On Family On Family Structures Structures

and Stepfamiliesand Stepfamilies

Becker - “A Treatise on the Family”Becker - “A Treatise on the Family”

Cherlin & Furstenberg – “Stepfamilies in Cherlin & Furstenberg – “Stepfamilies in the US”the US”

Phillips – “Stepfamilies from a Historical Phillips – “Stepfamilies from a Historical Perspective"Perspective"Presented by: Andrew

Carvajal

““A Treatise on the A Treatise on the Family”Family”

Economic approach to the long-term Economic approach to the long-term evolution of the family and its recent evolution of the family and its recent changeschanges

Use of a rational choice model of cost-Use of a rational choice model of cost-benefit analysis in explaining the benefit analysis in explaining the organizations of families in a fashion organizations of families in a fashion that satisfy selfish needs that satisfy selfish needs

GARY BECKER

TraditionTraditionalal

Modern Modern FamiliesFamilies

vs.vs.

TraditionaTraditional Societiesl Societies

Have to cope with a problem of uncertainty and Have to cope with a problem of uncertainty and limited information – High death rates and limited information – High death rates and unpredictable availability of resources unpredictable availability of resources

In lieu of a formal method of insurance against In lieu of a formal method of insurance against uncertainty they generate a large kin in order uncertainty they generate a large kin in order to gain protection, share good fortunes with to gain protection, share good fortunes with others and rely on relatives for assistance when others and rely on relatives for assistance when in trouble in trouble

The kin ensures cooperation and collective The kin ensures cooperation and collective action by helping monitor its members and action by helping monitor its members and punish defectors who abuse it, free ride or act punish defectors who abuse it, free ride or act against the well being of its members - Self-against the well being of its members - Self-interested altruism interested altruism

Traditional Societies Traditional Societies cont’dcont’d

Elders are esteemed for their knowledge, and their Elders are esteemed for their knowledge, and their lifestyles are replicated by future generations for the lifestyles are replicated by future generations for the family to continue being self-sufficient family to continue being self-sufficient

Reputation of the family is important to the self-Reputation of the family is important to the self-interest of its members and marriages ensure that interest of its members and marriages ensure that there is no mixing with dishonourable names - Large there is no mixing with dishonourable names - Large influence of elders in this influence of elders in this

Multiple marriages between two families are common Multiple marriages between two families are common as well as inter-marriages, in order to reduce the risk as well as inter-marriages, in order to reduce the risk of bad affiliation of bad affiliation

Divorces are discourage due to bad reputation, and as Divorces are discourage due to bad reputation, and as families benefit from the union of two individualsfamilies benefit from the union of two individuals

Strong Restrictions on privacy and free choice. Strong Restrictions on privacy and free choice. Limited opportunities to transcend family background Limited opportunities to transcend family background

Modern Modern

SocietiSocietieses

Due to a market insurance, there is less reliance on kinDue to a market insurance, there is less reliance on kin The family is less interested in the lives of its members as The family is less interested in the lives of its members as

individuals now gain protection elsewhere, and individuals now gain protection elsewhere, and people people who endanger the well-being of other individuals are now who endanger the well-being of other individuals are now punished through formalized legal measurespunished through formalized legal measures

Monitoring is also harder given that family members are Monitoring is also harder given that family members are scattered around to obtain jobs in the new economy – scattered around to obtain jobs in the new economy – Families no longer self-sufficientFamilies no longer self-sufficient

Reputation provided before by the family name, is now Reputation provided before by the family name, is now obtained through educational and other kinds of obtained through educational and other kinds of institutions. institutions.

Marriage is less of a family matter and more related to Marriage is less of a family matter and more related to “love”. Divorces are now more common. “love”. Divorces are now more common.

Modern Societies cont’dModern Societies cont’d Less respect for elders, their traditions, Less respect for elders, their traditions,

occupations and way of life. The young rely occupations and way of life. The young rely less on this knowledge as they face a different less on this knowledge as they face a different economic milieu economic milieu

Families are smaller as there is more certainty Families are smaller as there is more certainty about the survival of a given offspring about the survival of a given offspring

Less closeness with distant relatives, as Less closeness with distant relatives, as welfare rests on closer ones. Quality rather welfare rests on closer ones. Quality rather than quantity of children in emphasized than quantity of children in emphasized

Altruistic behaviour found almost exclusively Altruistic behaviour found almost exclusively in parent- children relations, as some sort of in parent- children relations, as some sort of investment by the parents looking to receive a investment by the parents looking to receive a similar care in the future similar care in the future

TraditionTraditionalal

ModernModern

•Self-sufficient community

•Reliance on family and distant relatives for subsistence and protection

•Imitation of the elder’s way of life

•Close monitoring of everyone’s activities

•Everyone lives near each other

•Closed marriages

•Lone-parent family

•Independent women – Head of the household

•Mere reliance in close relatives for subsistence and emotional support

Any similarities between these Any similarities between these distinctions and those highlighted distinctions and those highlighted by David S. Reher between by David S. Reher between Northern and Southern European Northern and Southern European families?families?

Do Do Mediterranean families retain Mediterranean families retain some of this traditional elements some of this traditional elements examined by Gary Beckerexamined by Gary Becker??

The Last Half of the 20The Last Half of the 20thth CenturyCentury

Post-WWII there has been a sharp fall Post-WWII there has been a sharp fall in fertility rates, an increase in in fertility rates, an increase in divorces and the numbers unmarried divorces and the numbers unmarried couples, higher participation of couples, higher participation of women in the labour force and more women in the labour force and more and more household headed by single and more household headed by single mothers – Why is this so? mothers – Why is this so?

Becker, once again, answers this Becker, once again, answers this question through an economic question through an economic approach based on rational choiceapproach based on rational choice

The Last Half of the 20The Last Half of the 20thth CenturyCentury

The major force driving the The major force driving the changes in the past five changes in the past five decades has not been the decades has not been the “pill” and the contraceptive “pill” and the contraceptive revolution revolution Nor the women’s movement in itself

Instead, it has been the the growth in the earning power of women, increasing the opportunity cost from staying at home doing non-market activities, as well as the relative cost of having and raising children

The Last Half of the 20The Last Half of the 20thth CenturyCentury

It became more rational for women to spend less time rearing children at home and enter the labour force instead

The gain from marriage is also reduced, as women can become more independent due to this rise in earnings, while divorce seems less unattractive as an option than before

Higher divorce rates themselves can also bring fertility rates down and encourage women participation in the labour force, as they foresee marriages to be shorter and less stable than before

The growth of the welfare state has also reinforced this family paradigm, as a system of generalized protection that privileges being single or divorced, making marriage seem less of a rational and necessary option to undergo than before

The Last Half of the 20The Last Half of the 20thth CenturyCentury

These changes weaken the strong ties that existed These changes weaken the strong ties that existed between parents and children in traditional family between parents and children in traditional family settings, due to less of a mutual dependencesettings, due to less of a mutual dependence

Selfish children are less motivated to be as Selfish children are less motivated to be as respectful, loving and dedicated to their parents, as respectful, loving and dedicated to their parents, as they receive protection from other sources, and they receive protection from other sources, and parents will less likely consider the interest of their parents will less likely consider the interest of their children in their lives, as they will contribute less children in their lives, as they will contribute less to their support once they retireto their support once they retire

The 21The 21stst Century and Century and BeyondBeyond

The momentum of the rapid change that began The momentum of the rapid change that began in the 1950s has led fertility to keep declining, in the 1950s has led fertility to keep declining, divorces to keep increasing and marriages to divorces to keep increasing and marriages to continue decreasing even after the economic continue decreasing even after the economic downturn of the 1970sdownturn of the 1970s

However, if an economic depression were to However, if an economic depression were to continue, and the welfare state were to continue, and the welfare state were to contract, this might lead to another change in contract, this might lead to another change in these newer forms of family structure and these newer forms of family structure and maybe a reversal towards past models of larger maybe a reversal towards past models of larger and more protective familiesand more protective families

Q: Could this be the case?Q: Could this be the case? Has economics and cost-benefit analysis been Has economics and cost-benefit analysis been

the sole or main factor driving such a change the sole or main factor driving such a change in the family structure for the last fifty years? in the family structure for the last fifty years?

Divorce Remarria

ges& Stepfamilie

s

Roderick Phillips: Stepfamilies Roderick Phillips: Stepfamilies from a Historical Perspectivefrom a Historical Perspective

Looks at some historical examples of Looks at some historical examples of stepfamilies in Europe from over 5 centuries stepfamilies in Europe from over 5 centuries agoago

Is it possible to draw any similarities between Is it possible to draw any similarities between stepfamilies from the past and the present day? stepfamilies from the past and the present day?

Stepfamilies in the PastStepfamilies in the Past Before the 19th century, the frequency of stepfamilies Before the 19th century, the frequency of stepfamilies

depended upon variables such as marital fertility, depended upon variables such as marital fertility, mortality and the likelihood that a widow or widower mortality and the likelihood that a widow or widower would remarry (nuptiality)would remarry (nuptiality)

Circumstances that favoured these conditions Circumstances that favoured these conditions increased the incidence of stepfamiliesincreased the incidence of stepfamilies

There were also strong social factors influencing the There were also strong social factors influencing the need for people to remarry, such as the necessity of need for people to remarry, such as the necessity of men and women in pre and post-industrial times to live men and women in pre and post-industrial times to live as a couple due to the interdependence and reciprocity as a couple due to the interdependence and reciprocity necessary in the operation of the household economynecessary in the operation of the household economy

The death of a spouse or the presence of a child in a The death of a spouse or the presence of a child in a widower’s life, made it necessary for many to remarry widower’s life, made it necessary for many to remarry in order to survive under the socioeconomic order and in order to survive under the socioeconomic order and division of labour by sexes that existed at the timedivision of labour by sexes that existed at the time

Stepfamilies in the PastStepfamilies in the Past

Stepfamilies and remarrying was actually Stepfamilies and remarrying was actually quite common, though as compared to today, quite common, though as compared to today, most of these families arrangements were not most of these families arrangements were not so correlated with a high rate of divorceso correlated with a high rate of divorce

Needless to say, that not all remarriages were Needless to say, that not all remarriages were the result of death. Divorces had started the result of death. Divorces had started becoming legal in most Protestant Europe in becoming legal in most Protestant Europe in the 16th century, but remained largely the 16th century, but remained largely unpopular until the last seventy years and unpopular until the last seventy years and usually involved couples with no children usually involved couples with no children

Stepfamilies: a Common Stepfamilies: a Common History?History?

No useful generalization about the No useful generalization about the incidence of stepfamilies in the pastincidence of stepfamilies in the past

Stepparents Stepparents replacedreplaced more than more than addedadded to to an existing familyan existing family

Despite the need for stepfamilies, their Despite the need for stepfamilies, their reputation was still very negative and reputation was still very negative and characterized with conflictcharacterized with conflict

Stepmothers associated with being cruel Stepmothers associated with being cruel and wickedand wicked

Stepfamilies: a Common Stepfamilies: a Common History?History?

However, not all other methods of adding However, not all other methods of adding children into families by means other than children into families by means other than procreation, were as conflictive and procreation, were as conflictive and negatively perceivednegatively perceived

Adoption, for example, did not carry such Adoption, for example, did not carry such a negative stigmaa negative stigma

Q: Do stepfamilies continue to have such Q: Do stepfamilies continue to have such negative connotations? negative connotations?

Do they continue to cause conflict amongst Do they continue to cause conflict amongst individuals introduced to a new household individuals introduced to a new household either through marriage of cohabitation?either through marriage of cohabitation?

Stepfamilies in the Stepfamilies in the

United States: United States: A ReconsiderationA Reconsideration

US: High rates of divorce and remarriages when compared to US: High rates of divorce and remarriages when compared to other developed nations other developed nations

Before the 1960s divorce and remarriage rates rose and fell Before the 1960s divorce and remarriage rates rose and fell in a parallel fashion. Since then, remarriage has fallen even in a parallel fashion. Since then, remarriage has fallen even though divorce has increased though divorce has increased

Propensity to remarry varies among age, ethnic and income Propensity to remarry varies among age, ethnic and income groups. It may reflect both the desire and opportunity to find groups. It may reflect both the desire and opportunity to find a new partnera new partner

Cohabitation amongst those formerly married has increased; Cohabitation amongst those formerly married has increased; compensating for the decrease in remarriage. This compensating for the decrease in remarriage. This complicates the process of tracking down and investigating complicates the process of tracking down and investigating stepfamilies that form outside a remarriage contextstepfamilies that form outside a remarriage context

Andrew J. Cherlin

Frank. F. Furstenber

g, Jr.Some Demographic Trends

New Forms of Kinship and New Forms of Kinship and Family OrganizationFamily Organization

Divorce splits the conjugal family into two households, while remarriage can create a multitude of ties across households

Furstenberg’s “new extended family”

New Forms of Kinship and New Forms of Kinship and Family OrganizationFamily Organization

How to make sense of all of this?How to make sense of all of this? A method if to define family, within the A method if to define family, within the

context of stepfamilies, in two different ways:context of stepfamilies, in two different ways:1.1. As a Household – Reduces the number As a Household – Reduces the number

stepfamily households to those that have in stepfamily households to those that have in fact children from a different union living fact children from a different union living with a stepparentwith a stepparent

2.2. As a chain that transcends household As a chain that transcends household boundaries and extends from one household boundaries and extends from one household to the next due to children from previous to the next due to children from previous unions. Constructing a family in this way, unions. Constructing a family in this way, through a “divorce” or “remarriage” chain, is through a “divorce” or “remarriage” chain, is done in reference to a particular person, done in reference to a particular person, instead of a householdinstead of a household

Family and Remarriage Family and Remarriage ChainsChains

Divorce or remarriage chains can serve Divorce or remarriage chains can serve as a network of support and exchange as a network of support and exchange for its membersfor its members

However, this support is usually However, this support is usually perceived as being driven more out perceived as being driven more out obligation and self-interest, when obligation and self-interest, when contrasted to relations that exist within contrasted to relations that exist within a nuclear family or even a household a nuclear family or even a household

Kinship stepfamily networks are less Kinship stepfamily networks are less stable and characterized by weak tiesstable and characterized by weak ties

Stepfamilies and KinshipStepfamilies and Kinship

Kinship is usually established under blood or Kinship is usually established under blood or marriage though built and reinforced through marriage though built and reinforced through strong and stable relationshipsstrong and stable relationships

To be considered a relative one must do the To be considered a relative one must do the job of creating and maintaining kinship. This job of creating and maintaining kinship. This happens almost automatically amongst happens almost automatically amongst parents and children, but not amongst parents and children, but not amongst stepparentsstepparents

It is not clear what the job of the stepparent It is not clear what the job of the stepparent is really supposed to be – It is is really supposed to be – It is incompletely incompletely institutionalized institutionalized

Stepfamilies and KinshipStepfamilies and Kinship Great variability in how stepparents and stepchildren view Great variability in how stepparents and stepchildren view

each other - What factors could determine or affects this each other - What factors could determine or affects this view?view?

• Age of the child when stepparent moved inAge of the child when stepparent moved in• How frequently the child sees his non-resident parentHow frequently the child sees his non-resident parent• The quality and kind of relationship between the The quality and kind of relationship between the

stepparent and the biological parent in the homestepparent and the biological parent in the home• The child’s temper?The child’s temper? Seems like being a steprelative depends on doing the work Seems like being a steprelative depends on doing the work

of kinof kin Remarriage is making parenthood more of an achieved Remarriage is making parenthood more of an achieved

status rather than ascribed. status rather than ascribed. While remarriage after a divorce ads a number of potential While remarriage after a divorce ads a number of potential

kinships to a child, these positions need to be filled in by kinships to a child, these positions need to be filled in by individuals depending on their actions in order to be individuals depending on their actions in order to be significantsignificant

Q: Could cohabitation undermine such a sense of Q: Could cohabitation undermine such a sense of obligation to the extended family when compared to obligation to the extended family when compared to matrimony?matrimony?

Building a StepfamilyBuilding a Stepfamily Complicated and long process Complicated and long process Most agree that the remarried couple must come Most agree that the remarried couple must come

together and build a boundary around themselves in together and build a boundary around themselves in which they will work together to solve problemswhich they will work together to solve problems

Couples have to Couples have to createcreate their own shared conception their own shared conception of how the family will manage its daily business, as of how the family will manage its daily business, as they cannot rely in general accepted norms the they cannot rely in general accepted norms the same way regular married couples do, because they same way regular married couples do, because they do not existdo not exist

It is harder to be a stepmother. Children typically It is harder to be a stepmother. Children typically live in a different household with the biological live in a different household with the biological mother, and if not, non-custodial mothers tend to mother, and if not, non-custodial mothers tend to remain closer to their children than non-custodial remain closer to their children than non-custodial fathersfathers

A critical area is that of the economic A critical area is that of the economic responsibilities to the children and how they are responsibilities to the children and how they are shared/divided amongst biological and stepparents shared/divided amongst biological and stepparents

The Effects on ChildrenThe Effects on Children Does remarriage improve the wellbeing of Does remarriage improve the wellbeing of

children from divorced parents?children from divorced parents? Possibility of a higher household incomePossibility of a higher household income Some studies show that their wellbeing is not Some studies show that their wellbeing is not

better than in divorced single-parent better than in divorced single-parent households households

Evidence shows that it is more difficult for Evidence shows that it is more difficult for girls to adjust to stepfamilies, as well as early girls to adjust to stepfamilies, as well as early adolescents as opposed to younger childrenadolescents as opposed to younger children

Children, particularly girls, leave stepfamily Children, particularly girls, leave stepfamily households at an earlier age than children in households at an earlier age than children in single-parent or two-parent households. Is it single-parent or two-parent households. Is it due to friction in the family? due to friction in the family?

The Effects on ChildrenThe Effects on Children Remarriages further seem to be more Remarriages further seem to be more

likely to end in divorce than first likely to end in divorce than first marriagesmarriages

Is this also due to the incomplete Is this also due to the incomplete institutionalization of remarriages?institutionalization of remarriages?

Or could it be the fact that this group Or could it be the fact that this group consists of people that have a higher consists of people that have a higher propensity to divorce when involved in a propensity to divorce when involved in a conflictive marriage? Rather than conflictive marriage? Rather than remarriages or stepfamilies being more remarriages or stepfamilies being more prone to having conflictive relationships prone to having conflictive relationships themselves themselves

Some Problems to Some Problems to AddressAddress

A major problem in the study of stepfamilies is A major problem in the study of stepfamilies is the lack of data dealing with stepfamilies formed the lack of data dealing with stepfamilies formed through cohabiting couples. As a result, the through cohabiting couples. As a result, the differences between a cohabiting stepfamily and differences between a cohabiting stepfamily and a stepfamily that results from a remarriage a stepfamily that results from a remarriage remain unknownremain unknown

Our legal systems are fairly incapable of dealing Our legal systems are fairly incapable of dealing with the complexity of stepfamilies, working still with the complexity of stepfamilies, working still within a model of two parents per household, within a model of two parents per household, despite the larger size that some current family despite the larger size that some current family structures encompassstructures encompass

Blood bonds continue to retain a higher legal Blood bonds continue to retain a higher legal primacy than bonds created by the emotional primacy than bonds created by the emotional investment of a stepparent. Should this be the investment of a stepparent. Should this be the case? case?