ojibwa vocabulary in longfellow's hiawatha
TRANSCRIPT
Ojibwa Vocabulary in Longfellow's Hiawatha
WILLIAM COWAN
Carleton University
O n November 10, 1855, the Boston publishing house of Ticknor and Fields put on sale Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's The Song of Hiawatha (Longfellow 1855), a long epic poem dealing with the life of a mythical
American Indian culture hero, interwoven with many Indian myths and
legends taken from a wide variety of anthropological and literary sources.
The poem, published in a four and a half by seven inch hardcover volume of
some 316 pages, was an immediate success, selling more than 4000 copies on
the first day of sale, more than 30,000 in the first six months, and hundreds of thousands in the years thereafter, not only in the United States, but all
over the world. At a price of $1.00 per volume, the profits to the publisher
and the royalties to the author must have come to a considerable sum. It has not only remained continuously in print since then, but has become part
and parcel of North American and even world culture. Which of us has not heard of such well-known parts of the landscape as the shores of Gitche
Gumee, the Big-Sea Water, or of such well-beloved figures as Nokomis, the
grandmother, or Minnehaha, Laughing Water, wife of Hiawatha? In addition to the personages and myths taken from Indian lore, Longfel
low used a fairly extensive vocabulary of Ojibwa words and names to give a poetic flavour to the poem. In the notes appended to the end of the
poem, Longfellow listed a vocabulary of 137 words and phrases. Among
these 137 items are 6 phrases in English; 3 Ojibwa words that do not occur in the poem itself, including totem (the other two are pemican and ahdeek
'reindeer'); 9 proper names of people or places, including Pauwating, the
Ojibwa name for Sault Saint Marie; and at least three onomatapoetic utterances, including the famous — or infamous — Ugh, glossed by Longfellow
as meaning 'yes'. In addition, the following 14 Ojibwa words occur in the
poem but are not included in the vocabulary list:
59
60 WILLIAM C O W A N
ahmo kabeyun manito medamin Mitche Manito muskoday nawadaha
'bee'
'West-Wind'
'guardian spirit'
'art of healing'
'Great Spirit'
'meadow'
'musician'
ojeeg
pamosaid
pukwana
sebowisha
wagemin
wahonowin
waywassimo
'weasel'
'com-thief'
'smoke'
'rivulet'
'corn-thief
'wail'
'lightening'
And at least two of the proper names — those of Hiawatha and his wife
Minnehaha — are not Ojibwa names at all. Hiawatha, as is well-known, is a
Mohawk name and rank of a chief who either established or co-established
the Five Nations confederacy, and Minnehaha is a Dakota word meaning,
as well as can be established, 'waterfall' (Hodge, ed. 1907,1:546, 870).
In what follows I will examine this vocabulary to determine its accuracy,
extent, and the sources of the Ojibwa forms that Longfellow uses and their
particular shapes. I will then speculate about further sources for the forms.
I will also consider their efficacy in creating the poetic effect that Longfellow
was aiming at.
There is no question about the source of the Indian myths and legends
that Longfellow wove into his narrative. In a series of notes at the end of the
volume, he freely acknowledges that most of the material had been taken
from the works of the well-known ethnologue and Indian agent Henry Rowe
Schoolcraft, who published widely on Ojibwa and other Indians in the early and mid 19th century. Schoolcraft was an explorer, surveyor, minerologist,
and writer, who was born in 1793 and died in 1864, and who traveled widely
in the region of the Great Lakes. In 1823 he married the granddaughter of
an Ojibwa chief, an event that gave him an entry into Ojibwa society that
was rare among white men of his time. He seems to have spent the rest
of his life collecting, publishing and republishing Indian lore from various Algonquian and Siouan cultures.
The two books of Schoolcraft's mentioned by Longfellow are Algic Researches, first published in 1839, and History, Prospect and Conditions of
the Indian Tribes of the United States, presumably an 1851 reprint of an earlier book published under a different title.1 These loosely structured works are grab-bags of essays, notes, poems, translations, legends, myths,
many of them dealing with the exploits of an Ojibwa culture hero named
JThe title fisted by Longfellow does not occur in Pilling (1891). One similar to
it is The American Indians. Their History, Conditions and Prospects, published in
two different editions, both in 1851, one in Buffalo, the other in Rochester. One must
approach bibliographical reference to the works of Schoolcraft with care. Apparently he
wrote one basic book, which went through an seemingly endless series of reprints, with
slight modifications and occasional change of title, from 1844 to about 1851.
LONGFELLOW'S HIAWATHA 61
Manabozho.2 From these collections, which Longfellow himself characterized as "ill-digested" (S. Longfellow, ed. 1886,2:248) , he fashioned the poem as we know it now, changing the name of the hero to what he thought was his Iroquois name and shaping the material so as to be in concord with
mid-19th century white literary values. Schoolcraft, who knew Ojibwa well, larded his narratives with a great many Ojibwa words, either as names or epithets for the characters in the stories, or as terms for things and concepts
that he thought better identified by the Ojibwa word than the English one.
In each case, he was careful to give a translation of the term used, either in the text itself or in a footnote. In this he was followed by Longfellow,
who similarly larded his narrative with Ojibwa words used as names, epithets, and terms for items from the material culture, almost always with a translation or other suitable identification in the same or closely following
line. A good example is what is surely the most famous and well-known refrain from the poem: "By the shores of Gitche Gumee/ By the shining
Big-Sea-Water", in which gitche gumee, literally 'big body of water' is ap
propriately called big-sea-water in the following line. Other examples are:
"The Keneu, the great war-eagle", "Through the Muskoday, the meadow",
"And the Shawgashee, the craw-fish", and many others.
Insofar as it can be checked, Longfellow's vocabulary coincides largely
with that of Schoolcraft, and is presumably in a central dialect of Ojibwa. Nowhere in Schoolcraft's writings about Indian myth and legend have I
found a vocabulary list similar to that of Longfellow, so one can only go
through the pages of Schoolcraft's books for material to compare with that
of Longfellow. A ramdom sampling reveals that most of Longfellow's terms
have counterparts in the writings of Schoolcraft dealing with the myths and
legends. There is no reason to believe that if all of Schoolcraft's writings were read assiduously — a task that I do not intend to undertake; nor, I warrent, does any one else — all of Longfellow's Ojibwa vocabulary items
would not in due course be found. Longfellow mentions other sources in
his notes: Heckwelder, Catlin, Mrs. Eastman, but the material he quotes
from them contain little if any Ojibwa vocabulary. However, Longfellow's spellings do not always coincide with those of
Schoolcraft. Neither, for that matter, do Schoolcraft's, since he frequently
spells a word in two or more different ways. Some of the discrepant spellings
are as follows:
2 The name begins with an "M" in all the writings of Schoolcraft that I have seen, but it begins with an "N" in most other references.
62 WILLIAM COWAN
Longfellow
ahmeek
cheemaun
kineu
opechee
pahpukkeena
wabasso
Yenadizze
'beaver'
'canoe'
'war-eagle'
'robin'
'grasshopper'
'rabbit'
[personal name]
Schoolcraft
amik
chemaun
caniew
opeechee
pauppukenay
wabose
Ienawdizzi
and a number of others. However, Schoolcraft was similarly inconsistent
in his own spelling in one and another place in the same book, and we
find, for example, both apukwa and aupukwa for 'bulrush'. Longfellow's
Kabibonokka, the name of the North Wind, is rendered at least three
ways in Schoolcraft's book on Hiawatha (Schoolcraft 1856): Kabibboonocca,
Kabiboonoka, Kabibonokka, as well as Kabebonicca in his Algic Researches,
(Schoolcraft 1839) achieving a proliferation of spellings almost worthy of
the 17th century. Given such a wide variety of spellings to choose from,
Longfellow seems to have selected one and either stuck to it, or changed it
to something else and stuck to that.
A greater discrepancy appears between the spellings that Schoolcraft
used in his linguistic writings and the spellings employed by Longfellow. In
two chapters specifically devoted to the Ojibwa language in Schoolcraft's
The Red Race of America (Schoolcraft 1847:266-288), chapters that show
up time and time again in both earlier and later writings, Schoolcraft apparently went to greater lengths to supply a linguistically valid transcription,
with accents and umlauts, which Longfellow either was unaware of, or chose
to ignore. Some of these spellings, compared to those of Longfellow, are as follows:
Longfellow
shaugodaya
gitche gumee
soangetaha
keenabeek
'coward'
'big-sea-water'
'brave man'
'serpent'
Schoolcraft
shaugedaa
gitshiguma
songeedaa
genabik
There are a number of possible explanations for the various discrepancies between the spellings of Schoolcraft and those of Longfellow. The
simplest and probably the most correct is that Longfellow simply did not
put much store in reproducing Schoolcraft's spellings letter by letter, and
just rendered the words in ways that he thought more euphonious or easier to pronounce than those of his model. Although Longfellow was an
accomplished polyglot, able to read and translate from a variety of European languages, as well as professor of Romance languages and literatures
LONGFELLOW'S HIAWATHA 63
at Harvard, and therefore presumably quite able to handle Schoolcraft's phonetics, he was first and foremost a poet writing for a great public, and
the last thing he wanted to do was to make it difficult for this public to
read his works. Therefore, it is quite within the realm of possibility that he simplified Schoolcraft's spellings when he thought it necessary, and even
changed the phonetic form of a word or expression if it seemed to him more appropriate to the tone that he wanted to establish; for example, he did
not hesitate to change the final vowel of Schoolcraft's gitchiguma from a to ee, presumably to enhance the assonance of the final vowels in the two words.
It is also possible that Longfellow used a source other than Schoolcraft
for at least some of these forms. If so, the source is not obvious. The best-
known source that might have been available to Longfellow was the first edition of Baraga's A Dictionary of the Otchipwe Language, published in
Cincinnati in 1853. However, a comparison between Longfellow's spellings
and those of Baraga's dictionary show that the spellings were quite different. A few examples are as follows:
Longfellow
adjidaumo
kagh
cheemaun
jeebi
keneu
'squirrel'
'porcupine'
'canoe'
'spirit'
'war-eagle'
Baraga
atchitamo
kag tchiman
tchibai
kiniw
In effect, Baraga's forms strike us as fairly sophisticated linguistically
and in concord with French notational conventions for phonetic forms, while
Longfellow's are clearly designed for the lay English-speaking public.
The last possiblity to consider is that Longfellow made up his own
transcription, and did his own vocabulary gathering, at least for those items in which he differs from the transcription used by Schoolcraft. It is not
known whether Longfellow actually traveled to the southern shore of Lake
Superior, the supposed scene of the events in Hiawatha or not, either during
or before the time during which he was composing the poem, but he did have
at least one interview with a native speaker of Ojibwa, and the possibility
exists that this was a source.
Longfellow, as many Victorian gentlemen, kept a diary, called a "jour
nal" in those days, in which he recorded thoughts, events, people he met,
places he went, things he said and were said to him. Extracts from these
journals were published in the two-volume biography of him written and edited by his brother Samuel Longfellow and published in 1886, four years
after the poet's death. In the entry for February 26, 1849, six years before the publication of Hiawatha, and five years before Longfellow actually
64 WILLIAM C O W A N
began work on the poem, he mentions that he was visited by an Indian
named "Kah-ge-ga-gah '-bowh", whose English name was George Copway,
and w h o m he described as "an Ojibwa preacher and poet" (S. Longfellow,
ed. 1886,2:137). He left with Longfellow a copy of his autobiography, which
had been originally published in 1847. Copway also later published several more books, and had co-authored several translations of various books of the New Testament with a clergyman named Sherman Hall.3 He was a
well-known lecturer, and on April 12 and 14, two weeks after he first met
him, Longfellow went to hear lectures of his at the Boston Athanaeum. Of
the second lecture, Longfellow has this to say: "He described very graph
ically the wild eagles teaching their young to fly from a nest overhanging a precipice on the Pictured Rocks of Lake Superior." (S. Longfellow, ed.
1886,2:137). These, of course, are the very Pictured Rocks where, accord
ing to one of Longfellow's notes to Hiawatha (Longfellow 1855:300), the
action of the poem is laid. It is conceivable, although I have found nothing
in Longfellow's journals to prove it, that he might have gathered a list of
Ojibwa words and terms during either the afternoon visit with Copway, who was, of course, a native speaker of the language, or the two lectures.
W e must remember that Longfellow was linguistically sophisticated, and
was quite capable of getting a list of interesting words and phrases from
such an articulate and practised speaker as Copway appears to have been.
In addition, Longfellow had earlier written and published two poems on
Indians, "Burial of the Minnisink" and "To the Driving Cloud", and even
in 1849 might have been turning another over in his mind.
It is true that the genesis of Hiawatha can be fairly precisely dated to
June 22, 1854, when Longfellow recorded in his journal the following entry:
I have at length hit upon a plan for a poem on the American Indians, which seems
to me the right one, and the only. It is to weave together their beautiful traditions
into a whole. I have hit upon a measure, too, which I think the right and only one for such a theme. (S. Longfellow, ed. 1886,2:247)
This last statement refers to the trochaic tetrameter in which the poem is
written — a poetic measure which contains four metric feet, each consisting of one stressed and one unstressed syllable. This is, of course, the meter in which the well-known Finnish epic poem Kalevala is written, a poem that
Longfellow's journal reveals he was reading on the 5th of June, just two and
a half weeks before he conceived the idea of writing Hiawatha. However, it is intimated by his use of the phrase "at length" that this is an idea he had
played with for some time prior to that decision. It is therefore conceivable
3Copway's career is outlined by Smith (1987).
LONGFELLOW'S HIAWATHA Co
that during his interview with Copway, Longfellow could already have been thinking of an Indian Edda and collecting material for it.
Whatever the source of Longfellow's Ojibwa forms, he seems to have used them to telling poetic effect within the norms for the genre he was using and the times he was writing in. In keeping with the source material, many
of the words are names of birds and animals, endowed by the poet with reason and anthropomorphic sensibilities. The generic name is elevated to
a personal name, as when Longfellow names the squirrel that Hiawatha converses with Adjidaumo, the Ojibwa word meaning 'red squirrel', or as
when he names the sun-fish Ugudwash, the Ojibwa word meaning 'sunfish'.
And so forth for a wide variety of animals and objects. O n another occasion, Longfellow names Hiawatha's magic canoe Cheemaun, which is the
Ojibwa word for 'canoe'. Other vocabulary areas include plant names, such
as odahmin 'strawberry', and natural features, such as sasajewun 'rapids'.
The whole vocabulary reflects the woodland life supposed to be that of
the Indians in pre-contact times, as well as elements of their spiritual and mythical concerns, like Mitche Manito, the 'Great Spirit', or Kabibonokka,
the 'North-Wind'. A rough count shows that of the 125 or so Ojibwa vo
cabulary items, 9 refer to animals, 21 to birds, 7 to fish, 8 to insects, 10 to plants, and 18 to other natural features like rocks, thunder, or seasons.
By and large, Longfellow manages to inject the flavour of Indian life as
it was supposed to be by his intended audience into the mythological tales with good effect. The chosen meter provides a beat reminiscent of what is
supposed to be the heady throb of Indian war drums, and the sprinkling
of exotic words in Ojibwa, all explained in plain English immediately after
their introduction, provide a suitable setting for the idealized Indian myth.
Many generations of English-speaking children and adults, as well as many generations of speakers of other languages4 have become as familiar with
Gitche Gumee, Nokomis, Minnehaha and the rest of the persons, places
4 The poem has been translated into many languages. Here is an example of the
famous lines about the Big-Sea-Water (Longfellow 1855:39-40) translated into Czech
(Eisner, tr. 1952:50). I am indebted to Jara Rakusan for this reference.
By the shores of Gitche Gumee
By the shining Big-Sea-Water
Stood the wigwam of Nokomis
Daughter of the Moon, Nokomis
Dark behind it rose the forest
Rose the black and gloomy pine-trees
Rose the firs with cones upon them;
Bright before it beat the water,
Beat the clear and sunny water,
Beat the shining Big-Sea-Water.
Kde m a bfehy Gici Gumi
kde ta Velka Voda sviti,
wigwam Nokomis tarn mela,
ona, dcera Mesicova
Temne vzadu les tarn stoupal,
zdvihaly se mracne smrky,
staly jedle sama siska,
jasna voda byla pfed mm,
slunecna a jasna voda,
Velka Voda mihotava.
4
66 WILLIAM COWAN
and things in this poem as they have with other Indian words like papoose and wampum that have become part and parcel of the English language.
This is a testament to Longfellow's skill in weaving these words into his
best-selling poem.
REFERENCES
Baraga, Frederic 1853 A Dictionary of the Otchipwe Language. Cincinnati: Jos. H. Hemann.
Eisner, Pavel (tr.)
1952 Risen o Hiawathovi. Prague: Melantrich.
Hodge, Frederick W.
1907 Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. Bureau of American
Ethnology Bulletin 30, part 1; part 2, 1910. Washington.
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth
1855 The Song of Hiawatha. Boston: Ticknor and Fields.
Longfellow, Samuel (ed.)
1886 Life of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. With Extracts from his Journals
and Correspondence. 2 vols. Boston: Ticknor and Company.
Pilling, James C.
1891 Bibliography of the Algonquian Languages. Bureau of American Ethnol
ogy Bulletin 13. Washington.
Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe
1839 Algic Researches. 2 vols. New York: Harper and Brothers.
1847 The Red Race of America. New York: Wm. H. Graham.
1851 The American Indians, Their History, Condition and Prospects. Buffalo:
George H. Derby.
1856 The Myth of Hiawatha. Philadephia: J.B. Lippincott.
Smith, Donald B.
1987 George Copway: Canada's First Indian Author. Ms.
VOCABULARY.
-Adjitlan'mo, ,,,,. rf'f l J?UirrJ. Go•hkcwao', tl1r tftll{nr.".•.
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\ftl1 the toond of tk lnin'c'vug, mm, or pnu·n;t iu ''" tllund.r. Gmn• oft~• &«4.
.Bcmah'gnt, the9rapt-n'nt. l ,;hkoodnh', jire; a r01m·t. Dc'na, tA,.IfliMMirtf. Jcc'bi, n gll081, fl ~l'irit .
Di~:-8<-n·'Vatcr, lAl.-e Supn-ior. Joss'nkcctl , n pmf•lu•l. DnkQdn1win,fanu'ne. Knhihonok'kn,t/,, .~.Ymt/•-l l ~im/.
Cbcemaan', a bircA 01noe. Kll~h, ll1e h~lyd'OIJ·
Chctowi'Lik', tilt plour. K11'go, tlo nol . Chihil\'hn<~," m•uirit~n ; fn",.,tl l\1\hgnh~'. tl.c nn...,n.
f!( 1/iuwtltlul ; ruin· in tlu! 1\nw, ""· lAnd '!' s,,,.,;,.. Knw('rn'. ,n r'mlt•f"(l.
]lo.hin'dR, tl•e lmllfrOIJ. Knyoshk', tlu! srn-gu/1. Du~o~h-kwo-nc'·~ho, or Kwo-nc'· Kcc'~P(), a .fi.h.
11he, rf,,. tlmyanjfy. Kt..'f'wny'•lin , the J.Ym1llll'tct F.:ln, &lurmf' upnn you. u·iml, tlw /ftJmP-wiml .
Ewn-yt•n', lullrtfi!J. K('nA'1K't•k, n ·"'fl''"'·
fihre17.i:l, '''"- t•m. K•·nru', '''"- !Jrrat rt'Hr·m:JI··· Gitrho c:u'mro, the Big-&-a- 1\cno'dt:l, th,.Jiir l ·rrrl.
IJ'irtrr, TAl:e su,ior. I 1\o'ko·ko'ho, lite nwl. Gitl'lu.! ~l:m'ito, tht! Gr«ll Spir· l(untnsoo', tilt! Gumt '!f Tlfr~~ta·
it, tile J/ttllt.T nf Life. 1tontt.
VOCABULABY. 315
Kwa'aind, tlte Strong .1/im. Kw~ne1-ahc, or Du"h-kwo-oo'·
oh•, th• rlM!JOnjlg. Mnhnahhc'zce, tht! ILt'On.
Mahn:;, t~ loo11.
)[Rhn-go-tay'oce, loon·kart..J, bra1.·e.
)IILhnomo'nee, tDild r ice. Ma'mn, the IDOOflptd.:rr. !\laokcno'•hll, th< pik<. !\le'da, a •«licim·nuJn. Mconah'ga. Ill• bluthcTy. .Mcgiasog'won, the grtal Ptarl-
Fea.tiJer, a ma9ician, and the M anito ~f lVorrlth.
?tleshimtu'wa, a pipt .. hearcr. llinjckoh'wan, lliuu:atl~n'l rnit·
ttnl.
ll!inochs'ha, Laug~i''9 Wat<r; a toal~jull 011 a $1ream running into tht. jfiuiMi'ppi, betwnn f'rm Sndling and t~e
Fait. of SI. Ar.tl•ong.
Minnchn'hn, l.nr~yMII!J lYater; te~'(,.; nJ I / immt/111 .
.Minnc·wn'wn, '' plm.o;aul su11ntl, a1 of tl1e wiml in tlte lrn .•.
1\fishc-Mo'k"'•n, tlrl! r_,~reat lknr.
Mit~hc·Nuh'mn, t/,e L'retd St~er·
goon. .Misk01lcctl', th,. Sp·,-ili!J· Ih~t uty,
tht. Cluytonifl l "irgiuim .
Monclo'm in, /11dim1 corn. Moon of nright :\i:.;ht,., . lpril.
0
'Moon of l.<!aTco, llfag. Moon of Strawberries, Jurt.& Moon or chc }'ailing Lenvco, &1~emkr.
~loon or Soow·•hoe~, NtJwm· b.r.
Murljckce'wi•, tire Wat. Wind; fulher of 1/iaUJalM .
~ludw•y · ansh'ka, round of ICU''eA on a .Jtore.
'Mushkoda'oa, tAe grorrse. Nah'ma, tAe Jturyeon. Nnh'mn-wut'k, •ptnrmint. Na'gow Wadj 1oo, I~• Sand
Duna of Wb Supuit~r. Nee-ho.-naw'-hRigs,1l'fller·spiritJ Ncnemoo'shn, WJtelhtarl.
Nepah'win, llup. • Noko'mi!l, a grandmotlu?r; motA .. ~of ll'enona~.
No's:., my fntlltr. Nush'ka, look 1 look I Otluh'min, the 1tro~rry. Oknhnl1 1wis, tlu! fre!h -u·trltr h~·
rin!J.
Omc:'tnc, tl•e pi!Jf'On. Onu't;on , a bc11d. Onnwny', f!U'I:I.(·c .
()pc 'd H:r, tlu: ruJ,;,.,
()!'!'t:'o, ,'i<Jn nf t/,c R 11t'n i"9 ,...,iur.
Owai~<'~n, t/, ,. lJ,,.J,inl.
Owccn('c', "·ifo '!,( O.~sro 07.awa'ltcck, a ro1md pitet nj
31G YOCAilt:t.r-nY.
~rn~• nr NII'J"r iu tltr. (;,wu: Slault - !'ol tuh'-~:~h, t/,• f./,, /,. '''" · f!f tJ,,. fltm•/. !";tJ!I II -;.!I'-I:l1ita, .'<l l'ull!/-/ll,l•lotf.
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/11!(/i1/u du'HJ,w,J JHIIIIUf,tf. \\'alw11111, 11 lllll,tJ/,·iau, 11 j11•~J/1 r.
l\·zlu·kc•t•1, fill' /,;..,m. ,,..,. ,,,.•uo-wn .. k, .'l" ' ·,~ ·w.
l'i!>lna·kuh' , till' fmlll l, \Vn'l,uu, t/,e /·,',,,.J_ JI ·;,,d,
l,um•1111:th. /, , ~'"!flrr. I \\~n 1ltnn An'nuu::, tlw .... i,,,. •:( I»o~nl'ui n:,: 1 , (,',,m,. '!,f tlt r !Jowl. tl1e l ·.'uid, tlu• J/ .. ,-,;,_,, .~...·,,,.,
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