oils from herbs, spices, and fruit seeds aa

9Oils from Herbs, Spices,

and Fruit Seeds

Liangli (Lucy) Yu, John W. Parry, and Kequan Zhou

University of Maryland

College Park, Maryland

1. INTRODUCTION

Edible seed oils are important common food ingredients. Fatty acids are primary

nutritional components found in edible seed oils. Growing evidence has suggested

that individual fatty acids may play different roles in human health. Diets rich in a

specific fatty acid may provide potential prevention of a number of health problems

or diseases. For instance, o3 (n-3) unsaturated fatty acids may have health benefits

including the prevention of cancer, heart disease, hypertension, and autoimmune

disorders. Currently, consumer’s growing interest in improving their dietary nutri-

tion is driving the development of novel seed oils having unique fatty acid profiles

and other beneficial components, including phytosterols and natural antioxidants. It

is the purpose of this chapter to summarize the edible fruit, spice, or herb seed oils

with unique fatty acid profiles. Physicochemical properties and other beneficial

components of these oils, such as phytosterols and tocopherols, may also be

included. The seed oils are presented according to their primary or distinguishing

fatty acid (s), including oleic, linoleic, a-linolenic, and g-linolenic acids. Seed oils

containing only small amounts of beneficial fatty acids but significant quantities of

other valuable components (natural antioxidants) are also included.

Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Sixth Edition, Six Volume Set.Edited by Fereidoon Shahidi. Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

233

2. EDIBLE SEED OILS RICH IN a-LINOLENIC ACID (18:3n3)

Alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n-3) is an 18-carbon fatty acid with three double bonds at

carbons 9, 12, and 15. It is an essential n-3 fatty acid that is a required nutrient for

human beings and can be obtained through diets including both plant and animal

sources. Alpha-linolenic acid can be converted by elongases and desaturases to

other beneficial n-3 fatty acids, such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosa-

hexaenoic acid (DHA), which are implicated in normal brain development, normal

vision, and a decreased risk of heart disease. Novel dietary sources of n-3 fatty

acids are desired for those who do not consume adequate amounts of fish or fish-

based food products rich in long-chain n-3 fatty acids. This section summarized

fruit, spice, and herb seed oils rich in a-linolenic acid (18:3n-3). These include

black raspberry, red raspberry, boysenberry, marionberry, blueberry, cranberry,

sea buckthorn, basil, and hemp seed oils.

2.1. Black Raspberry Seed Oil (Rubus occidentalis L., cv Jewel)

Black raspberry is a member of the genus Rubus from the Roseacea family, which is

also known as caneberries. The majority of black raspberry crops are located in the

Northwest region of the United States, predominantly in Oregon. The annual

harvests for black raspberries in Oregon in 2002 and 2003 were 3.02 million pounds

and 2.70 million pounds, respectively. Nearly 99.5% of the total crop goes into

postharvest production (http://www.nass.usda.gov/or/berries03.pdf), and seeds are

a major byproduct thereof.

The fatty acid profile of two cold-pressed black raspberry seed oils demonstrated

high concentrations of both n-3 and total unsaturated fatty acids. The concentration

of a-linolenic acid (18:3n-3) was 35% of total fats, and unsaturated fatty acids com-

prised 98–99% (Table 1). Linoleic acid was the predominant fatty acid (Table 1);

however, the ratios of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids were very low at 1.6:1. The other mea-

surable fatty acids included oleic (18:1n-9) and palmitic (16:0) acids (Table 1). The

overall fatty acid composition of black raspberry seed oil was very similar to red

raspberry seed oil (1) (Table 1).

2.2. Red Raspberry Seed Oil (Rubus ideaus)

Red Raspberry is a production crop grown throughout the world, and the

total worldwide annual production is typically around 250,000 metric tons

(http://www.oregon-berries.com). The majority of commercial raspberries are

grown in Eastern Europe, followed by Northern and Western Europe, the

United States, and Chile. Like black raspberries, red raspberries are also grown

in the Northwest region of the United States, and total production in the years

2002 and 2003 was 42.2 metric tons (MT) and 38 MT, respectively (http://

www.nass.usda.gov/or/berries03.pdf).

Red raspberry seed oils, extracted by either hexane (2) or cold-pressing (3), were

examined for their fatty acid compositions. Both methods detected very similar

234 OILS FROM HERBS, SPICES, AND FRUIT SEEDS

TABLE 1. Fatty Acid Compositions (g Fatty Acid/100-g Oil) of Fruit Seed Oils Relatively High in a-Linolenic Acid (18:3n-3).*

Black Red Buckthorn(6) Buckthorn(6) Buckthorn(7)

Fatty Acid Raspberry(1) Raspberry(2, 3) Boysenberry(3) Marionberry(3) Blueberry(3) Cranberry(3–5) sinensis rhamnoides mongolica

16:0 1.2–1.6 1.2–2.7 4.2 3.3 5.7 3.0–7.8 7.7–9.6 6.7–8.2 8.6

18:0 trace 1.0 4.5 3.1 2.8 0.2–1.9 2.1–3.3 2.3–4.1 3.3

18:1 6.2–7.7 12.0–12.4 17.9 15.1 22.8 20.0–27.8 12.9–26.1 13.7–20.0 17.9

18:2n-6 55.9–57.9 53.0–54.5 53.8 62.8 43.5 35.0–44.31 38.2–43.6 36.7–43.0 38.6

18:3n-3 35.2–35.3 29.1–32.4 19.5 15.7 25.1 22.3–35.0 20.2–36.3 25.4–36.0 29.1

others nd nd nd nd nd 2.58 1.9–2.5 1.8–3.8 2.1

n-6/n-3 1.59–1.63 1.64–1.87 2.75 3.99 1.73 1.16–2.0 1.07–2.00 1.02–1.62 1.33

*Black raspberry, Red raspberry, Boysenberry, Marionberry, Blueberry, Cranberry, Buckthorn sinesis, Buckthorn rhamnoides, and Buckthorn mongolica, stand for black raspberry,

red raspberry, boysenberry, marionberry, blueberry, cranberry, buckthorn sinesis, buckthorn rhamnoides, and buckthorn mongolica seed oil, respectively. Numbers correspond to

the references cited. ‘‘nd’’ stands for not detected.

fatty acid profiles and high concentrations of a-linolenic acid, an n-3 fatty acid

(Table 1). The crude oil from the hexane extract contained 29.1% a-linolenic

acid and the extra virgin cold-pressed seed oil had 32.4% a-linolenic acid. Both

of these samples were also very comparable in their fatty acid compositions

compared with the black raspberry seed oil discussed above (Table 1). In addition

to its a-linolenic acid content, red raspberry seed oil may contain a significant

level of tocopherols and other natural antioxidants (2, 3). Total tocopherol was

97-mg/100-g oil and 61-mg/100-g oil in the hexane-extracted and the cold-pressed

oils, respectively (2, 3), whereas the antioxidant activity, measured as the oxygen

radical absorbing capacity (ORAC), was 48.8-mmoles trolox equivalents per gram

of oil (3). Trolox, 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid, is a

water-soluble analog of a-tocopherol and widely used as a standard antioxidant

compound.

2.3. Boysenberry Seed Oil (Rubus hybrid)

Like the other caneberries (black raspberry, red raspberry, marionberry), boysenberry

also prefers the growing conditions found in the Northwest region of the United

States. However, aside from Oregon, boysenberry is also grown in Northern

California as a production crop. In 2002 and 2003, the total boysenberry production

in the United States was 2665 tons and 2350 tons, respectively.

Also, like the other cold-pressed caneberry seed oils, boysenberry seed oil had a

high percentage (19.5%) of n-3 a-linolenic acid and a low n-6 to n-3 ratio of 2.8:1.

Total unsaturated fatty acids constituted over 91% of the seed oil and polyunsatu-

rated fatty acids (PUFA) were very high at 73.3%, but stearic, palmitic, and total

saturated fatty acids were higher than all other caneberry seed oils (Table 1). Inter-

estingly, the boysenberry seed oil demonstrated the best antioxidative potential

using the oxygen radical scavenging capacity (ORAC) test compared with eight

other seed oil samples, including blueberry, black raspberry, and red raspberry

seed oils, which are known to be rich in antioxidants (3).

2.4. Marionberry (Rubus hybrid) Seed Oil

Marionberry is a blackberry hybrid. It is another member of the caneberry

family and is also grown in the Northwest United States, specifically in Oregon.

The production in 2002 was 15,000 MT and in 2003 it was 12,910 MT. Marionberry

comprises almost one-half of the total caneberry production in Oregon.

In 2004, Parry et al. (3) examined the chemical composition and physico-

chemical properties of cold-pressed marionberry seed oil. The oil was shown to

contain a relatively high percentage of n-3 fatty acids in the form of a-linolenic

acid (15.7%) (Table 1). This amount was lower than that of other caneberry seed

oils, including black raspberry, red raspberry, and boysenberry seed oils, tested

under the same conditions. The n-6 to n-3 fatty acid ratio was 4:1, which was

the highest among the tested caneberry group.


2.5. Blueberry Seed Oil (Vaccinium corymbosum)

Blueberries are grown in temperate climates throughout the world; however, the lar-

gest producers are the United States and Canada. Approximately 42,000 MT are pro-

duced annually outside of the United States and Canada. In 2002 and 2003, the United

States harvested 87.3 MT and 86.200 MT, respectively. (http://usda.mannlib.cornell.

edu/reports/nassr/fruit/pnf-bb/ncit0104.pdf, http://www.ushbc.org/blueberry.htm).

The cold-pressed blueberry seed oil investigated by Parry and Yu. (3) demonstrated a

high concentration of n-3 fatty acids. Alpha linolenic acid was the sole source of the n-3

and comprised 25.1% of the total fatty acids (Table 1). The ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids

was 1.7:1. Linoleic acid (18:2n-6) was the most prevalent fatty acid in the blueberry

seed oil followed by a-linolenic, oleic, palmitic (16:0), and stearic (18:0) acids

(Table 1). The blueberry seed oil also showed a significantly higher antioxidant capacity

compared with marionberry, black raspberry, cranberry, and pumpkin seed oils using

the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) test. Therefore, blueberry seed oil may

serve as an excellent dietary source of n-3 fatty acids and natural antioxidants.

2.6. Cranberry (Vaccinum macrocarpon) Seed Oil

The North American cranberry, Vaccinum macrocarpon, is best adapted to grow at

higher latitudes and in bog terrains. It is grown for production in Wisconsin, Maine,

New Jersey, Oregon, and Washington in the United States, and British Columbia

and Quebec in Canada. Cranberries are also grown in Europe, but are a different

species of Vaccinum. The total production in the United States for the year 2002

was 284,200 tons and was projected to be 291,500 tons in 2003 (http://usda.mann-

lib.cornell.edu/reports/nassr/fruit/zcr-bb/cran0803.pdf).

Several studies have confirmed that the seed oil from the North American variety of

cranberry contains significant levels of a-linolenic acid. In a U.S. patent, Heeg et al.

(4) reported the a-linolenic acid content of cranberry seed oil to be between 30% and

35% of total fatty acids. In 2003, Parker et al. (5) found 22.3% a-linolenic acid in the

cold-pressed cranberry seed oil, and in 2004, Parry et al. (3) determined the oil to

contain 32.0% a-linolenic acid from two different lots of the seed oil. The ratios of

n-6 to n-3 fatty acids in all were low from 1.2:1 to 2:1. Also, all of the studies docu-

mented similar ratios among the rest of the common fatty acids found in cranberry

seed oil, including, in order of higher amount present: linoleic, oleic, palmitic, stearic,

and eicosadienoic (20:2) acids (Table 1). In addition to a-linolenic acid, cranberry

seed oil is rich in natural antioxidants (8). These antioxidants may directly react

with free radicals and prevent lipid oxidation in human low-density lipoprotein.

2.7. Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) Seed Oil

Sea buckthorn is native to Asia and Europe. It is a hardy plant that is also being

considered as a major commercial crop in Canada. It has been used in Tibetan,

Mongolian, and Chinese traditional medicine for more than 1000 years, and

has demonstrated many beneficial health attributes (6). The fruit has a good

flavor and is rich in nutrients. The whole berries contain a higher concentration of

EDIBLE SEED OILS RICH IN a-LINOLENIC ACID 237

Vitamin C than strawberry, kiwi, orange, and tomato, and the fruit also contains a

higher concentration of Vitamin E than wheat embryo, safflower, maize, and

soybean (9).

In 2001, Yang and Kallio (9) investigated the lipid compositions of two sub-

species of Hippophae rhamnoides L. The subspecies were H. rhamnoides L.

‘‘sinensis’’ and H. rhamnoides L. ‘‘rhamnoides’’. Twelve samples of sinensis and

nine samples of rhamnoides were grown at different locations in China and Finland,

respectively. Among the twenty-one samples there was some variation in the

compositions of the seed oils; however, they all had relatively high percentages

of a-linolenic acid, g-linolenic acid (18:3n-6), and oleic acid (18:1n-9). All seed

oil samples also had an n-6 to n-3 fatty acid ratio under 2:1 (Table 1). Other

constituent fatty acids included palmitic, stearic, and vaccinic (18:1n-7) acids.

Kallio et al. (7) examined the fatty acid composition of the subspecies sinensis,

and mongolica of Hippophae rhamnoides L. Both displayed fatty acid profiles

very similar to those found in the previous study. The fatty acid composition of

Hippophae rhamnoides L. mongolica is shown in Table 1.

2.8. Basil (Ocimum sp.) Seed Oil

Basil is a popular herb grown throughout the world and is an ingredient in many

recipes. There are more than 50 species, but sweet basil, Ocimum basilicum, is

the most common variety (10).

In 1996, Angers et al. (10) investigated the fatty acid composition of the seed

oils of four species of basil, including Ocimum basilicum, Ocimum canum, Ocimum

gratissimum, and Ocimum sanctum. Also, four total different varieties of Ocimum

basilicum were tested. All samples were compared with flaxseed oil and had similar

fatty acid profiles in regard to a-linolenic, palmitic, and stearic acids. The flaxseed

oil had 52% a-linolenic acid, and the basil seed oils had 57.4–62.5% a-linolenic

acid (Table 2). The n-6 to n-3 fatty acid ratio of the flaxseed oil was 1:3.2, and

TABLE 2. Fatty Acid Compositions (g Fatty Acid/100-g

Oil) of Herb Seed Oils and Other Oils with Relatively High

Concentrations of a-Linolenic Acid (18:3 n-3).*

Fatty Acid O. Basilicum (basil)(10) Hemp(5, 11, 12)

16:0 6.8–8.8 5.8–6.7

16:1 0.2–0.3 0–0.2

18:0 2.0–2.8 2.6–3.2

18:1 8.7–11.6 9.9–15.6

18:2 18.3–21.7 53.4–60.0

18:3 n-3 57.4–62.5 15.1–19.4

18:3 n-6 0.1–0.3 0–3.6

20:0 < 0.2 0.8–1.0

20:1 trace nd

others trace 0–1.8

n-6/n-3 0.3–0.4 2.8–3.5

*O.basilicum (basil) and Hemp stand for O.basilicum (basil) and hemp

seed oil, respectively. Numbers correspond to the references cited.

‘‘nd’’ stands for not detected.


the basil seed oils were 1:1.6–1:3.6. Complete fatty acid profiles are shown in

Table 2.

2.9. Hemp (Cannabis sativa) Seed Oil

Hemp is an ancient crop that is still cultivated by many societies and has many

different uses. The fiber from hemp has been used to make rope, paper, and

clothing; hemp is used for medicinal purposes, and its seed oil is commercially

available (11).

Recent investigations of hemp seed oil (5, 11, 12) reported similar findings in

fatty acid compositions. The n-3 fatty acid, a-linolenic acid, was determined to

constitute between 15.1% and 19.4% of total fat (Table 2). Gamma-linolenic acid

(18:3n-6) was also detected in two of the studies, and comprised up to 3.6% of total

fatty acids (11, 12) (Table 2). The most prevalent fatty acid was linoleic in all of the

studies, which was between 53.4% and 60.0% of total fatty acids and was followed

by a-linolenic, oleic, palmitic, g-linolenic, and stearic acids. Eicosadienoic, arachi-

dic (20:0), and behenic (22:0) acids were also detected in small quantities.

3. EDIBLE SEED OILS RICH IN c-LINOLENIC ACID (18:3n6)

Gamma-linolenic acid (18:3n-6) is an important unsaturated fatty acid. It is the

precursor for biosynthesis of arachidonic acid that is a precursor for prostaglandin

formation. Recently, g-linolenic acid has been recognized for its potential health

benefits in prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disorders, premenstrual

syndrome, atopic eczema, rheumatic arthritis, and alcoholism (13, 14). Seed oils

of blackcurrant and other Ribes species, as well as evening primrose seed oils,

are rich sources of natural g-linolenic acid.

3.1. Black Currant and Other Ribes Seed Oils

Blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) is cultivated for the production of its berries (15).

It is rich in ascorbic acid and exhibited high levels of antioxidant activity (16).

Blackcurrant is mainly consumed in the form of juice and the seeds are the

byproduct of juice production. Blackcurrant seed oils were analyzed for fatty

acid composition, tocopherols, and their prostaglandin E2 production reduction

potential (15, 17–19). Blackcurrant seed oil is an excellent dietary source of

both g-linolenic (18:3n-6) and a-linolenic (18:3n-3) acids. Gamma-linolenic acid

constituted 12–25% of the total fatty acids, whereas a-linolenic acid comprised

the other 10–13% (Table 3). The fatty acid composition was dependent on genotype

and growing conditions. The seed oils also had significant levels of tocopherols

(18). The total tocopherol content was 1.2–2.5-mg/g oil, with a mean value of

1.7-mg/g oil for ten oil samples. The major tocopherol in the blackcurrant seed

oil was g-tocopherol, but b-tocopherol was not detected in the blackcurrant seed

oil. In 1999, Wu et al. (17) investigated the effect of dietary supplementation

with blackcurrant seed oil on the immune response of healthy elderly subjects.

EDIBLE SEED OILS RICH IN g-LINOLENIC ACID 239

TABLE 3. Fatty Acid Composition (g Fatty Acid/100-g Oil) of Seed Oils Relatively High in g-Linolenic Acid.*

Evening primrose Evening primrose Evening primrose

Fatty Acid Blackcurrant(21) Blackcurrant(19) (Oenothera Spp.)(20) (Oenothera biennis)(14) (Oenothera lamarckiana)(13)

16:0 5.3 6.0–6.3 7–10 9.1 5.8–7.2

18:0 1.5 1.3–1.6 1.5–3.5 3.1 1.5–3.1

18:1 14.7 8.9–9.6 6–11 17.7 9.2–20.1

18:2n-6 47.0 42.7–43.5 65–80 64.3 62.0–74.6

18:3n-6 12.2 22.0–24.6 8–14 4.9 5.5–9.6

18:3n-3 13.2 10.0–11.5 nd trace nd

n-6/n-3 4.5 5.7–6.8 N/A N/A N/A

*Blackcurrant and Evening primrose stand for Blackcurrant and Evening primrose seed oil, respectively. Numbers correspond to the references cited. ‘‘nd’’ stands for not

detected, whereas ‘‘N/A’’ stands for not applicable.

The seed oil moderately enhanced immune function through reducing the produc-

tion of prostaglandin E2, suggesting that blackcurrant seed oil may have potential in

preventing cancer, cardiovascular disease, and other health problems.

Other Ribes species, including R. grossularia (red-black gooseberries), R.

grossularia (yellow gooseberries), R. nigrum (blackcurrants), R. rubrum (red

currants), and R. nigrum � R. hirtellum ( jostaberries), were also examined for

g-linolenic acid concentration and tocopherol content in the seed oils. Among

the tested samples, blackcurrant seed oil had greatest level of g-linolenic acid,

and all three species of currant had of total concentration of tocopherols over

1.0 mg/g oil (18).

3.2. Evening Primrose Seed Oil

Evening primrose (Oenothera spp.) belongs to the Onagraceae family and produces

a large number of highly fertile seeds. The roots of evening primrose are used in

human diet, whereas its bark, leaves, and essential oil are used for medicinal pur-

poses (http://botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/p/primro70.html) (13, 20). Evening

primrose seed oil is a natural source of g-linolenic acid (18:3n-6). Hudson (20)

evaluated 192 evening primrose (Oenothera spp.) seed oil samples for their fatty

acid compositions. The normal range of g-linolenic acid concentration was 8–

14% and the extreme range was 2–20% of total fatty acids, with a median of

10.4% (Table 3) (20). Linoleic acid normally accounted for 65–80% of total fatty

acids and the median was 73%, which was as high as that of any known vegetable

oil. Another study showed that common evening primrose (Oenothera biennis)

seed oil contained 4.9% of g-linolenic acid, along with 64% linoleic acid (14). In

addition, the growing conditions were found to alter the g-linolenic acid content in

the seed oil. The concentration of g-linolenic acid ranged from 5.5–9.6% of total

fatty acids (Table 3) (13). Ratnayake et al. (14) reported that evening primrose seed

oil from Canada contained 64.3% of linoleic acid and 4.9% of g-linolenic acid

(Table 3). These previous studies indicate that evening primrose (Oenothera spp.)

seed oil contains a significant level of natural g-linolenic and oleic acids, and

linoleic acid is the predominant fatty acid. This topic is discussed in another chapter

in this series.

4. EDIBLE SEED OILS RICH IN LINOLEIC ACID (18:2n6)

Linoleic acid (18:2n-6) is an essential fatty acid that must be obtained through

diets. In this section, fruit, spice, and herb seed oils rich in linoleic acids are

summarized. These seed oils include watermelon, melon (Cucumis melo and

Colocynthis citrullus), goldenberry, grape, rose fruit, paprika, red pepper, onion,

black cumin, and Onagraceae seed oils. Several seed oils may be listed in other

sections if they contain significant level of a special fatty acid. For example, pump-

kin seed oils rich in both oleic acid and linoleic acid, are listed under the section

named, ‘‘Edible seed oils rich in oleic acid (18:1n-9).’’

EDIBLE SEED OILS RICH IN LINOLEIC ACID 241

4.1. Watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris) Seed Oil

Watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris) is taxonomically classified as a member of the Cur-

cubitaceae family, which is also known as the gourd family. Other gourds include

pumpkins, cucumbers, squash, and other melons. It prefers warm climate growing

conditions and is produced worldwide where conditions permit. Over 1200 varieties

have been cultivated and about 250 varieties are grown in North America, http://

www.watermelon.org/index.asp?a¼dsp&htype¼about&pid¼39. The world’s pro-

duction of watermelons in 2002 was over 81 million metric tons (MMT) and

approximately 71% of that was grown in China. The U.S. production in both

2002 and 2003 was over 1.7 MMT (http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/reports/nassr/

fruit/pvg-bban/vgan0104.txt). Watermelon seeds are consumed as snack food world-

wide and are used to prepare edible oil in some countries.

Watermelon seed oil was prepared and evaluated for its physicochemical pro-

perties (22, 23). The seed oil consisted of 59.6% linoleic acid (18:2n-6) and

78.4% total unsaturated fatty acids (Table 4). The predominant fatty acid in the

oil was linoleic acid, which was followed by oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids.

Linolenic, palmitoleic, and myristic acids were minor constituents. The refractive

index, acid value, peroxide value, and free fatty acids of watermelon seed oil were

determined to be 1.4696 (25�C), 2.82 (mg KOH/g oil), 3.40 (mequiv oxygen/kg oil), and

1.41 (% as oleic acid), respectively. The saponification value of watermelon seed oil

was 201 (mg KOH/g oil), and its iodine value was 115 (g iodine/100-g oil), which

was significantly higher than pumpkin at 109 (g iodine/100-g oil) (22, 23).

4.2. Melon (Cucumis melo) Seed Oil

Melon, Cucumis melo, is a member of the Cucurbitaceae family and grows best in

tropical regions. The pulp of the fruit has pleasant flavor and taste, and the seeds are

generally treated as waste; however, medicinal effects have been reported for

the seeds (24, 25). Hexane-extracted seed oil of Cucumis melo hybrid AF-522

was determined to contain 64 g of linoleic acid per 100 g of total fatty acids

(Table 4) (24). Significant amounts of oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids were also

detected in the melon seed oil. The specific gravity (28�C), refractive index

(28�C), and iodine value of the seed oil were 0.9000, 1.4820, and 112, respectively,

under the experimental conditions (24). Earlier in 1986, Lazos (25) extracted the

oil from Cucumis melo seeds and examined its physicochemical properties (25).

Linoleic acid was the primary fatty acid and accounted for 64.6% of the total fat

(w/w), along with 20.1% oleic acid, and 14.7% total saturated fatty acids (Table 4).

Iodine value and refractive index (40�) of the seed oil were 124.5 and 1.4662,

respectively.

4.3. Melon (Colocynthis citrullus L.) Seed Oil

Colocynthis citrullus L (melon) is a tropical vine that is native to West Africa. The

flesh from the fruit of this melon is bitter and inedible; the edible part of the fruit

is the seed (33). Nwokolo and Sim (26) examined the fatty acid composition of


TABLE 4. Fatty Acid Composition (g Fatty Acid/100-g Oil) of Fruit Seed Oils Relatively High in Linoleic Acid.*

Melon Melon

Fatty Acid Watermelon(22, 23) (cucumis melo)(24, 25) (Colocynthis citrullus L.)(26, 27) Goldenberry(28) Grape(29, 30) Rose(31) Paprika(22, 23, 32)

16:0 11.3 9.0–9.5 11.8–12.1 7.3 5.8–14.2 1.7–3.1 11.2–13.8

18:0 10.2 4.9–5.6 9.0–10.7 2.5 � 8.6 1.7–2.5 3.2–3.7

18:1 18.1 19.4–20.1 13.5–14.5 11.7 13.7–31.9 14.7–18.4 9.8–14.6

18:2n-6 59.6 64.1–64.6 57.7–65.4 76.4 50.1–77.8 48.6–54.4 67.8–74.4

18:3n-3 0.4 0.2–0.3 � 2.1 0.3 � 5.0 16.4–18.4 nd

Total saturated 21.5 14.7–15.2 21.1–25.3 11.9 8.4–14.4 11.6–18.1 15.0–17.6

Total unsaturated 78.4 84.4–85.1 74.6–77.5 88.1 85.5–91.5 81.8–88.3 82.5–84.9

* Watermelon, Melon (Cucumis melo), Melon (Colocynthis citrullus L.), Goldenberry, Grape, Rose, and Paprika stand for Watermelon, Melon (Cucumis melo), Melon (Colocynthis

citrullus L.), goldenberry, grape, rose, and paprika seed oil, respectively. Numbers correspond to the references cited. ‘‘nd’’ stands for not detected.

Colocynthis citrullus seed oil and found that it contained a relatively high percen-

tage of linoleic acid that accounted for 57.7% of total fatty acids (Table 4) (26).

Oleic acid was the second major fatty acid (14.5%). The seed oil contained

about 25.3% saturated fatty acids (Table 4). Moussata and Akoh (27) also reported

a similar fatty acid profile of Colocynthis citrullus L. seed oil. The primary

fatty acid was linoleic acid, contributing 65.4% of total fats. The other significant

fatty acids included oleic (13.5%), palmitic (12.1%), and stearic (9.0%) acids

(Table 4).

4.4. Goldenberry (Physalis peruviana L.) Seed Oil

Goldenberry, (Physalis peruviana L.), also known as cape gooseberry, is a perennial

native to the Andes. It is also cultivated in the United States, South Africa, East

Africa, India, New Zealand, Australia, and Great Britain (34). It is related to

both tomatoes and chile peppers and prefers growing in well draining soils like

tomatoes. Goldenberry has a pleasant flavor that is similar to tomatoes and is eaten

in many ways, including in salads, cooked dishes, chocolate covered desserts, jams,

preserves, and natural snacks (28). The fruit is an excellent source of Vitamins A

and C as well as minerals. Goldenberry seed oil was prepared by extracting lyophi-

lized ground seed meal with chloroform-methanol and was characterized for fatty

acid composition (28). The fatty acid composition of the seed oil is shown in Table

4. Linoleic acid was the predominant fatty acid and constituted 76.1% of total fat.

Combined monounsaturated fatty acids were 12.2%, linolenic acid was 0.33%, and

total polyunsaturated fatty acids were 76.1%. These data suggest that goldenberry

seed oil may serve as an excellent dietary source for linoleic acid, the essential n-6

fatty acid, and may be a good choice for consumers seeking a greater intake of total

unsaturated fatty acids.

The fat-soluble Vitamins E and K, carotene, and phytosterols were also detected

in the goldenberry seed oil (28). Total tocopherols were 29.7 mg/g oil, including

0.9-mg a-, 11.3-mg b-, 9.1-mg g-, and 8.4-mg d-tocopherols. The total Vitamin K

content was 0.12-mg/g oil, and the b-carotene concentration was 1.30-mg/g

oil. In addition, significant levels of phytosterols were also detected. The major

phytosterol in the goldenberry seed oil was campesterol, having a concentration

of 6.5-mg/g oil. Other phytosterols, including ergosterol, stigmasterol, lanosterol,

b-sitosterol, �5-avenosterol, and �7-avenosterol, were also detected in the seed

oil.

4.5. Grape Seed Oil (Vitis spp.)

World grape production was 61.2 million tons in 2001 (http://www.winetitles.

com.au/awol.overview/world.asp). Grape seeds are byproducts from the manufac-

turing of grape juice, jam, jelly, and wine. In 1998, Abou Rayan et al. (29) inves-

tigated the characteristics and composition of Egyptian-grown Cabarina red grape

seed oil. Crude grape seed oil was extracted with hexane at room temperature.

Linoleic acid was the major fatty acid detected and comprised more than 50% of


the total fatty acids (Table 4) (29). Oleic acid was the second major fatty acid in the

seed oil, along with significant levels of palmitic and stearic acids. This finding is

consistent with a previous observation in which linoleic acid accounted for 62% of

the total fatty acids in grape seed oil (Table 4) (30). Iodine value (IV) and peroxide

value (PV) were also determined according to the methods described in AOCS,

1983. The measured IV was 130-g iodine/100-g oil, and the PV was determined

to be 2.92-mequiv peroxide/kg oil.

4.6. Rose Fruit (Rosa canina L.) Seed Oil

Rose, Rosa canina L., also known as dogberry or hop fruit, is in the Rosaceae

family. The fruit of this particular species of rose is generally used to prepare a

stew. The seeds from Rosa canina L. were investigated for their chemical compo-

sition and nutritional values for medicinal purposes. Seed oils were prepared from

fruits grown at three locations in Turkey and evaluated for their fatty acid composi-

tion (31). Linoleic acid was the primary fatty acid detected, which ranged from

48.6–54.4% of total fatty acids, followed by a-linolenic acid (16.4–18.4%) and

oleic acid (14.7–18.4%) (Table 4). The seed oil contained approximately 85% total

unsaturated fatty acids, indicating that Rosa canina L. seed oil may be an excellent

source for unsaturated and essential fatty acids.

4.7. Paprika (Capsicum annuum) Seed Oil

Paprika (Capsicum annuum) is a commonly used flavor enhancer, and following

production, the seeds are treated as waste. Paprika seed oils have been evaluated for

their physicochemical properties (22, 23, 32). Paprika seed oil contained more

than 82% of total unsaturated fatty acids, with polyunsaturated fatty acids com-

prising 67.8% of total fatty acids (Table 4) (22, 23). Oleic acid was the second

major fatty acid at approximately 15% of the total. This fatty acid profile was

consistent with a previous observation by Domokos et al. (32) on the fatty acid

profile of Hungarian paprika seed oils. Linoleic acid comprised 74.4% of the total

fat, whereas oleic and palmitic acid made up 9.8% and 11.2% of total fat, respec-

tively (32). The paprika seed oil was determined to contain 870 mg/kg oil total

tocopherols, 380 mg/kg oil carotenoids, and 0.92% phytosterols (32).

4.8. Apple Seed Oil

In 1997, the production of apples was 44.7 MMT worldwide, and 84% of that was

processed (http://www.geocities.com/perfectapple/prod.html). In 2000–2001, the

worldwide apple production reached a record high of 48 MMT (http://www.fas.usda.

gov/htp/circular/2003/3-7-03%2520Web%2520Art.%Updates//World%2520Apple%

2520Situation%25202002-03.pdf). Apple seeds are a byproduct of processing. In

1971, Morice et al. (35) investigated the seed oils from three different varieties


of apples: Granny Smith, Sturmer, and Dougherty, and compared them with the

seed oils prepared from other apple varieties. The results showed similarities in

the fatty acid profiles among the varieties (Table 5). Oleic and linoleic acids con-

sisted of 85–95% of the total fatty acids in all tested samples (35). The investigators

also examined other physicochemical properties of apple seed oils. The Granny

Smith apple seed oil had an iodine value of 127-g iodine/100-g oil; the Sturmer

had an IV of 122.4-g iodine/100-g oil, and the Dougherty’s IV was 119-g iodine/

100-g oil. Apple seed oils may be useful as a dietary source for linoleic and oleic

acids.

4.9. Red Pepper Seed Oil

Chili peppers, Capsicum sp. are members of the Solanaceae family. They originated

in South America but are now grown worldwide. They are eaten in many dishes

throughout the world and provide the feeling of ‘‘hotness’’ when eaten. There is

a very large range of hotness among the Capsicum species, which depends on their

concentration of capsaicin. Some selected peppers ranging from lowest in concen-

tration of capsaicin include bell, Anaheim, jalapeno, Hungarian wax, serrano,

cayenne, and habanero. Red pepper seeds are byproducts from the production of

red pepper powder. For centuries in South America, peppers have been used to treat

such ailments as gastrointestinal disorders, and it is also thought to benefit those

suffering from circulatory diseases. Capsaicin, the spicy chemical in peppers, has

also been shown to be a potent anti-inflammatory in vivo (36).

The roasted red pepper seed oil contained an extremely high concentration of

linoleic acid, approximately 74%, and a high total unsaturated fat level (Table 6)

(37). The fatty acid profile was very similar to that of both goldenberry seed

(Physalis peruviana L.) and safflower oils (36). The iodine value of roasted red

pepper seed oil was determined to be 137-g iodine/100-g oil.This shows that there

is a high degree of unsaturation in the oil. Oxidative stabilities of the roasted red

TABLE 5. Fatty Acid Composition (g/100-g Fatty Acids) of Apple Seed Oils.*(35)

Fatty Acid Granny Smith Sturmer Dougherty Golden Delicious

16:0 6.8–7.1 4.8–6.4 5.7–6.8 8.5

16:1 0.1–0.2 0.1 0.1–0.2 0.5

18:0 1.0–2.1 1.5–2.5 1.3–2.1 nd

18:1 24.4–27.4 32.8–36.6 34.6–42.1 31

18:2 62.1–64.1 52.1–58.3 48.2–56.1 59

18:3 0.2–0.4 � 0.5 � 0.6 0.5

20:0 0.6–1.1 0.7–1.7 0.6–0.9 0.5

20:1 0.2–0.3 0.2–0.4 0.2–0.3 nd

20:2 0.1–0.7 0.1–0.7 0.0–0.3 nd

22:0 0.1–0.2 0.1–0.3 0.1 trace

*Granny Smith, Sturmer, Dougherty, and Golden Delicious stand for seed oil of four varieties of apple.

Numbers correspond to the references cited. ‘‘nd’’ stands for not detected.


pepper seed oil were tested at different roasting times. As roasting time increased,

the oxidative stability of the oil increased significantly.

4.10. Onion Seed Oil

Onion (Allium cepa) seeds contained about 23.6% crude fat. The seed oil was ana-

lyzed for its chemical composition. The onion seed oil contained 44.6% linoleic

acid and 34.3% oleic acid (Table 6) (38). The total unsaturated fatty acids com-

prised of 79% of the oil. A greater concentration of linoleic acid was determined

in the cold-pressed onion seed oil obtained from Botanical Oil Co. (Spooner, WI).

Linoleic acid accounted for 63.7% of total fatty acids, and oleic acid ranged

from 26.7–30.1%. The total unsaturated fatty acids were about 90% (3). In summary,

onion seed oil may serve as a dietary source of essential n-6 fatty acid and oleic

acid.

4.11. Black Cumin (Nigella sativa L.) Seed Oil

Black cumin (Nigella sativa) is an annual spicy herb. It has been used for many

years as a food preservative and a traditional medicine for protection against and

a therapeutic remedy against a number of health disorders (41). Black cumin

seed and its oil have also been used for medicinal purposes (39). According to

Ramadan and Morsel (39), the seed contained about 28–35% oil. Black cumin

seed oil contained a relatively high level of unsaturated fatty acids (� 84%) of

the total fatty acids (Table 6). The major fatty acid in the seed oil was linoleic

acid, which accounted for about 57% of the total fatty acids, followed by oleic

acid from 23.9–24.1%, along with a small amount of palmitic and stearic acids.

However, the iodine value of the seed oil was only 48.4-g iodine/100-g oil, which

is much lower than the expected value relating to the level of unsaturation.

4.12. Seed Oils of Some Onagraceae Rich in Linoleic Acid

Onagraceae contains about 36 genera and 300 species; it can grow in mud, sand,

rocks, or on grassy plains and occurs chiefly in the temperate zone of the New

TABLE 6. Fatty Acid Composition (g Fatty Acid/100-g Oil) of Herb Seed Oils Relatively

High in Linoleic Acid.*

Fatty Acid Red Pepper(37) Onion(38) Onion(3) Black Cumin(39) Onagraceae(40)

16:0 13.4 9.1 5.6–6.2 13.0–13.1 8.0–10.9

18:0 2.1 4.4 0.6–3.5 3.2 2.4–3.5

18:1 10.2 34.3 26.7–30.1 24.0 8.7–13.1

18:2n-6 73.9 44.6 63.7 57.0–57.3 71.5–80.0

18:3n-3 0.4 0.3 nd nd nd

*Red pepper, Onion, Black cumin, and Onagraceae stand for red pepper, onion, black cumin, and Onagraceae

seed oil. Numbers correspond to the references cited. ‘‘nd’’ stands for not detected.


World, primarily on the Pacific coast. Family members include evening primrose,

fushia, suncups, willowherb, and clarkia (http://1.1911encyclopedia.org/O/ON/

ONAGRACEAE.htm).

The seeds of selected Onagraceae, including Oenothera picensis, O. indecora,

Ludwigia longifolia, and O. L. peruviana were analyzed for their physicochemical

characteristics (40). Linoleic acid was the predominant fatty acid in all tested seed

oils, comprising 71.5–80.0% of the total fatty acids (Table 6) (40). These

Onagraceae seed oils may be excellent dietary sources of the essential n-6 fatty

acid (18:2n-6).

5. EDIBLE SEED OILS RICH IN OLEIC ACID (18:1n-9)

Oleic acid is an n-9 monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA). Growing evidence

suggests that diets rich in oleic acid may serve as an alternative choice to a low-fat

blood cholesterol reducing diet, modulate immune function, and may delay the

development of atherosclerosis (42–44). Oleic acid is the predominant fatty acid

in olive, canola, peanut, and specially produced sunflower seed oils. Oleic acid is

not an essential fatty acid; it is synthesized in vivo through the desaturation of

stearic acid (18:0). Oleic acid is also rich in a number of other edible oils, including

mango, cherry, date, pumpkin, naked seed squash, fluted pumpkin, carob bean

germ, American gingseng, Khaya senegalensis, and Moringa oleifera seed oils.

5.1. Mango Seed Kernel Oil

Mango seed kernels contain about 4–12% total fat (45–47). Mango seed kernel oil

is rich in oleic acid (Table 7), and exhibited 42% (47), 34–59% (45), and 41–44% of

total fatty acids (46). Stearic acid is the other major fatty acid in mango seed kernel

TABLE 7. Fatty Acid Composition (g/100-g Fatty Acids) of Fruit Seed Oils Rich in Oleic

Acid.*

Fluted Carob Bean

Fatty Acid Mango(45–47) Cherry(48) Date(49) Pumpkin(26) Germ(50)

12:0 nd nd 16.9–17.8 nd nd

14:0 nd nd 10.8–12.1 0.6 < 0.1

16:0 6–18 6.8–9.4 10.2–10.4 17.1 7.8–14.2

16:1 nd 0.4–0.6 0.2 nd nd

18:0 26–57 1.6–2.1 2.8–2.8 15.0 3.0–10.0

18:1 34–59 23.9–37.5 43.5–45.0 35.4 20.4–38.5

18:2n-6 1–13 40.0–48.9 8.7–8.2 27.1 43.6–59.2

18:3n-3 nd < 1 0.6 1.2 0.3–1.3

20:0 < 4 < 1.3 0.5–0.6 1.7 nd

Other FA nd 10.3–13.3 3.6–4.1 nd nd

*Mango, Cherry, Date, and Fluted pumpkin stand for mango, cherry, date, and fluted pumpkin seed oil,

respectively. Carob bean germ stands for carob bean germ oil. Numbers correspond to the references cited.

‘‘nd’’ stands for not detected.


oil and may account for up to 57% of the total fat. In addition, palmitic and linoleic

acids were detected in the oil along with trace amounts of a-linolenic acid (45, 47).

5.2. Cherry Seed Oil

The cherry tree (Prunus avium L.) is a member of the Rosaceae family. Cherry seed

contains about 18% oil on a dry weight basis (48). Significant levels of oleic acid

were detected in the cherry seed oils prepared by hexane extraction using a Soxhlet

apparatus. Oleic acid comprised 24–38% of the total fatty acids from three different

varieties of cherry fruits (Table 7) (48). Linoleic acid was the major fatty acid in

the cherry seed oil, and ranged 40–49% in the seed oil, along with a-eleostearic

(18:n-5), palmitic, stearic, arachidonic, and a-linolenic acids (Table 7). alpha-

eleostearic acid (�9c,11t,13t), comprising 10–13% of cherry seed oil, is a conjugated

isomer of a-linolenic acid (�9c,12c,15c). alpha-eleostearic acid was not detected in

other previously studied seed oils from prunoids including peach, apricot, and plum

seed oils.

5.3. Date Seed Oil

Dates (Phoenix dactylifera L.) are popular in most Middle Eastern countries and

serve as a major source of food and nutrients (51, 52). Oil contents and fatty

acid profiles of date seeds may vary among individual varieties. Date seeds con-

tained 20–24% total fat (49). Oleic acid was the primary fatty acid in the date

seed oil and had a concentration of 43.5–45% of total fatty acids. This was followed

by lauric (12:0), myristic (14:0), palmitic (16:0), linoleic (18:2n6), capric (10:0),

and stearic (18:0) acids along with trace amounts of other fatty acids (Table 7).

Date seed oil may serve as an excellent dietary source of oleic acid with a minor

amount of linoleic acid.

5.4. Fluted Pumpkin (Telfaria occidentalis) Seed Oil

The fluted pumpkin (Telfaria occidentalis) is a tropical gourd native to West Africa.

It is taxonomically classified as a member of the Curcubitaceae family. The fruits

are very large and weigh up to 13 kg, but only the seeds are edible (33). The seeds

are very rich in both protein and fat, containing approximately 28% and 55%,

respectively, from whole oven-dried fluted pumpkin seeds (26). The fatty acid

profile of fluted pumpkin seeds demonstrated a high oleic acid content of 35.4%

and a total saturated fatty acid concentration over 34% (Table 7) (26). Significant

level of linoleic acid (18:2n-6) was also detected in the seed oil.

5.5. Carob Bean Germ Seed Oil

Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L), a tree in the Leguminosae family, is widely cultivated

in the south and east of the Mediterranean region. The pulp tastes sweet and is

used as a food source (50). The seed germ contains about 5% oil. Oleic acid

EDIBLE SEED OILS RICH IN OLEIC ACID 249

contributed to 20–39% of the total fatty acids, but only a small portion of that was

on the sn-2 position of the triacylglycerol. Linoleic acid ranged 44–59%, whereas

palmitic and stearic acids accounted for 8–14% and 3–10% of the total fatty acids,

respectively, along with minor amount of linolenic and myristic acids (Table 7). In

addition, b-sitosterol was the primary sterol compound and contributed to 74% of

the total sterols. Other sterol compounds included stigmasterol (17% of total sterol),

campesterol (6%), and cholesterol (4.4%).

5.6. Pumpkin (Curcubita sp.) Seed Oil

Pumpkin, Curcubita sp., is a member of the gourd family, Curcubitaceae, that also

includes melons, cucumbers, squash, and gac. In 2003, the United States’ produc-

tion of pumpkins was approximately 335,000 MT (http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/

reports/nassr/fruit/pvg-bban/vgan0104.txt). In some mid-eastern African countries,

dried pumpkin seeds have been used to treat tapeworm when eaten on an empty

stomach (53). Also, for many years in Europe, pumpkin seeds have been used as

a remedy for micturition. Pumpkin seed oil has also shown possible beneficial

affects in retarding the progression of hypertension (54), potential anti-inflamma-

tory activity in arthritis (55), and may be effective in reducing the risk of blad-

der-stone disease (56).

The fatty acid compositions of the seed oils prepared from a combination of two

different pumpkin species (pepo and mixta) are shown in Table 8 (25). The seed oil

contained 37.8% oleic acid and 43.1% linoleic acid and was fairly high in unsatu-

rated fats (81%). Among the four pumpkin seed oil samples analyzed by Spangen-

berg and Orgrinc (57), oleic acid content was consistent and ranged 30.2–33.9% of

total fatty acids (57), along with 24.5–47.9% linoleic acid (Table 8). In addition, the

oil of unroasted pumpkin seed kernel (Cucurbita mixta) contained 21.4% oleic acid

and 58.9% linoleic acid (58). A recent study of pumpkin seed oil detected 55.6%

linoelic acid and 20.4% oleic acid in the total fatty acids, with a total unsaturated

fatty acid concentration of 76.5% (22, 23). The iodine value for the pumpkin seed

oil was 103-g iodine/100-g oil (25), and the refractive index was 1.4616 (40�C)

(25), 1.4706 (25�C) (22, 23), and 1.4615 (60�C) (58). The ORAC value of roasted

pumpkin seed oil was determined to be 1.1-mmoles TE/g oil, and was the lowest in

comparison with six other fruit seed oils tested that included blueberry, red raspber-

ry, black raspberry, boysenberry, and cranberry seed oils (3). Phytosterols were also

detected in pumpkin seed oil (22, 23).

The seed oils from African pumpkin (squash) (Cucurbita pepo L.) were evalu-

ated for their fatty acid profiles and the presence of other phytochemicals (53). The

seed oils contained 28–36% oleic acid. The primary fatty acid was linoleic acid,

along with palmitic and stearic acids, with a total unsaturated fatty acid concentra-

tion of 77–83%. Alpha-tocopherol was determined at a concentration up to 3.0 mg/

100 g. These data suggest that pumpkin seed oil may be a better choice for consu-

mers who prefer high unsaturation, or both linoleic and oleic acids. Seed oils from

species of Cucurbita with minimal pericarp, called ‘‘naked seed squash,’’ are dis-

cussed below.


TABLE 8. Fatty Acid Composition (g Fatty Acid/100-g Oil) of Cucurbita Seed Oils Relatively High Oleic Acid.*

Pumpkin Pumpkin African

Fatty Acid Pumpkin(25) (C. Pepo)(57) Pumpkin(58) (Cucurbita sp)(22, 23) Pumpkin(53) Pumpkin(3) Squash(60) Squash(59)

16:0 12.7 13.6–49.2 13.8 13.4 11.1–14.0 6.6 6.6–24.4 12.8–15.8

18:0 5.4 4.8–11.2 5.9 10.0 4.8–8.2 3.5 1.2–10.2 5.2–8.3

18:1 37.8 30.2–33.9 21.4 20.4 28.3–35.5 42.0 10–31.6 46.6–60.4

18:2n-6 43.1 24.5–47.9 58.9 55.6 43.0–51.9 47.8 39.3–77.2 9.6–27.9

18:3n-3 0.3 0.4–0.9 nd nd 0.3 nd nd 0.1–0.8

*Pumpkin and Squash stand for pumpkin and squash seed oil, respectively. Numbers correspond to the references cited. ‘‘nd’’ stands for not detected.

5.7. Naked Seed Squash (Curcubita pepo L.) Seed Oil

Squash (Curcubita foetidissima, C. pepo, and C. lagenaria) has been consumed

worldwide for thousands of years. The fruits are used as vegetables and desserts,

and seeds are consumed as nuts or used to prepare edible oils (61). Normally,

each plant produces 1–9 fruits weighing 0.47–12.67 kg, and each fruit may have

16–393 seeds (59). The weight of the individual naked seeds ranged from 46–

223 mg. Seeds of the naked seed squash varieties are preferred for direct consump-

tion and further processing. In 1996, Idouraine et al. (59) reported that the crude oil

content in the nine selected naked seed squash lines (C. pepo L.) ranged 34–44% on

a dry weight basis. The seed oil of the selected naked seed squash was rich in oleic

acid, which made up 47–60% of the total fatty acids. Other major fatty acids were

linoleic, palmitic, and stearic acids, along with a small amount of other long-chain

fatty acids. The total unsaturated fatty acids ranged from 70–79% for the nine tested

seed oils (59). These were in consistent with earlier observations that oleic acid was

the major fatty acid and constituted 46–50% of the seed oils for all progeny lines

(62, 63). In summary, the seed oil of Curcubita pepo may serve as edible oil rich in

unsaturated fatty acid and oleic acid.

In addition, other studies reported that linoleic acid was the predominant fatty

acid in the seed oils of squash varieties (Curcubita foetidissima) with a range of

39–77%, whereas the level of oleic acid was 10–32% (25, 60, 64). Interestingly,

a significant level of conjugated dienoic acids was detected in the seed oils of

Curcubita foetidissima. It is widely accepted that conjugated linoleic acids may

have a number of health benefits, such as anticarcinogenesis, reducing body

weight, antiatherosclerotic activity, and antioxidant activity (65). Future research

is required to further confirm the presence of the conjugated dienoic acids in the

seed oils of Curcubita foetidissima and identify their chemical structures. In

summary, seed oil of Curcubita foetidissima may serve as edible oil rich in unsa-

turated fatty acid and linoleic acid.

5.8. American Ginseng Seed Oil

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.), native to North America, is one of

the most widely used medicinal herbs. American ginseng seed oil prepared by

hexane or methylene chloride extraction at ambient temperature was analyzed

for fatty acid profile and phytosterol content (66). The seed oils contained about

86.8–87.5% oleic acid, 10.0–10.5% linoleic acid, and 2.6% total saturated fatty

acids (Table 9). Significant levels of phytosterols were observed in the American

ginseng seed oils prepared with hexane and CH2Cl2 (66). Squalene was the major

phytosterol compound with a concentration of 502–514-mg/100-g oil, followed

by b-sitosterol and stigmasterol at levels of 164–177-mg/100-g oil and

93–95-mg/100-g oil, respectively. Phytosterols are thought to benefit human health

through lowering cholesterol and increasing antioxidant activity (71, 72). American

ginseng seed oil would therefore be a desirable dietary source for oleic acid,

squalene, and total phytosterols.


5.9. Khaya senegalensis Seed Oil

Khaya senegalensis is a dry land mahogany that grows to about 30 m in height and 3

m in girth; it is widely distributed in the savanna region of Nigeria. The seed of

Khaya senegalensis contains about 53% oil. The seed oil has been used to treat cer-

tain local ailments. Oleic acid was the predominant fatty acid in the seed oil and

accounted for 65% of the total fatty acid, along with 21% palmitic and 10% stearic

acids (Table 9) (67). The seed oil had a saponification value of 186-mg KOH/100-g

oil, a density of 0.962, a refractive index of 1.4690 (20�C), and an iodine value of

68.0-g iodine/100-g oil (67).

5.10. Moringa oleifera Seed Oil

Moringa oleifera, native to the western and sub-Himalayam tracts of India and

other countries in Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Central America, and the

Caribbean islands, is the most common and broadly distributed species of the

Moringaceae family (73). The leaves, flowers, fruits, and roots of the tree are

used as vegetables (70). Each fruit generally contains about 20 seeds, which

have an average weight of 0.3 g, with the kernel responsible for 70–75% of the

weight. The seed oils of Moringa oleifera were extracted and analyzed for chemical

compositions (68, 69). The seed oil was a rich source of monounsaturated fatty

acid, especially 18:1 that contributed to 74.4–76.0% of the total fatty acids

(Table 9) (68, 69). A significant amount of phytosterols was detected in the seed

oil (68). The major sterols were b-sitosterol (46.65% of total sterol), stigmasterol

(19%), campesterol (16%), and �5-avenasterol (10.7%), along with a number of

others.

The seeds of M. oleifera variety Mbololo yielded 26%, 31%, and 36% crude oil

by cold-pressing, hexane extraction, and chloroform-methanol extraction (1:1, v/v),

respectively (70). The seed oil was rich in total monounsaturated fatty acids

and contained 74–75% oleic acid (Table 9). The total saturated fatty acids were

TABLE 9. Fatty Acid Composition (g/100-g Fatty Acids) of Seed Oils Rich in Oleic Acid.*

Fatty Acid American Ginsengo(66) K. Senegalensis(67) M. Oleifera(68, 69) M. Oleifera Mbololo(70)

14:0 nd nd < 0.1 0.1

16:0 2.2–2.3 21.4 5.9–6.5 5.7–6.0

16:1 nd nd 1.0–1.8 0.1

18:0 0.3–0.4 10.4 5.7–7.2 1.42–1.57

18:1n-9 86.8–87.5 64.6 66.9–76.0 73.6–75.4

18:2n-6 9.95–10.5 nd 0.6–1.3 0.7

18:3n-3 nd nd < 0.2 0.2

20:0 nd nd 3.0–4.0 2.5–2.7

*American ginsengo, K. senegalensis, M. Oleifera, and M. oleifera Mbololo stand for American ginsengo,

K. senegalensis, M. oleifera Mbololo, and M. Oleifera seed oil, respectively. Numbers correspond to the

references cited. ‘‘nd’’ stands for not detected.

EDIBLE SEED OILS RICH IN OLEIC ACID 253

19–21% in the seed oil, with small amounts of linoleic and a-linolenic acids. The

density of the seed oils prepared by solvent extraction and cold-pressing ranged

from 0.8809–0.9182 g/mL at 24�C, which is similar to that of olive oil at 0.915 g/

mL at the same temperature. The refractive index (ND40�C) was 1.4549–1.4591

and the smoke point was 198–202�C for the seed oils. The seed oil prepared by

cold-pressing had a greater viscosity of 103 mPa �s, whereas the oil prepared by

solvent extraction exhibited a viscosity of 57–66 mPa �s, which is more comparable

with that of olive oil (74 mPa �s) (70). In addition, the seed oil of M. oleifera variety

Mbololo contained greater concentrations of total sterols and tocopherols than olive

oil. The primary sterol in the Mbololo seed oil was b-sitosterol with significant

levels of stigmasterol, campesterol, and �5-avenasterol, as well as small amounts

of other sterol compounds (70). Thus, seed oil of M. oleifera may serve as a dietary

source of oleic acid, sterols, and tocopherols.

6. OTHER SPECIAL SEED OILS OF FRUIT, SPICE, AND HERB

6.1. Gac (Momordica cochinchinensis)

Gac (Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng) is another member of the gourd family

(Curcubitaceae). The gac fruit is round and about 18–22 cm in diameter. It is native

to Asia and is both consumed as food and used in traditional medicine. The seeds

comprise about 16% of the total fresh weight of the fruit.

Ishida et al. (74) examined gac seed oil for its fatty acid composition. The oil

was determined to contain an average of 60.5% stearic acid. Palmitic and arachidic

acids were two other saturated fats found in the gac seed oil, and the total percent of

saturated fatty acids ranged from 60.5% to 79.2%. The most prevalent unsaturated

fatty acid was linoleic acid at 20.3%, with an interesting variety of others including

palmitoleic (16:1), oleic (18:1n-9), cis-vaccenic (18:1n-11), a-linolenic acid

(18:3n-3), eicosa-11-enoic acid (20:1n-11), and eicosa-13-enoic acid (20:1n-13)

(Table 10).

TABLE 10. Fatty Acid Composition (g/100-g Fatty Acids)

of Gac and Pomegranate Seed Oils.*

Fatty Acid Pomegranate(75) Gac(74)

16:0 4.8 5.2–6.2

18:0 2.3 54.5–71.7

18:1 6.3 4.8–11.2

18:2n-6 6.6 11.2–25.0

18:3n-3 nd 0.4–0.6

18:3n-5 65.3 nd

others nd 3.0–4.1

*Pomegranate and Gac stand for pomegranate and gac seed oil,

respectively. Numbers correspond to the references cited. ‘‘nd’’ stands

for not detected.


6.2. Pomegranate Seed Oil

Pomegranate (Punica granatum), of the Punicaceae family, is a small tree grown

in Iran, India, and the United States, as well as in most Near and Far East countries

(75). Pomegranate is used as a table fruit and is also processed into juice. Pomegra-

nate preparations, including the juice of the fruit, the dried pericarp, the bark, and

the roots, have been used in folk medicines to treat colic, colitis, dysentery, diar-

rhea, menorrhagia, oxyuriasis, parasis, headache, vermifugal, carminative, antispas-

modic, taenicidal, and emmenagogue (75). Seeds are byproducts form the juice

manufacture. Cold-pressed pomegranate seed oil was prepared and analyzed for

fatty acid composition, inhibitory effects against both cyclo-oxygenase and lipox-

ygenase, antioxidant properties, and total phenolic content (75). The major fatty

acid was punicic acid (18:3n-5), which comprised 65% of total fatty acids, along

with linoleic, oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids (Table 10). The seed oil contained

about 150 ppm total phenolics on an oil weight basis. The oil extract, at a concen-

tration of 5 mg/mL total phenolics, exhibited 37% inhibition of the sheep

cyclo-oxygenase activity under experimental conditions (75). On a same weight

concentration basis, the oil extract resulted in 75% inhibition of the soybean lipox-

ygenase activity, whereas butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) had a 92% inhibition

under the same experimental conditions. The oil extract also showed strong antiox-

idant activity in the coupled oxidation system of carotene and linoleic acid, and the

antioxidant capacity was comparable with that of BHA and green tea extract on the

same weight concentration basis (75). These data suggest the potential application

of pomegranate seed oil as anti-inflammatory agent and for general health promotion.

7. SUMMARY

There is an increasing demand for edible oils with special fatty acid profiles

and other beneficial components for improving nutritional status. A number of

studies have been conducted to screen for and evaluate the chemical composition

and potential nutraceutical applications of fruit, spice, and herb seed oils. Among

the discussed edible seed oils, some have unique fatty acid compositions, such

as black raspberry and hemp seed oils rich in a-linolenic acid and date and naked

seed squash seed oils rich in oleic acid, whereas blackcurrant seed oil is rich in

g-linolenic acid. The oils of selected fruit, spice, and herb seeds may also contain

significant levels of phytosterols, tocopherols, carotenoids, and natural antioxidants.

The chemical composition of edible seed oil determines the potential health

benefit and applications for the oil. Individual edible seed oils may be preferred

by special groups of consumers for preventing and treating a selected health

problem or for general health promotion. Great opportunities are available in the

research and development of specialty seed oils and the oil-based nutraceutical

products from fruit, spice, and herb seeds for improving human health. More

research is required to screen and characterize the fatty acids and bioactive

components in the fruit, spice, and herb seeds to develop novel edible seed oils

for optimum human nutrition.

SUMMARY 255

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