plato who asserted that' ... God ... took over all that was

visible ... He brought it into order (taxis) out of disorder (ataxia), deeming the former stateis in all ways bctter than the latter'.ls An architectural theory which favoured well-structured

and ordered cntities would have been welcomed in this environment. 16

A well-structured and ordered whole presumes a rank order,17 and the establishment of this

is implied in everyday language by the term 'setting out in order': the noun ordo has,according to the OLD, the significance of ' .. , 5) civil or social standing, rank, position. IS I

will try to demonstrate that this is also the case with taxis, Greek for ordinatio, in Yitruvius's

architectural theory.Although the word taxis in everyday language had mainly the meaning of arrangement, 19

in many cases it implied a rank of order, a hierarchy. Anaximander spoke of the 'order of

time', which means 'in due time', 'in the course of time'?O The 'order' that led Pythagorasto name the universe cosmos21 was by no means devoid of connotations of rank. TheAtomists used the concept of taxis as a means of specifying a class of differences betweenthe atoms. Aristotle summarized their views:22 'These differences (ie. between the atoms),

they say, are ... shape (schema), order (taxis), and position (thesis); because they hold that


what is differs only in contour, intercontact, and inclination - of these contour means shape,intercontact order, and inclination position, Thus eg, A differs from N in shape, AN differs

from NA in order, and Z from N in position'. In AN, A comes first and N follows, whereasin NA, N comes first and A follows, Even if the Atomists did not wish to imply differencesof value between AN and NA this arrangement is prone to become loaded with connotations:in common experience what comes first is of greater importance than that which follows,>3Plato's God who brought order to the world of 'visible' things established a rank order, too,24If 'order' implied the presence or the establishment of a rank order in everyday languagc as

well as in philosophical views, why should it not be possible that Order signifies 'rank order'

in architectural theory?Vitruvius uses the words comparo and comparatio for an array of meanings, ranging from

'preparation' to 'provision' or 'putting together' and 'arrange' .25 According to TLL

comparatio has the significance both of ... praeparatio, and the Greek synkl'isis (comparison)and antithesis (contradiction).26 A very accurate translation of comparatio in English is givenby the OLD: '1) preparation, making ready, ... 4) combination, conjunction, 5) arrangement,settlement, but also I) comparison or weighing of the relative merits or other values ... 3)

relationship (of position).27In my opinion comparatio in the definition of ordinatio should be understood as carrying

both mcanings, that is 'arrangcmcnt containing an elemcnt of comparison', or 'arrangementaccording to relativc importancc', 'arrangement according to an cvaluation', in olhcr words'creation of a hierarchy', 'establislullcnt of rank ordcr', or, if Yitruvius auribuled a less activecharactcr to it, simply 'hicrarchy', 'rank order'. Is it legitimatc to assume that Vitruvius is

using comparatio here in this very spccific meaning? Although com[larlltio in no ollwrpassage of De Al'chitectura has a mcaning related to comparison, I consider this assumption

to be legitimate: when a word is uscd as term of an architcctural theory, it may have a veryspecific meaning, as long as this meaning does not contradict the meaning this word has in

everyday language.On the other hand propOltio can safely be understood as thc rclation of Il1agnitudes, in this

ease of the members of the work. The definition of proportio givcn in De IIrcltiteclllrII lll,1, 1 does not contradict this basic meaning: it rather focuses on the dcmand fill' a common

measure - just as quantitas does. More on proportio, latcr. For thc momcnt it is worth notingthat proportionis occurs in the definition of ordinatio in the genitivc singnlar. Why docs

Vitruvius not speak of 'proportions' in the plural? Although our author is not vcry consistentin his use of grammatical number, I believe that in the present ease we arc dealing with a

23 For the rank order associated with the concept of Greek prolOs and Latin primliS see LS'.!lllld Ol.D, respectively.

24 Cf. the aforementioned passage, Timaeus 30A (above, n. 15). Plato's cosmos is an ordered whole; rank order ispresent everywhere in Plato's world; in nature as well as in society; eg. 'first (in rank) and as elder among the gods,the earth was created ... ' (Timaells 40C).

25 In T, 5, 8 it means the putting together of various materials: ex his comparationibus ... pelfectus habel1fur ... mum.\'.In n, 7, I, provision: eximuntur copiae (of stones) et comparantur. In n, 7, 3 composition of a material: ita spissiscomparatiollibus solidata. In V, 6, 1 spatial arrangement: comparationes basilicaru1ll.

26 TLL lists the reference to De Architectura I, 2, I under 'comparison' and 'contradiction.'

27 OLD lists the reference to Cic. N. D. IT, 51 under 'relationship of position' : 'cum solis et lunae et quinque erramiumad eandem inter se comparatiollem confectis .,. ;;:; when the sun, the moon and five planets ... have returned to the Silllle

positions relative to one another.

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184 BICS-44 - 2000PAVLOS LEFAS: FUNDAMENTAL TERMS IN VITRUVIUS

34 From a grammatical point of view it is not clear whether haec refers to ordinat;o or syl1Ullffria, but the structureof this passage suggests to me that haec is substituted for the word at the beginning of Ihe preccding senlence, Ihal isordinatio, not the word at the end of the preceding sentence, that is symmetria. In the latter case Vitruvius wouldprobably have added a word, eg, item, as he does a couple of sentences later, in I, 2, 4: 'item symmetria est',

35 Quite a few scholars have pointed to Ihe relationship between architecture (and especially Order) and rhetoric,

among them P. Gros in his comments of Vitruvius's book Ill, where he gives extensive bibtiography on this subject.Geertrnann, 'Teoria e attualita '" ' (n. 6 above), noted: 'Egli comincia con la ordinatia, la taxis, base di tutto ancheneUa retorica.' See also L. CaUebat, 'Rhetorique et archilecture dans le 'de Arehitectnra' de Vitruve', Le projel de

Vilmve (Roma 1994) 3Hr.36 In this context Cicero's use, in N.D. 11, 51, of the word comparalio to signify the relationship of posilion reveals

similarities to Vitruvius's use of comparatio in the definition of ordinatio.

37 According to OLD effecIlIs has the meaning of '1) the making, creation (of somelhing organic), 2) Ihe carrying out

(of a purpose, task etc.), 3) that which is achieved.' In this case meaning 1) or 2) probably fits best. In any case, the'effect' is the result of the architect's work. Granger understands effecIl1S as 'effect', Fleury and Ferri (Vilmvio (doilibri 1- VII), reeensione del testo, tradllzione e note, Roma 1960) as 'execution', or 'realization', Morgan as 'effect'(in the definition of disposilio) and 'construction' (in the definition of Quantity).

38 The Greek equivalent of con~venio is probably syn~baillo, which among others means 'to be compatible', 'to agree',

see LSi, cv, symbainein.

Order is the balanced and measured adjustment of the members of the work consideredseparately, and the creation of an hierarchy of magnitudes, to keep symmetry in theoverall work', or, if we do not make use of the word 'hierarchy': 'Order is the balancedand measured adjustmcnt of the members of the work considered separately, and theestablishment of such a rclation of magnitudes, that symllletry is kept in the overall work.

In this context it makes perfect sense that 'haec (ie. ordinatio\.l) componitur ex qf/antitate'

== 'Order is composed of Quantity', which lunc!erstand as: Order is shaped through Quantity.

The hierarchy is created when the appropriate relative magnitude is attributed to each and

every single member of the work.Let me also suggest that Aristotle's concept of taxis in Rhetoric 1414a ff. implies the

attribution of right position and right length (that is the right magnitude) to the parts of aspeech.35 It is not inconceivable that this understanding of taxis, evolved in architecturaltheory into two separate notions: ordinatio, concerning the 'quantitative' aspects - the

dimensions of the members - and dispositio, concerning the 'spatial' aspects - the positions

of the members - of a work; more on dispositio, later.36

Quantitas is the 'selection of modules from the work itself'. I understand this to mean:

'Quantity is the establishment of a common measure; this common measure should beselected from the members of the work.' This obviously is intended to help bring about thecoherence of a well-structured whole. Quantity is also the 'e singulis membrorum partibusuniversi operis conveniens effectus'. In my opinion, effectus has the meaning of 'realization'or 'construction' .37 Conveniens 38 which mainly means compatible, and consequently harmonious and suitable, probably has here the meaning of harmonious. Conveniens 4Ji!ctf/s isthe 'harmonious' construction of the work, the construction of the whole in a way to make

it 'harmonious'.

conscious choice on his part. He speaks of the relation (in the singular) of magnitudes (of themembers) characteristic of the overall work: the relation (sing.) of magnitudes by which the

entire work is structured. 28

So comparatio proportionis could mean the creation of a hierarchy of magnitudes (of the

members of the work). But even if we suppose that comparatio means simply 'arrangement'it is the force of the genitive singular proportionis that leads to a similar interpretation:comparatio proportionis signifies the arrangement of the relation (not the relations) ofmagnitudes, or the attribution of (the proper) relative magnitudes (to the members of thework), whose purpose is to achieve symllletria (proportionis ad symmctriam cOlllparatio).

But what is meant by ad symmetrialll'? This is the point that causes what I regard to be amajor misunderstanding29

- and it is Vitruvius's language which is misleading. I suggest thatVitruvius is here using here the word symmetria in its literal meaning, that is a meaning

related but not identical to the meaning it has in the definition given in I, 2, 4.Symmetry, symmetria, implies that the elements of which the work is composed have a

common measure by which they can be compared with each other. Let us recall the basicdefinition of 'symmetrical' magnitudes as given by Euclid:30 'Symmetrical magnitudes are

those that can be measured by a common measure, and asymmetri~al magnitudes are thosefor which no common measure can be found.' In a broad, but still literal, sense twoasymmetrical magnitudes cannot be compared to each other, insofar as no common measureexists, by which the comparison can be carried out. In a narrow sense, they can be compared,

because a mathematical order of magnitudes can be established. 31 But, even in this case, ifthere is a conunon measure, then the comparison becomes more apparent, more 'tangible',

more obvious - it becomes an object of aesthetics. Furthermore, I have the feeling thatsymmetria in this context has the meaning it has in Philebos 25E and 64Eff: theincorporation of the metron in order to make two opposite things, two opposite conceptssymphona, that is congruous, to fit to each other.32 Ad symllletriam then means: (articulation

of the work according to a rank order, a hierarchy) striving to keep the members of the workcomparable to each other, to keep the metron in the overall work.

De Architectura was written at a time, when hierarchy in social life resulted in hugedifferences in social status and in everyday life. By what means was the life and social statusof imperator CaesarlJ comparable to that of a slave'? Any rank order tends to be'asymmetrical' in this sense. In architecture, one element may overshadow all the others, andrender them unimportant, or irrelevant. This is what Vitruvius fears, and this is the danger

2H cr. M. H. Morgan's translation: 'Order gives the due measure ... '

29 SchoJms unanimously agree that the purpose of ordinafio is to achieve symmefria in the sense symmefria is meantby Vill1lvius inlhe definilion given in I, 2, 4. Even H. Geertmann, who denies symmetry's cenlrat role asks himself:'perchc qucsta operazione della ordinaria?', and he replies: 'per ottenere in un edificio, dice Vitruvio, la situazioneo propricla della symmetria', 'Teoria e attuahta ... ' (see n. 6 above).

)0 Euclid, Elements 10, definilion I.

)1 ./2 is of lesser magnitude Ihan 2, although 2 is not x (x being a natural number) times ./2.

32 'The class of the equal and double and eve!)'thing which puIs an end to the differences between opposites and makesthem commensurable (syllllllelra) and harmonious (sYlllphona) by Ihe introduction of number' (Plalo. Phi/ebos 25E),'melriofes and symmetria are everywhere identified with beauty and virtue' (Plato, Philebos 64E, trans. H. N. Fowler,Loeb 1925).

:n Vitruvius, De Architectura I, 1, 1, for the dedication of the treatise to imperafor Caesar.

about which he is trying to warn us. I therefore suggest that ordinalio shouldunderstood as an 'arrangement of the proportion with a view to a symmetrical result'

places Order at the service of Symmetria - but rather as:

uot bewhieh

.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The concept of proportio seems to complicate matters, and requires further consideration.

Let us compare the way the term is used in De Architectura IH, I, 1:

39 Note 2. 2. 4 of bo~k I.

40 Translation up to 'standard' by M. H. Morgan. Granger translates the last sentence: 'for without symmetry and

proportion no temple can have a regular plan.'


Therefore, if it is agreed that number is found from the articulation of the human body ...it remains that we take up those who in planning the temples of the immortal gods haveso fixed the rank order of the members of the work ( they have attributed the appropriate

temple building, or if ratio is intended in a less specific sense, only then do we have a properplan in temple building. Proportion is the simple commensurability (col11modulatio), whereassymmetria possesses a qualitative aspect. This Symmetry possesses something of the 'mean'and the 'blending' of things opposed to each other described by Plato in the Philebos ME ff.

I take issue with Pierre Gros, who writes: 'Vitruve fournit une traduction satisfaisante (ofsymmetria) avee le terme commodulatio, designe effeetivement la eommensurabilite de toutesles eomposantes d 'une ceuvre eomplexe fondee sur le recours aune unite modulaire'.'1 This

is only partly true, for Vitruvius clearly states in the above-mentioned passage that proportio,

not symmetria, is ' ... ratae partis mel11brorum in omni opere totiusque cOl11modulatio.'

S)'l11l11etria, that is consensus, is found primarily in the arithmetical relationships observed

in the human body - a topic discussed by Vitruvius in Ill, I, 2-3. This whole passage can beunderstood as an answer to the question: when can we say that a set of arithmetical relations

is congruous, so that it results in a consensus? The answer given is: when the arithmeticalrelations are 'similar' to those found in the human body, for Vitruvius says that, 'the other

limbs (of the human body) also have their proportionate measurements ... In like fashion themembers of the temples ought to have dimensions of their several parts corresponding by acommon measure to the general sum of their whole magnitude' .42 It goes without saying that

not only symmetria, but also taxis, is inherent in the human body, for it is a clear, well·

structured whole.Vitruvius refers often to the 'symmetry' of a building. I suggest that this 'symmetry' is a

general way of speaking of the proportions and of the relation of magnitudes in a building- P. Gros probably has those cases in mind when he identifies commodulatio with symll1l'tria.

Vitruvius speaks of the symmetries of Doric doors in IV, 6, I and of the symmetries 01'columns in IV, 8, 2; symmetry appears along with proportion in IV, 8, 3, and we have

buildings 'laid out with other symmetries' in IV, 8, 4, all passages in which this genericmeaning of synllnetria fits best. On the other hand in passages in which symmetria is to beunderstood as having the meaning Vitruvius attaches to it in the definition given in J, 2, 4,I can only see here the author telling us how to achieve consensus, or how Symmetry should

be achieved in certain building types. He does not necessarily imply that Symmetry must beour major objective when designing a building. We should remember how Vitruvius

concludes his reference to the symmetry of the human body in Ill, J, 9:

Ergo si convenit exarticulis hominis numerum inventum esse ... relinquitur, ut

suscipiamus eos, qui etiam aedes deoru1l1 inl110rtalium constituentes ita membra opel'llm

ordinaverunt, ut proportionibus et sylll1l1etriis separatae atque universal' conv;'nientes

que efficerentur eorum distributiones.

41 P. Gras, Ioc. Cll. (Above, n.4).

42 Vitruvius, De Architeclura rn, 1,2 - 3: '... reliqua quoque membra suas habem commenSllS proportiones... simitifa

vera sacrarum aediwll membra ad universam !DrillS magnifudinis summam ex par/ihus singulis cOllvenienrissimulJIdehenr habere commensuS respOJ1sum, '

BICS-44 - 2000186

Aedium compositio constat ex symmetria, cuius rationem diligentissime architecti tenere

debent. Ea autem paritur a proportione, quae graece analogia dicitur. Proportio est

ratae partis membrorum in omni opere totiusque commodulatio, ex qua ratio efficitur

symmetriarum. Namque non potest aedis uUa sine symmetria atque proportione rationem

habere compositionis.

The design of a temple depends on symmetry, the principles of which must be most

carefully observed by the architect. They are due to Proportion, in Greek analogia.

Proportion is a correspondence among the measures of the members of an entire work,and of the whole to a certain part selected as standard. From this symmetry results.Without Symmetry and Proportion there can be no Reason in the design of any temple.'o

The 'harmonious' character of the work derives from the proper, suitable determination of

the basic relative magnitudes of the members and their parts, according to their importance,to their 'rank'. The analogy with the harmony of the world lies, in my understanding of

Vitruvius, in selecting the basic relationships between the magnitudes of the parts in such away as to create a hierarchically structured whole; this task can not be carried out bysymmetria as defined in I, 2, 4. The analogy with the harmony of the world can not simply

be based on the dozens of arithmetical relations that are inevitably to be found in a building,and which are related to symmetria: symmetria is the conveniens consensus, the harmoniousagreement between the members and between each member and the wholc. Symllletry,consensus, in my opinion, describes a compatibility of the elements composing a work, bascdon common measure. This is, in my understanding, the difference between quantitas andsynllnetria. Both result in harmony, but through different paths; I can not imagine Vitruvius

confusing two concepts outlined in the same chapter of his own treatise.I, therefore, subscribe to the first part of Ph. Fleury's aphorism,39 that 'la quantitas pour

Vitruve est la determination du "eombien grand"', but not to its second part: ' ... e'est l'actionde definir la symmetria pour un batiment donn6'. This view leads to total chaos concerningthe meaning of the notions quantitas and symmetria. Ordinatio, not sYllunetria is obviouslymeant in I, 2, 2, in the sentence following the definition of ordinatio: 'haec componitur ex

quantitate ... .' Order, not Symmetry is composed of Quantity. So, I translate:

Order is made up of Quantity which in Greek is called Posotes. Quantity is the selectionof modules from the work itself and, starting from the individual parts of members, the

construction of a harmonious whole.

J would suggest that Vitruvius's propDrtio cOlTesponds closely to the definition of symmetria

given by Euclid. Proportion is simply the arithmetical relations existing in a work, therelations between magnitudes, which arc formed on the basis of a module. When these aresuch that wc have consensus, then wc have syl11l11etria, and only then do we have Reason in

relative magnitudes to the members of the work), that by the help of proportion andsymmetry their several and general distributions are rendered congruous:'

Turning now to consider thc dcJ1nition of the term dispositio. If ordinatio is realized by the

attribution of the appropriate magnitude to the members of the work, dispositio, it seems,assigns the membcrs of the work to their appropriate relative position:


This has been variously translated as follows:

I ,a disposition est la mise en place COlTecte des elements et, grace aces arrangements, la

realisalion elegante d'un ouvrage ou apparait la qualite. (Fleury)

Quality, is intended, in my view, in a Stoic sense:? Polotes, the Greek for qualitas, was the

second 'calegory' of Stoic ontological definition, whieh made the substratum, the shapelessand unidentifiablc matter, a speciJ1c object.48 Understood thus, qualitas in this passage

becomes equivalent 10 what we mean today by 'identity'.Sueh a reading of qllalitas is matched by an interpretation of elegans as 'particular' or

'outslanding' (praestans, egregills):9 As already noted ejfectlfs therefore has the meaning of

'realization'. Elegans e.ffectus is the process of choosing the appropriate elements andappointing them to the appropriate place. It is the aelion by which a building is born out ofthe chaos of 'raw material' in disorder It is the shaping of a building out of a randomjuxtaposition of architectural elcments. It is the articulation of a spatially ordered whole. lo

The articulation is carried oUllhrough the composition or the membcrs. C'ompo.l'itiollilJlfs

appears in the plural. Although, as already nOled, Vilruvius is not very consistent in his useof grammatical number, I believe that in this case he is refcrring to a single building. So by

compositionibus I understand 'composite asscmblage', 'assemblage of the members in sucha way as to make them belong to many enlilies at the same time': A column musl beconsidered as a member of a colonnade, but as a member of Ihc column/ architrave! pediment

entity as well.Elegans and ejfectus encompass compositionibus and beeomc inherently linked. The in

terpretations proposed for elegans and qualitas may explain why Ihese two words appear in

Arrangement, however, is the fit assemblage of details, and, arising /i'om this assemblage,the elegant effect of the work and its dimensions, along with a certain quality of character.

(GrangeI')

Arrangement includes the putting of things in their proper places and the elegance ofeffect that is due to adjustments appropriate to the character of the work. (Morgan)

Dispositio autem est rerum apta conlocatio elegansque compositionibus ejfectlfs operis

cum qualitate!6

46 Vitruvius, De Architectura, I, 2, 2.

47 Vitruvius is quite eclectic in his views, but in a great many cases he is inlluenced by Stoic philosophy, e.g. in hisviews on the creation of civilization in I1, I, 1-7, and in his ethical considerations in VI, pracf 5: VII, praef 1-·8.

48 The four categOIies of Stoic ontological definition are substratum, quality, stale and relative state, each or them

comprising the preceding ones.

49 According to TLL some of the latiore sensu meanings of elegans are praestans, egregills, peJj'ecfus, and whenrefening to man-made objects bene compositus etc. According to OLD elegans has the significance of '1) carefull inchoosing, fastidious, peculiar' etc.

50 Vitruvius uses the word elegans in 16 cases and elegantia in a further 6. In quite a few instances it has the meaningof 'well fanned', 'well composed' ego I, 6, 1: 'oppidwn Mytilenae magnijicenfer est aedificatum et eleganter ... ::::: thetown of Mytilene is magnificently built and well fanned ... '; V, pr., 1: 'verborum elegans disposifio ::::: the nicearrangement of words'.

BICS-44 - 2000188

This reading understands ordino as having a meaning similar to that of ordinatio, that is the

establishment of a rank order, whieh is realized by the allribution of the appropriatemagnitude to the members of the work. Once more Symmetry is subordinate to Order, notviee··versa. Its function is to render congruous a selling outlined by Order.

1 would suggest that Order in this sense is one of the main issues of the De Architectura,

although its author explicitly refers to it only in a few passages. He describes variousbuildings and their structural parts without saying 'this is how the proper Order will be

achieved'. Such is the case with distributio and dispositio, too. But it should be noted thatby prescribing the proportions of the members Vitruvius prescribes their relative magnitudes,and by that their rank order, even if this is not made explicit to the reader. When, forexample, he describes the peripteral temple as one which has 6 by 11 columns he speaks of

Order: the relation of magnitudes between the columns and the pediment is, more or less,set.44 And in his accounts of the three architectural orders a major step is taken towards theattribution of the proper relative magnitudes, and bestowing the proper Order on the buildingitself. Here the passage in IV, praef., 2 is relevant:

Ex tribus generibus quae subtilissimas haberent proportionibus modulorum quantitates

ionici generis moribus docui.

Of the three orders which, through proportional magnitudes, furnish the most subtleQuantities, I have set forth the Ionic order as it has been formed by tradition.45

Vitruvius summarizes his treatment of the Ionic order through the concept of Quantity, which

is a component of ordinatio, not through that of symmetria. I understand the property ofOrder to be inherent not only to the Ionic, but also to the Doric and the Corinthian orders.The column shafts have an appropriate magnitude in relation to their capitals, the architraveto the column capitals, the pediment to the architrave.

'D F. Gmnger tnmslatcs: 'Therefore, ifit is agreed that number is found from the articulation of the body ... it remainsthat we take up those who in plmming the temples so ordained the parts of the work that, by the help of proportion andsymmetry, their several and general distribution is rendered congruous.'

44 Vitmvius, De Architectura, rrr, 2, 5: 'The pe.ipteral will be that which shall have six columns in the front and sixat the back, and on either side eleven, countinl5 in the angle columns.'

45 This is my translation of this passage. It is not clear whether we should translate together proportionibus J11odul~anun, or modularum quantitates. The word modulus is often used by Vilruvius in a generic way to indicate the dimen~

sions of a building, so De Architectura, IV, 1,8: 'subtilitateque iudiciorum progressi et gracilioribus modulis delectati

septem crassitudinis diametros ... con-stiWerullt;;;; having made progress in refinement and delicacy of feeling, andfinding pleasure in more slender pro-portions, they have established seven diameters ' (trans. M. H. Morgan); Ill,5,9: 'oculi species ... incertam modul-orum renuntiat sensibus qllantitatem ;;;; the eye conveys to the mind only aconfused estimate of the dimensions.' (trans. M. H. Morgan). So what is meant here is either 'proportional rnagnitudes;;;; (members) whose magnitudes have proportional relationships to each other' or 'quantities of magnitudes ;;;;(members) given the appropriate relative magnitude'.

II

I

III


Eurythmy is a beautiful aspect and a balanccd appearance of the rncmhers in Iheir

composite assemblage.

The meaning of the word eUlythmia in the Classical tradition has been discussed

exhaustively. H, Brunn claimed there was in eurythmia a 'Milderung' of symmetria.57 ForC. Watzinger it represented the visual effect of dispositio,58 and for F. Schlikker the 'grace

fulness' of a work,59 The major issue remains the real meaning of rhythmos: is it 'shape', or

'form', or 'rhythm' in the modern sense of the word - that is, does eurythmia mean 'the

quality of being well shaped, well formed', as J. J. Pollitt60 puts it, or 'having a pleasant

rhythm, or rhythmical movement'. Ancient sources indicate the former interpretation as more

probable, without excluding, however, the latter: E. Petersen made a major contribution on

this issue showing that rhythmoi were the 'positions' of the body during a dance.61

Ellrythmia is in the first instance, for Vitruvius, venusta species; as mentioned above,

species has the meaning of 'visual appearance', 'form' and 'shape'. Venus/a species can

probably be identified with the attribution of the 'quality of being well shaped' to Ihe

mcmbers of a work. If I have it right, Vitruvius assigns appearance to third place, after

magnitude and position: the membcrs should have the right magnitude, the right position, and

a pleasing appearance.Vitruvius does not speak of each single member; ellrythmia resides 'in compositioniblls

membrorum', that is in what we have called the 'composite assemblage' of Ihe members,"!

This is underlined by the second term needed to be fulfilled in order f(l!' c/u)'thmia to be

achieved: commodus aspectus, the balanced appearance, Ihe 'tilting aspect' of the members.

So I translate the essential definition as:

L' eurythmie est l'apparence gracieuse et I'aspect bien proportionne qui reside dans la

composition des membres, Elle se realise quand les membres de I' ouvrage ant une hauter

en rapport avec la largeur, une largeur en rapport avec la longeur, et au tolal quand toutes

les parties correspondent il la symetrie qui leur a ete fixee. (PIeury)

57 H. Brunn, GeschichIe der Griechischen Kilns/ler (2nd edn. Stuttgart 1889) 98 ff.

58 C. Watzinger, 'Vitruvstudien', RhM 64 (1909) 202ff.

59 F. Schlikker, Hellenistische Vorstellllngen von del' Sclzonlzeit des Ballwerks llach Vitruv (n, 5 above), 70 ff.

60 J. J, Pollitt, The ancient view ... , 153 ff. Pollitt gives a very accurate translation of Vitruvius' ewythmia: 'Ellrythrnia

is a beautiful appearance and a fitting aspect of the parts in compositions', The ancient vie\v "', 145.

61 E. Petersen, 'Rythmus', AbhGott, N. F. 16 (1916-17)1 ff.

62 See above, in my interpretation of the term dispositio.

In order for a work to be distinguished by Eurythmy its members should have a pleasing

appearance when perceived as parts of a group; they should possess the quality of being well

shaped as constituents of a set. Vitruvius asks: Has a column the appropriate en/asis in order

to look strong enough to hold the entablature and the pediment? Arc the columns Ihick

enough for the colonnade to have a balanced appearance? He does not ask: Is the column

beautiful per se? In this context both notions of eurythmia apply: for a set of relatcd objects

to have a 'beautiful aspect' and a 'balanced appearance' almost mcans that they are to be

'distinguished by a pleasant rhythm'.

..,IIIIIiI

B1CS-44 - 2000

Eurythmy is beauty and fitness in the adjustments of the members. This is found when the

members of a work are of a height suited to their breadth, of a breadth suited to their

length and in a word, when they all correspond symmetrically. (Morgan)

Proportion implies a graceful semblance; the suitable display of details in their context.

This is attained when the details of the work are of a height suitable to their breadth, of

a breadth suitable to their length; in a word, when everything has a symmetrical

correspondence. (Granger).

Ewythmia est venusta species cOl11l11odusque in conpositionibus membrorul11 aspectus.

Haec efficitur, cum membra operis convenientia sunt aftitudinis ad latitudinel11,

fatitudinis ad fongitudinem, et ad summam omnia respondent suae syl11metriae.

190

what would otherwise be the least expected place: in the definition of dispositio rather than

that of eUlythmia, or symmetria.In sum, I suggest the following translation for the definition of dispositio:

Arrangcment is the proper placement of architectural elements and, through their

composite assemblage, the shaping of the work's identity.

It makes perfect sense that the sentence following this definition reads: 'species disposition is

... sunt lzae: ichnographia, orthographia, scaenographia'. I understand this to mcan:

'Arrangement is apparent through ground-plan, elevation, and perspective'.51 Dispositio

becomes manifest through these three ways of 'depicting the work to be' that is by the right

placement of the elements of a work in a well-structured whole." The neat arrangement of

various rooms round the peristyle of a palaestra53 is to be seen in the ground-plan (Greek

ichnographia); the elegant distribution of columns and antae in a stage wa1l54 is to be seen

in the elevation (Greek orthographia); the pleasing arrangement of a T-shaped basilica

roomss is to be seen in the 'perspective' (Greek scaenographia).56 Both ichnographia and

orthographia must be carried out modice, which in my understanding, means, here too, with

'due measure' (Granger: 'competent', Morgan: 'proper', Fleury: 'il I'echelle').

Let me now offer some remarks on Vitruvius's definition of eurythl11ia, the third in

sequence of the terms mentioned in I, 2, coming just before that of syl11l11etria.

51 Granger translates: 'The kinds of the Arrangement are ... ' Morgan: 'Its fmms of expression arc ... ' Fleury: 'Les

aspects de la disposition ... sont ... '

52 Species has the meaning of 'aspect' or 'visual appearance' and not of a 'subdivision of class' in all five passages

in which it is used in book I: I, 1,4; 1, 2, 3; I, 2, 4; I, 2. 5; I, 3. 2. According to OLDjpecies has the meaning of' I)

something presented to view, a spectacle, sight ... 3) visual appearance, look, aspect ... 5) outward appearance ... 10)a subdivision of class or kind, a sort, species'. According to LS] the equivalent Greek word eidos has the following

meanings: 'I) fom1 ... 2) material shape ... 3) shape, form, expression' etc.

53 A topic discussed in V, 11, 1-11.

54 Discussed in V, 6, 6.

55 Discussed in V, 1,9-10.

56 I do not understand 'perspective' as a single vanishing point perspective, but as a 'primitive' method of determining

the diminution of magnitudes depending on the distance of the depicted objects from the viewer; see P. Lephas, 'OnVitruvius's concept of scaenographia', Quaderni ticinesi di ll11mismatica e alltichita classiche 25 (1998) 261 ff.

p

,

rI'_._5 •• _

192 BICS-44 - 2000 PAVLOS LEFAS: FUNDAMENTAL TERMS IN VITRUVIUS 193

'EUlythmia efficitur cum ... =Eurythmy is achieved when ... " I understand: 'The pre

requisite of eurythmia is ... " or:

This is achieved,when the members of the work are of a height suitable to their breadth,

of a brcadth suitablc to their length; and in a word,when they all correspond symmetrically.

'SYlllllletros est ell1ythllliae qualitas' points out Vitruvius in I, 2, 4, which I understand as

follows: 'In order for eurythmia to be achieved, and in order for the members to have a

pleasing appearance when perceived as parts of eomposite assemblages, those members

should be symmetrical'. In other words there Illust be a harmonious agreement between the

members of the work based on the adoption of a common measure. Symmetry serves

Eurythmia, just as it serves Order.

Wc arc faced with the task of establishing 'objective' criteria in a field dominated by

'taste', i.e. subjectivism. It is obvious that Vitruvius, a Roman military engineer, does not feel

f~uniliar enough with a so-called 'artistic' approach to Architecture. He tries to determine

rationally how a pleasing appearance is produeed and he introduces the notion of sets of

members, for whieh the laws resulting in the 'beauty' of a set of objects may be clearlydescribed; this is not the case with the laws resulting in the 'beauty' of a single objeet. So,

Vitruvius's eUlythmia seems to depend rather on reason, than on impulses.

Let us consider Vitruvius's arguments for the need for refinements (or optical correetions),

in Ill, 3, 11 and IV, 4, 3. He writes in Ill, 3, 11: 'the angle columns also must be made thicker

by the fiftieth part of their diameter, because they are cut into by the air and appear more

slender to the spectator' Y Here we can discern the theory, aecording to which vision is based

on 'emanations' (aporroai) of the objects that we see Gust like something we smell). The

corner columns, being more exposed to the air than the others, are subject to greater lossesof 'emanations', and therefore appear thinner than the others. In developing his argument,

Vitruvius does not have reeourse to observations relating to the 'psychology' of the observer.He bases the need for refinements on 'objective laws', on the 'laws of nature'.

It is in the sphere of optical corrections that we have one of the few ancient references toeUlythmia as a concept relating to architecture.64 The reference is by Philo Mech. (4, 4) who

notes that '(members) of equal thickness and constructed perpendicular appeared to be of

unequal thickness and not perpendicular ... because the eyes deceive us ... So, by a process

of trial and error, adding to masses and again subtracting from them, and establishing tapers

and trying out every possible means, architectural forms are produced which are suited to the

vision and appear ell1ythma' .65 Although his goal is similar to Vitruvius' (viz. the produetion

of well-shaped forms), Philo seems to place emphasis on the 'psychological' element, the

'subjective' element - since he does not give any 'scientific' explanation of these phenomena

- to the detriment of the 'objective'.

63 Transtated by F. Granger.

64 An other passage. attributed to Geminus (or Damianus?). which apears in Heron's Def 135 may be referring topaintings. probably stage paintings, and not to buildings: it points that architects, 'when drawing buildings. must makethe columns thicker in the middle, so as to create a work that is ell1ythmon with regard to the way in which we perceiveit.' Since the possibie dates of this passage range over a period of 400 years, (see P. Schuhl, Platoll et I'art de SOil

temps (Paris 1933) 74 ff.), it can really be of little help in the present discussion.

65 Tnmstated from 'So ". ' up to 'appear' by J. J. Pollitt, The Ancient View ofGreek Art (1974), 144:Philo explainsthe process of refinement of architectural forms through history.

A modicum of subjectivity may be felt in Vitruvius's reference to ell1ylhmia in VI, 2, 5

and only there - where he urges the architect to adjust the symmetries of private buildings.

The adjustments, however, aim at fitting the buildings into the given sites; they should result

in proportionis ad decorem apparatio, that is they must be made with 'regard to approp

riateness of proportion'. In other words, they must be justified and obey commonly held

aesthetic and social conventions. So, I cannot fully subscribe to J. J. Pollitt's view that

Vitruvius's eUlythmia was a 'pleasing quality which arose from the alteration and adjustment

of concrete forms and it was something which had to be understood subjectively, than

demonstrated objectively'.66 On the contrary, I feel, that Vitruvius, against the current of his

time, wantcd architecture to scrve the Bcautiful only when this necessarily implied that it alsoscrved Reason.

The important role of Eurythmy in Vitruvius's arehitectural theory is, in my vicw, well

established. We should bear in mind the definition of euryrhll1ia, if we want to understand

the definition of symll1elria without loading it with meanings the Roman architect never

intended. Morgan's translation is excellent; nevertheless I would substitute 'harmonious' for

'proper' in order to emphasize the concept of conveniens consens'rls.67

Symmetry is a harmonious agreement between the members of thc work itself and relation

between the different parts and the whole general sheme, in accordance with a certain part

selected as standard.

On the concept and definition of decor there is little that needs to be said. As J. J. Pollill

puts it: 'As applied to architecture by Vitruvius, decor is the principle by which one judges

whether the form of a building is appropriate to its function and location and whether thedetails of the building are appropriate to its total form' .68

Decor autem est emendatus operis aspectus probatis reiJUS conposili cum auclorilale. Ispelficitur statione, quod graece thell1atislI1o dicitur, sel/ consl/ellllfine (1111 flarl/I'll.

Decor demands the faultless ensemble of a work composed, in accordance with prece

dent, of approved details. It obeys convention, which in Greek is called thell1alisll1os, orcustom or nature. (GrangeI')

Propriety is that perfection of style which comes when a work is authoritatively

constructed on approved principles. It arises from prescription (Greek thell1atismo), fromusage, or from nature. (Morgan)

La convenance est I' aspect soigne d'un ouvrage realise avec qualite au moyen d'elements

eprouves. On I'obtient en suivant une regie, qui se dit en grec thell1atismo, I' habitude ou

la nature. (Pleury)

66 J. J. Pollitt. loco cit., 148.

67 See above on proporfio and symmetria. Vitruvius's definition of Symmetry in Latin, along with translations byF. Granger. M. H. Morgan and Ph. Fleury. is quoted above in this paper just after the definition and respectivetranslations of Order. The French translation of sYl1Jmetria in the Belles Leftres edition is, in my view, also excellent.

68 J. J. Pollitt, The Ancient VieIV ofGreek Art (1974), 69.

194 BICS-44 2000 PAVLOS LEFAS: FUNDAMENTAL TERMS IN VITRUVIUS I')')

Elaborating on decor which pelficitur ... statione Vitruvius tries to show that there is directCOlTespondence between the gods and architectural orders; this is thc only manifestation ofdecor realized by statiO/le. I interpret statione as: 'by taking into account the status' of aperson, or of a God.69 I do not understand the tcrm as following somc rulcs or prescriptions,

but the aknowledgement of somebeing's unchallenged status and the response to it. I suggest

as a translation:

Propriety is the faultless appearance of a building composed of approved elements onestablished principles. It arises when account is taken of status _. in Greek themarismos,

custom, and nature.

The concept of distributio, the sixth and last term mentioned by Vitruvius, is the leastcontentious, dealing as it does with economical use of site and materials and effective and

reasonable cost management.

Distributio autem est copiarum locique commoda dispensatio parcaque in operibus

sumptus ratione temperatio.

Distribution or Economy, however, is the suitable disposal of supplies and the site, and

the thrifty and wise control of expense in the works. (Granger)

Economy denotes the proper management of materials and site, as well as a thrifty

balancing of cost and common sense in the construction of the works. (Morgan)

La distribution est la repartition convenable des ressources et du terrain et, dans les

OlIVl'ages, un sage equilibre des depenses grace au calcul. (Fleury)

'1'0 sum up: Architectura constat ex ordinatione ... Architecture consists of Order ... and

110t, as C. Favcntinus claims, architecturae partes SUlI! .. (thc parts of architccturc arc ... ).What transforms simplc building practice into architecture is ordinatio, diojJositio, eUl)'thm.ia,

symmetria, decor, and distributio.Ordinatio, Order, is the first principle mentioned by Vitruvius, so we may conclude that

it is regarded as the most important one. Its objective is the creation of a hierarchy, theestablishment of a rank order among the elements constituting the work, by attributing theproper magnitude to each one of them. This attribution is called posotes, Quantity.Dispositio, Arrangement, is the second principle mentioned. It deals with the right placement

of the elements, their right grouping, by which the work acquires its unique identity. It isapparent in the ground-plan, in elevations, in perspectival views. EUI)'thmia, Eurythmy is the

third principle; it is the attribution of the quality of being well formed to each one of themembers, in such a way that the members may be perceived as forming groups distinguished

by balanced appearance. Symmetria, the fourth principle, describes the internal harmony ofthe work, achieved when there is consensus between members formed on the basis of amodule, and between members and the whole, that is when the proportions are congruous.Decor, the fifth principle, deals with the 'appropriate' articulation, the 'authoritative'

69 Vitruvius, De Architectura, I, 2, 5. 'Status' should be understood latiore sensu. Vitruvius asserts that 'theconstruction of temptes of the Ionic order to JUllO, Diana, Father Bacchus, and the other gods of that kind, will be inkeeping with the middle position (lwbifa erit ratio mediocrifalis) which they hold' (trans. M. H. Morgan),

construction of the work on principles respecting religion, nature, and social conventions.

Distributio, finally, aims at achieving the bcst result with thc mcans one has at one's disposal.So, according to my argument, although the 'components of architecture' arc equal in villue

from onc point of view, the order in which they arc mentioned is not fortuitous. In the

designing of teehnieill works, Vitruvius plilees grL'iltest emphilsis on !<r:il,;on in general, andsecondarily on proportious, or arithrnetieal relations. J believe thilt it is in Order 111IIt 'pure'Reason, free of all material constraints, is primarily manifested: rank order is the cornerstoneof well·,structured wholes, governed by Reason. Dispositio, the arrangement of the elementsof the work, depends to a grcat cxtent on Reason, too, since it is closely related to theconstitution of well-structured entities. Elu)'thmia, since it involves sets of elements, is closeenough to pure Reason, since well-structured entities are by definition beautiful. Symmetria

is distinct from pure Reason, since it depends on the notion of consensus applied tomathematical relations of purely technical character. Decor is much more dependent onpractical constraints, than on pure Reason, since it is the 'proper' articulation of the work,

which takes into account natural, social and historical factors. At the bottom of the scale isDistributio, which is no more than a 'reasonable' economic response to Necessity.

Let us conclude with the proposed translation for all six definitions given by Vitruvius:

Order is the balanced and measured adjustment of the members of the work consideredseparately, and the creation of a hierarchy of magnitudes, to keep symmetry in the overallwork. Order is made up of Quantity, which in Greek is called Posotes. Quantity is theselection of modules from the members of the work itself and, starting fi'om the individual

parts of members, the construction of a harmonious whole.Arrangcment is the proper placement of architectural elements and, through their

composite assemblage, the shaping of the work's identity. Arrangement is apparentthrough ground plan, elevation, and perspective.

Eurythmy is a beautiful aspect and a balanced appearance of the members in their

composite assemblage.This is achieved, when the members of the work are of a heightsuitable to their breadth, of a breadth suitable to their length; and in a word,when they all

correspond symmetrically.Symmetry is a harmonious agreement between the members of the work itself and

relation between the different parts and the whole general scheme, in accordance with a

certain part selected as standard.Propriety is the faultless appearance of a building composed of approved elements on

established principles. It arises when account is taken of status - in Greek thematismos- custom, and nature.

Economy is the suitable disposal of supplies and the site, and the thrifty and wise

control of expense in the works.

Vitruvius created a properly constitutcd, clearly articulated system of values that needed tobe present in a technical work for it to cross thc borders from handicraft, from tec/me in the

ancient sense of the word, to become Architecture.

Athens

Ancient Authors

J. J. Pollitt, The Ancient View o/Greek Art (New Haven and London 1974).

H. Knell, VimlVS Arclzitekturtlzeorie. Versuclz einer Interpretation (Darmstadt 1985).

197

Vitruvius, De Architectura, ed. trans. Ph. Fleury (Les Belles Lettres 1990).

PAVLOS LEFAS: FUNDAMENTAL TERMS IN VITRUVIUS

Vitruvius, De Architectura, trans. M. H. MOl'gan (Harvard U. P. 1914).

Vitruvius, De Architectura (dai libri 1-VII), ed. trans. S. Ferri (Roma 1960).

Vitruvius, De Arclzitectura, ed. trans. F. Granger (Loeb 1931).

Vitruvius, De Architectura, ed. trans. C. Fensterbusch (Karlsruhe 1964).

Plato, Philebus, ed. trans. H. N. Fowler (Loeb 1925).

Plato, Timaeus, ed. trans. R. G. Bury (Loeb 1929).

Euclid, Elements, ed. J. L. Heiberg - E. S. Stamatis (2nd edn Teubner 1977).

Heron, De! ed. J. L. Heiberg (Teubner 1912).

Philon Mech., Synt. ed. R. Schoene (Berlin 1893).

BICS-44 - 2000196

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H. Geertmann, 'Teoria e attualita della pragettistica architettonica di Vi"truvio', Le projet deVitruve (Roma 1994) 7ff.

E. Petersen, 'Rythmus', AblzGott, N. F. 16 (1916-17) Iff.

J. A. Jolles, Vitruvs Aesthetik, Ph. D. Thesis (Freiburg 1905).

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on the fundamental terms of vitruvius's...

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