of the sao fraeclclsi river basin -...
TRANSCRIPT
OF THE SAO FRAECLCLsiRIVER BASIN
Vo Jute I
GENERAL REPORT
F 0AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NAT ONS
'47 ev
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROCIAM
FAO /SF: 22/BRA
Volume I
Volume ll PartVolume II Part 2
Volume HI
SURVEY OF TF117. GAO FRANCISCO RIVER BASIN
General Report
The concept and course of the project is describedand the main conclusions and recommendations given.The technical aspects described in full in the com-panion volumes are summarized in this volume, whichconcludes with a chapter on the new UNDP follow-upproject, novv called phase two.
Soil Resources and Land Classification for IrrigationSemi-detailed Soil Surveys
The reconnaissance, semi-detailed and detailed soilsurveys carried out are described at length and thelands classification of the project area for irrigationpurposes is shown. Reasons are given for the choiceof various areas judged rnost uitable for develop-rnent.
Water and Power Resou ces; Irrigation Requirementsand Drainage
The possible water and power resources and theireventual limitations are fully described and the im-plications for the project of the multipurpose devel-opment program for the entire So Francisco riverbasin examined. In the second half of the volumethe irrigation requirements and drainage necessary,to the design of engineering schemes are worked out.
Volu e IV Agriculture and Livestock
The results of crop and fertilizer experiments carriedout at the project experimental stations are set outand the possibilities of integrating livestock produc-tion with cultivation explored.
Volume V Engineering Designs and Cost Estimates
The volume deals chiefly with the considerations involved in the semi-detailed design and cost estimatesfor the possible engineering schemes on a score ofareas of various sizes, totalling 105,000 net ha, inthe western half of the project area A full accountof each scheme is given.
Vo ume VI Economic Appraisal and Evaluation
Provisional economic appraisal and evaluation of thecosts of large-scale development of irrigated agricul-ture are made and conclusions drawn as to the eco-nornic feasibility of various suggested steps in de-velopment
Rom , 1966
FAO/UNDP/SF: 22/BRA
Survey of the So Francisoo
River Basin
BRAZIL
Volume 1
General Report
Report prepared for the Government of Brasilby the Food and Agriculture Organization ofthe United Nations acting. as Executive Agencyfor the United Nations Development Program.
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pago
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1. Background of the Project 12, The Project Area and the Role of the Projeot in
Brazilian Development Plans 33. Scope and Phasing of Field Operations 74. Project Implementation 85, Acknowledgements 13
CHAPTER 2: SUMMARY OF MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 14
CHAPTER 3: GEOLOGY, SOIL RESOURCES AND LAND CLASSIFICATION FORIRRIGATION 17
Geology 17Soil Survey Program 17Land Classification System 19
4. Soil Conditions, Distribution and Suitability forIrrigation in the Six Natural Regions 19
Region 1. The unconsolidated sands 20Region 2. The old depositional mantles 20Region 3. The limestone plateau and periphery 23Region 4. The metamorphic basement 28Region 5. The sandstone plateau 29Region 6. The alluvium plain and tributary
alluvium 29
5. Land Available for Irrigated Agrioultural Development 306. Development Potential and Further Studies 31
CHAPTER 4: WATER AND POWER RESOURCES: IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS ANDDRAINAGE 34
1. General Climatological Conditions 34Groundwater Resources of the Project Areas 34Tributary Rivers of the Lower Middle Sao Francisco
Basin 34Water Resources of the Main River 34Existing and Future Irrigation Intakes along theLower Middle Sao Francisco 35
Power Resources in the Project Area 35Power Linos and Cost of Energy 35Irrigation and Drainage 36
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)Paheat
CHAPTER 5: AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK 38
1. Agronomy 38
(iii Grumusols 43(ii Latosols 38
(iv Non-calcio brown soils 45
(i
1
General 38
2. Livestook 45
CHAPTER 61 ENGINEERING PLANNING AND COST ESTIMATES 47
1, General 472. Method of Irrigation 483. Power Availability and Cost 484. The Irrigation Schemes 49
(i On latosols 49(ii On grumusols 50
(iii In areas bordering the river 50
5. Costs of Irrigation Sohemes and of Power SupplySystems
CHAPTER 7: ECONOMIC APPRAISAL AND EVALUATION
1, The Situation2. Prospeots
3. Project evaluation
(iii Farm returns 58(ii Cost data for seleoted areas 57
(iv Four production systems for 5 ha farms 59
(i A sample area - PHI 55
594. Conclusions
CHAPTER 8: FOLLOW-UP 61
Introduction 61
Accomplishments from June 1965 to June 1966,the Interim Period between Phase One and PhaseTwo 61
The Scope and Main Activities of the PhaseTwo Follow-up Pilot Project 62
APPENDIX i RhViSED PLAN OF OPERATION (Amendment No.3) 64
APPENDIX 2 LIST OF PROJECT PERSONNEL76
52
54
545455
ill
LIST OF MAPS
Page
Map 1 Location of the projeot area 2Map 2 The projeot area showing main natural regions 4Map 3 Soil surveys for land classification in large soale
irrigation development 9Map 4 The engineering sohemes 11
LIST OF TABLES
The engineering sohemes 12Land classes for irrigation recognized by theReconnaissance Survey 18
Average Analytical Data for main grumusol and latosol soils 24Land classes for irrigation
(Based on Reconnaissance and Semi-detailed Soil Surveys) 33Results of the third planting of the phosphate/lime trial,with groundnuts (Sakha) 40
NP two-way table of 33 NPK fertilizer trial with ootton(Sakha 4) on grumusols 44
NP two-way table of 33 NPK fertilizer trial with maize 44Total area, by soil type, of the engineering schemes 47Average dynamic head for irrigation schemes on various soils 47
' Comparative percentage costs for flood protection ofirrigation farms near the river 51
Rates of exchange, cruzeiros per dollar, in 1963 52Results of the semi-detailed engineering surveys 53Equivalent annual costs of the various echemos in U.S.$per hectare 53
Capital costs - PBI area 56Annual costs - PBI area 56Size and costs of selected development areas 57Returns and Costs per ha for various crops and crop-livestock enterprises under Irrigation 58
Summary of four systems for farm production 59Benefit cost rates of seleoted situations 60
LIST OF FIGURES
Paulo Afonso power plant 5Sao Francisoo river at Juazeiro 6
Typical view of the area to be developed on latosol soils 39First experiment of irrigated cultivation with a tank-oar 39Air view of the three fields of the experimental station
Barra do Bededouro just before cultivation 41Barra do Bededouro - Installing a pumping group toirrigate the experimental station 41
Fertilizer trial with maize on the latosol under gravityirrigation (furrow); June 1963 42
Variety trials with beans, groundnuts, eto. Barra do Bededouro 42Barra do Bededouro - Experimentation with sprinkler irrigation 43Cotton and sorghum grow well on the grumusols (tank-oar) 45
- iv -
NAMES ABBREVIATIONS OF ORGANIZATIONS
A -
APG Alian9a para o Progresso (or AID) or USAID
AID Agenoy for International Develo .nent (or APG) or USAID
B -
B.B. B oo do Brasil S.A.
BITB B.-co do Nordeste do Brasil S.A. Seo also: ETENE
C
CMG Centrals El8tricas de Minas Gerais S.A.
CHESF - Companhia Hidroe1f5trioa do So Franoisoo
CNE Conselho Nacional de EstatIstica
CNG - Conselho Nacional de Geografia
max Conselho Nacional de Geografia e Sarvi90 de Meteorologia
CODEPE CoMi .51.0 de Desenvolvimento de Pernambuco
COHEBE - Companhia Hydroelgtrica da B8a Esperan9a
GVSF Comissio do Vale do So Francisco
D -
DAL - Depart ento de Agricultura e Abastecimento da SURNNti
DAC Dire9io de Aronáutioa Civil
DAE - Dopartaacnto de Aguas (MME)
DNER - Departamento Nacional de Estradas de Rodagem (MVOP)
DNOCS Departamento Nacional de Obras Contra as 58cas (MVOP)
DNOS - Depart ento Nacional de Obras de Saneamento (MVOP)
DRN - Departanonto de Recursos Naturals da SUDENE
E
ETENE Escrit6rio %mica de Estudos Econemioos do Nordeste (part of BNB)
ELETROBRAS - Eletricidade do Brasil (Federal Organization)
F -
WNW ESPECIAL DAS NACOES UNIDAB - See: UNSF
- G -
CRISP - Grupo de Irrigaggo do S;o Francisco - soez SUDENE, DRN
-I -
IAL - Instituto Agrongmico do Leste, Feira de Santana, close to Salvador (Bahia)
IAN - Instituto Agrongmico do Nordeste (see MA), Curado, Recife (Pernambuco)
IBGE Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistioa
IFOCS - Became DNOCS Inspetoria Federal de Obras Contra as Sgoas (1919-1945)
IOCS Beoame IFOCS Inspetoria de Obras Contras as Sgoas (1909-1919)
IPA - Instituto de Pesquisas Agron8micae (see MA)
IPEANE - Instituto de Pesquisas e Experimenta9Tac Agropecugria do Nordeste (seo MA)Recife
IRM Instituto Regional de Meteorologia (see MA)
ITECA - Instituto 'Monica de Economia e Contabilidade Atugria
ITAMARATT Plaoe of the Ministry of Foreign Affaire
MA, - Ministgrio da AgriculturaBranches: IAN
IPAIPEANEIRMSIPAMASUDEPE
MEC Ministgrio da Educagäo e Culture.
MECOR Ministgrio Extrmsrdinario para a Coordena21) dos Organismos RegionaisBranches: CVSF
SUDENESPVEAeto.
Assessoria
Assessoria
Asseseoria
Auditoria
DAG -
DAA
DI
DINFRA -
D
de Gooperaigo Internacional
Jurídica
Nonica
Departamento de Adminstraggo Geral
Departamento de Agricultura e Abasteoimento
Departamento de Industrializa9go
Departamento de Investimento de Infraestrutura
Departamento de Recursos Naturais
Do Diviso de Geologia
DHG Diviso de Hidrogeologl
auF Grupo de Irriga9go do Sao Franoisoo
vi -
HP Minigt4rio da Fazenda (Finanoe)
MIO Ministrio da Inddstria e OomAroio
o Minist8rio de Minas e EnergiaBranohes: DDA, eto.
MRE Minist4ric de Relagges Exteriores ITAMARATT place, in Rio de Janeiro
MVOP Minist4rio de Viaogo e Obras PúblicasBranohess DNOS
DNOOSDNERDACeto.
PETROBRAS Petroleo do Brasil (Federal Organisation)
-
SIPAMA Se9go de Inspe9go de Produtos Agro-Peoudrios e Materiais Agrioola (MA)
SPVEA Superintend8noia do Plano de Valorizasogo Econ8mica da Amaz8nia (MEOOR)
SUENE Superintend8noia do Desenvolvimento do Nordeste (supervised by MECOR),
Gabinete do Superintendente
Secretaria do Conselho Deliberativo
vii
(DRN apartamento de Recursos Naturais (Contd.)
DRP Diviso de Recursos Pesqueiros
DE Diviso de Hidrologia
DC - Diviso de Cartografia
DL - Diviso de Laboratórios
DFI - Diviso de Foto-Interpreta9go
DA Diviso de Agrologia
GEVj - Grupo de Estudos do Vale do Jaguaribe
DBE - Diviso de Botdnica Econamica
DRH - Departamento de Recursos Humanos
SUDEPE Superintandencia do Desenvolvimento da Pesca (see MA)
USAID United States Agency for International Development (see APG)
viii
UNITS AND SYMBOLS
Units symbol or unit symbol)breviation
metre or meter
hectare (ten thousand squaremeters)
m
ha
volt
ampere
V
A
litre or liter i watt W
gramme g kilovoltampere KVA
metric ton (1000 kg) t kilowatt kW
second s megawatt MI
minute
hour
week
month
year
mn
h
wk
mth
Yr
kilowatt hour
megawatt hour
gigamatthour
KWh
Meih
GIAL
CHAPTER 1 s INTRODUC 110N
1. ,Background of the Projeot
The Government of Brazil deoided in the late nineteen fifties to give specialand urgent attention to the rapid development of the Northeast, a large and importantregion whioh for long has been lagging further and further behind the Center-Southof the country in rates of economics growth and per capita incomes.
The Northeast is a poor region unable to meet the ever-growing demands madeupon it for more food and more employment. The birth-rate in the region is high,and this fact is not fully reflected in the statistics of population increasebecause emigration towards already over-populated oities in other regions continuesto increase at a dangerous rate.
In February 1959, the Government and the Governors of the States whichconstitute the Northeast acoepted on principle a statement prepared by a specialworking group entitled "A Policy for Development for the Northeast". This state-ment included the broad lines of the policies needed to accelerate developmentin the region, and advocated the drawing up of long term plans and the coordinationof all federal and state acttvities there.
It was within this framework that, at the end of March 1959, the Governmentof Brazil made a request to the Special Fund 1/ of the United Nations for assistancein undertaking a comprehensive survey of land and water resouroes in the lowermiddle basin of the San Francisco river in the semi-arid center of Northeast Brazil(see Map 1). The purpose of the survey wae to provide a basis upon which to planfor the economic betterment of the area by means of large-scale irrigation.
Irrigated cultivation is essential if agricultural production in the regionis to be increased since, while the region enjoys a climate which permits year-round cultivation, it suffers from periods of severo drought, and supplies ofsurface water are insufficient and unreliable.
The Sao Francisco river, which ie a perennial water-course about 2,800 kmlong that rune through the semi-arid zone of the Northeast region, is the bestseurce of water, and the potential benefits of irrigation in its lower middle basinappear to be as great or greater than those that might be expected in any otherarea along the river. Other potential uses of water conflict less in the lowermiddle reaches with irrigation needs, since the river here is not navigable andthe number of sites suitable for hydropower development is limited.
The request was approved by the Governing Council of the Special Fund at itsDecember 1959 session. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nationswas selected as Executing Agency for the project upon the signing of a BasicAgreement on 16 September 1960 concerning Special Fund operations in Brazil.
The United Nations Special Fund and the Expanded Program of Technical Assistancewere merged into the United Nations Development Program on 1 January 1966.
BELEM DOPARA
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VOL. 1 MAP 1VOL.2PART I MAP I
VOL.5 MAP 1VOL.6 MAP I
RECIFE
ATLANTXC
OCEAN
BRASIL AND UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM-SPECIAL FUND
SURVEY OF THE SAN FRANCISCO RIVER BASIN
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
LOCATION OF PROJECT AREA
Km, 0 100 200 300 400 500 Km,
DO NORTE
so sLot.
3
The proposed Plan of Operation stated that the survey should cover the totalbasin of the lowermiddle reaches of the Sao Francisco, an area of about 60,000 km2,but should be carried out in more detail along the main river. The proposed fiveyear program consisted of three phases. The first phase of eighteen months wasintended to determine whether largescale irrigation in the area was physicallyfeasible -and included the collection of agronomic data which would be usefulin determining alternative lines of production under irrigation. The second phase,ofsimilar length and to be undertaken only if the results of the first phase warrantedit, was designed to determine the economic feasibility of the project. The thirdphase, again to be undertaken only if warranted by the preceding phase, was to reachin two years the first detailed proposals for largescale irrigation projects andrelated agricultural settlement schemes.
The Plan of Operation was signed on 7 October 1960, the Government of Brazilappointing the Superintendencia do Desenvolvimento do.Nordeste (SUDENE) as the counter-part agency and making financial contribution as shown below. Over the next fiveyears, for reasons explained later in this introduction, the Plan of Operation wastwice revised and twice amended, as follows:
Plan of Date of Project Financial Contribution 2/
1/ Special Fund allocation, less Government contribution towards local operatingcost.
2/ On October 3rd 1960 the Ford Foundation allocated a sum of US $ 140,000 to provide approximately 40 fellowships for the project to be taken up by Braziliansover the following 5 years.
2. The Project Area and the Role of the Project in Brazilian Development Plans
The/lower middle basin of the So Francisco river covers an area of 113A000square kilometers. The lower middle reaches, which have a water area of 590 km4and a great number of rocky islands, begin 280 km from the river mouth, just upstreamof a canyon at the head of which stands the Paulo Afonso waterfall and runofriverpower plant. They terminate 520 km upstream of the power plant, at Sobradinho, thesite of a proposed dam and reservoir. The town of Petrolina, situated on the northbank of the river in the State of Pernambuco, and the town of Juazeiro, situatedon the south bank in the State of Bahia, lie close to the upstream end of the projectarea (see Map 2 and Figs. 1 and 2).
Any development in the project area must be compatible with the aims of themaster plan for the region as conceived by SUDE, which was established in December1959 and which is the responsible authority for an area of 1.6 million km2, the popu-lation of which was close to 23 million inhabitants in 1960.
Operation Signature duration Special FUnd Brazilin months 1/ US $ ;'t
of total Equiv. US %
e
of total
First Plan 7 Oct. 60 60 974,200 49.6 990,000 50.4
Revision 1 13 Oct. 62 30 497,510 44.5 620,370 55.5
Revision 2 16 Aug. 63 36 507,680 35.3 929,720 64-7
endment 3 30 Apr. 64 48 604,550 33.7 1,195,750 66.3
Amendment 4 13/26 Apr. 65 53 634,850 33.2 1,276,750 66.8
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Fig. 1,s The Paulo Afonso subterranean power plant of 83 meters waterhead, close tothe famous waterfall. (Photo of Companha gydroeletrica do Sao Francisco).Plant I, with three entrance gates, is in the center of the photograph;Plant II, not yet fully equipped, lies nearer the left bank; Plant III, juatunder excavation, is seen in the foreground. The beginning of the longspillway is visible top left and center, upstream from the waterfall. Thebeginning of the narrow can-on can be distinguished top right.
6
The essential points of this master plan as far as the project is conoernedare two. First, an industrialization program, based on newly available cheappower generated mostly from the Sao Francisco river, is envisaged as the means ofimproving the living standards of a great part of the large and rapidly growingpopulation. Second, agricultural development will be necessary, both to meet theneeds of the food supply situation (already precarious) which will result from theincrease in nonagricultural workers, and to provide higher real incomes for thehigh proportion of the population which must remain on the land to produce theindustrial crops for the industries it is intended to develop.
Any development in the project area has also to be viewed in relation to themultipurpose development of the entire basin, which is the responsibility, of theComissio do Vale do Sao Francisco (CVSF), established in December 1948 1/. The basin,number 31 on the world list, extends over more than 631,000 km2 and 30 percentof it is located upstream from SUDENE's area of responsibility. There is a storageclara, Três Marias, located 130 km upstream from Pirapora, where the upper reachesend and the altitude of the river falls over rapids to 460 meters. The storage damhas a maximum capacity of about 20,000 million m3 and controls 49,650 km2 of theriver basin. The river drops a further 100 m over the 1,300 km of the navigablemiddle reaches to Sobradinho, at about 90 30' latitude and at the upper limit ofthe project area.
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Fig. 2: The So Francisco river at Juazeiro, the town on the south bank situated nearthe upstream end of the project area and at the downstream end of the navi-gable middle reaches. Here the river is more than one kilometer wide.
1/ Since the middle of 1964, CVSF and SUDENE, which were formerly directly supervi-sed by the Presidency, have been subordinated to a new coordinating ministry forregional organizations, the Ministgrio Extraordingzrio para Coordenagáo dos Orga-nismos Regionais (MECOR).
7
3. Scope and Phasing of Field Operations
Field operations began in January 1961. FAO appointed its own individualexperts and SUDENE provided a team of Brazilian engineers, a general services staffand local facilities.
The project was interpreted from the start as a long and difficult venture,with no predictable results. Water was available from the main river, but was alsoneeded for power development; soil resources were known to be very unfavorable inthe valley and a large part of the suitable lands were located at some distancefrom the river; no tradition of large-scale irrigation existed in such a semi-aridregion, mostly devoted to extensive animal production.
As reported in the opening section of this chapter, the survey was originallyconceived in three phases. The first phase involved a survey of the soils, hydrologi-cal investigation and agronomic and engineering studies. The second phase was toinclude agricultural experimentation and economic feasibility studies and the generaldesign of irrigation projects. The third phase vías to have dealt with the moredetailed design of selected priority areas and the integration of pasture and forestry'resources into the development of irrigation farming against the background of theregional planning of SUDENE.
Rowever, in October 1962, at the end of the first 18 months of field operations,which mainly consisted of the reconnaissance soil surveys, the extent and quality ofthe land suitable for irrigation raised serious doubts as to the feasibility oflargerscale irrigation in the project area and about the continuation of the project.Following a review of the situation it was agreed that the project would continuebut on a reduced scale with the primary objective to determine if irrigation couldbe undertaken successfully on the marginal grumusol and latosol lands in the westernhalf of the project area. The Plan of Operation was revised accordingly to includethe following studies for an additional period of about 18 months;
Semi-detailed soil surveys on those areas found most suitable from thereconnaissance surveys.
Agricultural research work on two experimental stations to be establishedon typical grumusol and latosol areas.
o) Preliminary engineering design and cost estimates on selected areas todetermine what portion of them could be economically irrigated with waterpumped from the river, one pumping station being used for each of theseveral groups of selected areas.
Studies to determine the possibilities for improving the existing live-stodk industry through integration with the proposed irrigation develop-ment.
Economic studies for a continuing appraisal of the feasibility of develop-ment.
This phase was completed in April 1964 and at that time, as a result of therather favorable results obtained from the agricultural research program, it wasagreed to continue the project for another year in order to obtain more dependableand complete information on all the studies. Field operations on the project weretherefore officially terminated in May 1965. However, it was decided at this timethat there should be a phase two or follow-up of the original project, to become opera-tional in July 1966, and that in the interim period project operations should continuewithout interruption. How these decisions were reached, what was accomplished in theinterim period, and the scope and outline program of phase two are recounted in the
final chapter of this volume.
4. Project Implementation
(i) Soil surveys
The soil survey program consisted of reconnaissanoe surveys, semi-detailedsurveys and some Otailed surveying. Reconnaissance aurvey was carried out on anarea of 26,000 km extending on both sides of the river to discover associationsof different soils and to appraise the suitability of the soils for irrigation. The
result showed 507,000 gross ha to be favorable or fairly favorable for irrigationdevelopment. Semi-detailed surveys were carried out on a gross area of 270,000 ha 1/to discover the proportion and distribution of the land suitable for irrigation withinthe generally favorable soil associations. Detailed survey was carried out on areaseelected for pilot projects and on sites which were selected for setting up experi-mental stations to discover how soils responded to irrigated agriculture (see Map 3).
General maps of Brazil produced by the National Council of Geography (CNG -Conselho Nacional de Geografia) were made available to the soil survey team, togetherwith aerial photographs, photo mosaics and photo index, and a set of accurate modern1/25,000 scale maps with 5 meter contour linos produced by the Cruzeiro do Sul AirSurvey Company for the 00 and the CUSF. Photo reductions at scales 1/50,000 and1/100,000 were also available.
The reoonnaissance soil surveys throu,,,hout the projeot area led to selectionand delineation of several areas which, for soil conditions and uniformity of theterrain, were judged most suitable for development. These areas, totalling 507,000ha, 270,000 of which are comprised in the semi-detailed surveys, are shown on Map 3.
The semi-detailed soil surveys and the land classification maps of theseareas provided the basis for preliminary engineering studies and for a general econo-mic appraisal.
(ii) Hydrological and meteorological studies
Investigation of the water and power resources of the lower middle basinincluded surveys on these resources, on variations of river levels, on sediment loadand water quality and on tributaries and groundwater. It was soon confirmed thatneither the tributaries of the river nor the many reservoirs already installed onthem were suitable for the development of large scale irrigation. Attention wastherefore concentrated on the natural features of the main river itself, on questionsof water consumption, power resources and costs of energy, on relevant aspects of theriver basin multipurpose development plan, and on flood control. At the same time,useful data was gathered and conclusions drawn about the tributaries and their basinsand about the quantity and nature of groundwater in the area.
8
1./ The localities comprising this gross area lie in the western half of the surveyarea. The decision to concentrate attention on them was taken for several rea-sons, one being that localities in the eastern half of the survey area will besUbject to the as yet unknown effects of future water power development.
1/ To add to the olimatological data already available, two ne meteorologicalstations were set up under the project in 1964, one at Barra do Bebedouro andone at Mandacaru, some 30 miles distant.
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-10
Agronomic) studies
Agricultural investigation was first started in the narrow alluvial strip,where a series of experimental stations already existed. Later two new experimentalirrigations stations, each of 20-25 ha, were set up under the project, one at Barrado Bebedouro (Pernambuco) on latosol soils, and one at Fazenda Mandacaru, (Bahia) ongrumusols. Various crops were put under trial on these stations, both sprinkler andgravity irrigation being used. The results of these trials provided information onwhich to establish a five-year cropping rotation plan. This plan served as a basisfor estimating the production potentials and water requirements and for the economicand engineering studies.
As a preliminary to investigating problems on the improvement of animal produc-tivity, surveys were carried out to determine the oost of rearing livestock and theincome to be derived from it.
Engineering studies
The engineering program consisted of preliminary design and costing of twentyschemes in the latosol and grumusol areas and of two on alluvial soils, covering atotal of 105,000 net irrigable hectares 1/ in the western half of the project area(see Map 4), Table 1 lists these areas or schemes, which are all located within theareas selected as most suitable in the reconnaissance soil surveys but do.not neces-sarily include the entire selected area. Remote and high dissected lands were elimi-nated and only those with the most favourable capability, and located a reasonabledistance from the river, were studied. The studies were carried out to define themost feasible areas for development from a technical viewpoint and to provide a basisfor an evaluation of the economic feasibility of extending development into the seve-ral areas on a large scale. The two proposed pilot projects are located in the areasdesignated PB and CH. The two experimental stations are likewise located in thoseareas.
For costing purposes, each irrigation system was split into two separate enti-ties, the main conveyance system and the distribution system. The cost of landclearing, drainage works and roads required for adequate functioning of each irriga-tion scheme were included in the estimates; costs of housing and community facilitieswere not. The estimates were based on local market prices in Brazilian cruzeiros asthey were on June 1963 and then transformed at the TAB rate of 1 US$ = Cr 600.
Economic studies
Economic evaluation of the project was confined to the estimates of net outputfor some typical areas to be brought under irrigation in the western half of theproject area and to the estimated costs of providing these areas with irrigationfacilities.
On this basis it was not possible to arrive at a definite conclusion regardingthe feasibility of large scale development and it was for this reason that a follow-up projeot was proposed whereby pilot development would be undertaken as a means totest and appraise the long term potential of irrigation in the area, taking intoaccount the capability of the farmers for irrigated agriculture as well as the physi-cal potential of the land and water resources. It is intended that the informationand results obtained from the pilot development should serve as a basis for theextension of areas already selected and for planning development on a larger scaleon other selected areas.
1/ 15,750 ha of this area consist of alluvial soil, and here the engineering approachwas confined to studying whether it was advantageous or not to group individualirrigation farmers into major schemes with flood protection. Cost per ha on theAPI (alluvial) scheme for flood protection was found to be very high.
L E GEND
PALPETROLINA
CABROB'
Boundary of the project areo.
Area of semi detailed soil survey anaengineering designs.Towns and villages
River and streams tributary of theSao Francisco,
Railway.
VOL. I MAP 4
BRAZIL AND UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMSPECIAL FUND
SURVEY OF THE SA-0 FRANCISCO RIVER BASIN
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UN T 0 NATIONS
THE ENGINEERING SCHEMES
Km. 0 10 20 30 40 50 Km.
1=1____1===i_____1=1
THE ENGINEERING SCHEMESSy m nots Het Irrigation hectoreo
PBI I I 6 0PB31 I 0 8 0POE 2070POU 4450P A I 5994P A it a 870"%urea c I I 404Solitre ç 3 3 6 7BA 578056E I 313BBLL 4417BBDI 747BC 2253PE 670PG 5785Alluvial API 2 2 5 not shown I.Alluvial sail I 5 7 5 0 1 not shown).
- 12 -
L1/ PAII a includes PAII; b includes a and o includes b for both Touräo and Salitre.
(vi) Training and fellowShips
A Memorandum of Understanding between FAO and SUDENE was signed on 9 Novem-
ber 1961 concerning the use of the US3 140,000 granted on 3 October 1960 by theFord Foundation for fellowship training in connection with the project. The firstremittance of US$ 42,000 for deposit to the account of FAO was made on 18 January1962 and the first three Brazilian candidates took up fellowships abroad inJanuary 1963. Another left soon after on a fellowship from the Organization of theAmerican States. The second Ford Foundation remittance to FAO of US$ 47,000 wasmade on 30 June 1964 and the balance of US$ 51,000, was deposited on 27 October 1965.At that time twelve fellows, including one from the 0.A.S., had concluded or startedtheir training abroad. Technically, every grantee of a Ford Foundation fellowshiphad a grace period of one year following the termination date of the project forthe disburseDent or commitment of the funds, and by that date a total of twenty sixfellows had been nominated, whose training, when the fellowships are complet6d, willexhaust the funds available.
On the job training of counterpart staff formed an important part of theproject throughout. The results of this were especially apparent in the fields ofsoil surveys and agricultural research, where well trained cadres of technicianswere established. At the end of the project an experienced group of about thirtytechnicians comprised the counterpart staff, which will remain on the project forthe follow-up or Phase II.
Table 11 The Engineering Schemes
Scheme Net irrigablehectares
Scheme Net irrigableheotares
FBI 1,160MIII6.2.03.2.2V
Salitre a 13,050
FBII 1,080 22,63711
PDI 2,070 c.1/ 33,667.-11
PDII 4,450 BA 5,780
PAI 5,994 BBI 1,313
PAII 7,254 .BBII 4,417
PAII al/ 827101/ BBIII 747
Tourao a 4,506' BC 2,253
bl/ 7,2021/ PE 670
c:/-/ 11,4041/ PG 5,785
Alluvial 225
Alluvial 15,750
- 13 -
50 Acknowledgements
Acknowledgement is due to many Federal and State officials and offioesfor their 000peration in the execution of the project, and in particular to theGovernment Agency which acted as counterpart, SUDENE. Gratitude is expressed toThe Superintendent of SUDENE and to His Exoellency the new Minister in chargeof MECOR, and also to the various Governors, Senators and Deputies and to themilitary, civil and religious authorities of the project area.
Sincere appreciation for continued assistance and cooperation in carryingout the project is expressed to the staffs of Comissao do Vale do Sao Francisco(CVSF), of Companhia Hidroelectrica do Sao Francisco (CHESF) in Rio de Janeiro,Recife and Paulo Afonso, of Centrais El6ctricas de Minas Gerais (CEMIG), ofCANAMBRA, Consulting Engineers in charge of the Special Fund World Bank Projeotfor South-Central Brazil, of the Divisao de Aguas of the Ministry for Mines andEnergy, of the Departamento Nacional de Obras contra as S8cas (DNOCS), of ComissaoFederal dos Solos, of the former Instituto Agroamico do Nordeste (IANE) of theMinistry of Agriculture, now called Instituto de Pesquisas e Estudos Agropecuariasdo Nordeste (IPEANE), of the Instituto de Pesquisa Agronamicas (IPA) of the Stateof Pernambuco, of the Rural University of Recife (Agronomy and Veterinary Institu-tes), of the Inspectoria Regional de Fomento do Produoao Animal and to the staffsof their various offices and stations in the Sao Francisco basin.
On the part of the Project Manager, acknowledgement and gratitude are parti-cularly expressed to the Co-Manager, Chief of the Grupo de Irriga9ao do Sao Fran-cisco da SUDENE, and to his team for all their kindness, understanding andassistance, as well as to all the international experts, associate experts andadministrative personnel who devoted their efforts to the success of the SaoFrancisco venture.
14
CHAPTER 2: SUMMARY OF MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOLIMENDATIONS
As a result of the resource surveys, agricultural research and engineeringand economic studies leading to preliminary proposals for development, the followingmain conclusions and recommendations relative to irrigation development in the projeotarea may be stated.
The reconnaissance soil survey showed that 507,000 ha in all, or 20 percent, ofthe 26,000 km2 surveyed in the project area have soil conditions favorable or fairlyfavorable for irrigation. The soil associations most promising for irrigation deve-lopment occur over an area of 270,000 ha in the western half of the project area,mostly around the twin cities of Juazeiro (Bahia) and Petrolina (Pernambuco). Thesesoil conditions occur in more than 20 separate areas at various altitudes and distances from the river. Semidetailed surveys of these areas revealed 119,500 ha, occur-ring on latosol and grumusol soils, as having the best prospects. This total inclue.des 10,000 ha on alluvial soils adjacent to the river.V. The 119,500 ha should havefirst priority for a first phase of largescale development, and the balance of the270,000 ha be reserved for development at a later time.
Engineering studies based on the soil surveys indicate that development is techni-cally feasible through individual. pumping and distribution systems of about 105,000 haIn the aeveral areas selected as suitable. These areas, as noted above, are locatedmainly on the latosol and grumusol soils and on a small area of alluvial soils.
Since groundwater and tributary resources are negligible, water for irrigationmust come from the Sao Francisco river, the waters of which are excellent for thispurpose. As the topography of the river valley is not suitable for gravity diversion,the irrigation supply will have to be pumped. Pumping stations using hydroelectriopower will be needed, sometimes in consecutive steps, which voill vary in number from2 to 7 according to the location of the area.
The water requirements for irrigation will not conflict with those for powergeneration at the rato of development anticipated for the next several years in irri-gation, power demand and power supply. Once the planned expansion of the PauloAfonso power plant is achieved, irrigation intakes of 100 to 150 m3/s, which willbe adequate for the area, should be within permissible limits.
Of the prevailing price rates for hydropower, the rate considered suitable forthe first phase of largesoale development should make the cost of energy aboutUS$ 0.00425 per kWh, provided pumping does not take place during the peak hoursbetween 5 p.m. and 10 p.m. each day.
Cropping trials carried out on the latosols gave good results for groundnuts,cotton, maize, elephant grass and fodder crops,and indicated further experimentationwould be worthwhile, provided market research shows their profitability, on thefollowing: soya bean, potatoes, sweet potatoes, mandiocal sunflowsr, tobacco, vege-tables and fodder crops such as sorghum, Sudan grasa, Guinea grasa and Doliohoslablab. However, to obtain reasonable yields on the latosols, use of chemical fer-tilizers is essential. Also, windbreaks and cropcover are necessary to preventuoil erosion.
.11 Alluvial soils in the grosa area of 507,000 ha cover about 58,000 ha, most ofwhich are not very favorable for irrigation.
-15
On the grumusols, experimental results with ootton, maize and fodder cropsindicated that satisfactory production of these crops could be obtained on a largescale. On these heavy soils the timing of operations is the vital factor in culti-vation and management, and an effective drainage system is essential because ofthe low percolation rate.
An economic evaluation of development on the areas comprising the 105,000 haindicates a costbenefit ratio of 1 to 1.16 based on market prices, input productioncosts and construction and operation costs as for 1963/64. In view of the continuinginflation in the country and the almost constant change in the value of money, theeestudies may be considered to serve only as a relative indicator of the degree ofeconomic feasibility. Furthermore, the study was based on obtaining investmentcapital through a 50 year loan at 3/4 of one percent for capital outlay costs, withno repayment in the first ten years, repayment at 1 percent interest in the nextten years and at 3 percent for the remaining thirty years. Thus it may be seen thatsatisfactory repayment ability depends on obtaining capital under very favorableconditions.
The marginal feasibility of irrigation development in the area has long beenrecognized. However, in view of the great need in the Northeast to promote agricultur.al development to provide more food and employment for the already overabundant popu-lation and to serve as a basis for generating economic growth in other fields, theGovernment of Brazil considers development must proceed. Since largescale developmentand investment should not be undertaken, even on the best soils located nearest theriver, until the productivity of irrigation is tested on a scale largor than the expe-rimental farm allows, until the response of the settlers on irrigated farming isobserved and until the many arganizational and management problema which undoubtedlywill arise with development are resolved, it was concluded that the initiation ofdevelopment by means of a pilot project was the only logical course of action oponat this time. The decisions and actions taken as a consequence of this conclusionare reported in the final chapter of this volume.
On the basis of experience gained on the pilot development and assuming reasonablesuccess in establishing irrigated agriculture, with improvement of the associatedlivestock industry now struggling for existence in the outlying Oaatinga areas, step-wise development on a larger scale could be undertaken throughout the uelected latosoland grumusol areas. This development should proceed slowly in order that social andcommunity growth, institutional and public services and commercial market enterprisesmay keep pace with the agricultura], production side and an overall balance in develop-ment be achieved.
During the first stage of largescale development, which may require from tento fifteen years, the following priority in areas is suggested:
Latoso]. Areas
PB IPB II
1,160 net irrigable heotares1,080 "
PD 11 4,450PD I 2,070
PA I 5,994PA 11 7,254
22,008 net irrigable hectares
"n .1
" /I II
" II II
" II II
- 16-
Grumusol Areas
TourZio as 4,506 net irrigable hectares
Touráo bs 2,696
-Tours° os
Total
4,202 n
11,404 net irrigable heotares
11. Development policy and plans for most of the alluvial soils and the non-calciobrown soils cannot be established until additional studies are oompleted and untilan overall multi-purpose development plan for the river basin indicates the amountsof water and power that can be made available for irrigation in the years to comeand the areas in the river valley which may be oocupied by large storage reservoirs.
Geology
The project area lies in the northeast part of the great Brazilian crystallineshield.
The greatest portion of outcrops consist of precambrian crystalline sohistswith granitic and basic intrusions. A tectonic depression crosses the middle reachesof the Sao Francisco river valley towards the eastern end of the project area,stretching down to the Atlantic coast of Salvador - Bahia. This depression is oocu-pied by cretaceous sediments; a Devonian basement with some fossils has in some plaoesencountered. Another synclinal depression, at the western end, reaches from RioSalitre soutward in the State of Bahia. It is occupied by Palezolio sediments. Allrocks of the region older than mesozoic are injected mainly by acidic material. Thewhole complex of the crystalline and paleozoic is metaiaorphic and partially migmatized.In the region of Juazeiro-Curagá, west from Rio Salitre,cenozoic sediments, mainlyPliocene, occur in isolated patches. The Atlantic coastline is mainly occupied byolder cenozoic and by paleozoic crystalline rocks partially covered by quaternarysediments. The recent formations of rock alteration and river alluvium are representedin the project area as a thin layer interrupted by many outcrops of the underlying bed-rock.
The Soil Survey Program
Reconnaissance survey
The soil survey work was begun in March 1961 and brought to a close in Decem-ber 1963. The first stage of the work was a reconnaissance survey of 26,000 sq. kmbordering the river and covered by modern 1:25,000 and 1:100,000 maps compiled fromair photographs. As a result of this survey maps were produced showing the associationsof different soils and an appraisal of the suitability of the soils for irrigation.The result was to show that 160,000 ha seemed favorable for irrigation (consideringonly soil conditions). A further 347,000 ha had fairly favorable soil conditions,while the remaining 80 percent of the land was only slightly favorable or was unsuit-able for irrigation (for details see Table 2).
The reconnaissance revealed that although the alluvial soils cover a totalof 58,000 ha much of this is not very favorable for irrigation. The alluvium occursin a narrow band (500-1,000 m wide) more suitable for small pumping schemes than forlarge-scale irrigation, except where it is associated with good upland soils. Thesoil associations most promising for irrigation development are heavy clay grumusolicsoils developed over limestone and light sandy latosolio soils, both occurring in thewestern part of the project area (see Map 3). Neither of these soils is irrigatedand the latosols have only limited cultivation and the grumusols none at all. Accor-dingly, the vital second stop was to install experimental irrigation stations to findout how the soils would respond to irrigated agriculture. Representative tracts ofthe two best soils were located and the station sites selected were surveyed in detail.
Semi-detailed suram
The reconnaissance map showed associations of soils of different kinds somesuitable and some unsuitable for irrigation. The next stage was to take the assooia-tions generally favorable for irrigation and to map the different kinds of soilseparately and to discover the proportions and distribution of the land suitable forirrigation. This process began with semi-detailed soil surveys producing soil mapaat a scale of 1:25,000 by adequate field work. After some experience it was found
- 17 -
CHAPTER 3: GEOLOGY SOIL RESOURCES AND LAND CLASSIFICATION FOR IRRIGATION
-18
Table 2: Land. Classes for Ir igation Reco by the Reconnaissance S vur e
The groups shown are mixtures of good and poor soils with their overallsuitability for irrigation indicated.
Favourable for Irrigation DevelopmentLatosols AreaGrumusols AreaTotal
Fairly Favourable for Irrigation DevelópmentLatosols AreaGrumusols Area (including 7,000 ha from
the Sandstone plateau)Periphery of Grumusols Area"NonCalcio Brown Soils" AreaAlluvium
C. Slightly Favourable for Irrigation DevelopmentUnconsolidated SandsLatosols AreaGrumusols Area"NonCalcio Brown Soils" AreaSandstone Plateau (excluding 7,000 ha
Grumusols)
Total
Unfavourable_for Irrigation Development,Latosols Area 456,000 haGrumusols Area 48,000 u
"NonCalcio Brown Soils" Area 513,000 "
Mountains 127,000
Total
GRAND LAND TOTALRiver
GRAND AREA TOTAL
Total 347,000
25,000 ha279,000117,000183,000
289,000
893,000
1,1442000
507,000 ha
2,037,000 n2,544,000 "
59,000 "
2,603,000
possible to make land class maps, of scale 1:50,000, by photo interpretation withminimum field work. These do not show individual soils but show tracts of landwith similar soil conditions and irrigation potential, and their use enabled thestudy to be completed in the time allowed. They are adequate for the purpose of pre-liminary engineering studies and a general economic appraisal and are not intendedfor detailed project planning. For the latter purpose, detailed surveys have beenbegun on the proposed pilot area.
(iii) Methods
The methods used were those normal in modern soil survey, as described inthe U.S. Soil Survey Manual and other publications. Maximum use was made of airphotograph interpretation. The soils were classified according to internationallyrecognized concepts of systematic pedology. The land dlasaification for irrigationwas based on the system developed by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation and successfUllyused in many other countries. The modified system used relates only to soil and
99,000 ha61,000
160,000 ha
79,000 ha
36,00027,000
147,000It
58,000
- 19 -
topography conditions (not considering size and shape of areas, availability of water,access to markets, etc.), and, as the soils are uncultivated, data on productivecapacity and the cost of maintaining irrigated agriculture are lacking, so the classi-fication is tentative and provisional.
For the purpose of the survey several thousand soil samples were analysed byroutine methods, and also some more intensive studies were made, for example of claymineralogy. This work was done at the Instituto Agronomic° do Nordeste and latersupplemented by some determinations made at the field laboratory set up by SUDENEand FAO in Juazeiro.
(iv) Staff
During the execution of the work fourteen graduate conterpart staff reoeivedtraining in the field soil survey, including air photo analysis teohniques, and asmall number of nongraduate field staff also received practical training. Thelaboratory staff of IAN profited from the collaboration on this projeot, and threegraduate and severa], assistant laboratory staff were assisted in the establishmentand operation of the SUDFSE field laboratory.
A number of fellowships were awarded by the Ford Foundation, through the agene.ay of FAO, for Brazilian staff to study soil soience in the USA.
Land Classifioation System
The system used for classifyingthe land for suitability for irrigated agricul-ture was basically the US Bureau of Reclamation system, but took into amoount onlythe soil quality and topography. The criteria for the classes may be summarizedas follows:
Class I Land able to support high yielding irrigated agrioulture without heavYspecial costs. None was recognized in the project area.
Class II Land suitable for irrigated agriculture but less productive or more expen-sive to farm than Class I. (Yost of the extensivo tracts of deep soils).
Class III Land suitable for irrigated agriculture but marginal in value because oflower productivity or higher costs (these are moderately deep soils, ortracts of land with a mixture of deep and shallow soils).
Class IV Land suitable for irrigated agriculture under special conditions. Nonewas separated, though aome probably exists, suoh as that of the heavyalluvial soils subject to flooding which would probably be suitable forgrowing rice or bamboo, and might be put in this class in a detailed survey.
Class V Land not suitable for irrigated agriculture uniese further investigationsindicate the poseibility of reclaiming it eoonomioally (e.g. the deep ooarsesands)
Class VI Land not suitable for irrigated agriculture (rooky, stony, oto.).
Soil Conditions) Distribution and Suitability for Irrigation in the Six NaturalRegions
The area covered by the reconnaissance survey was divided into six broad naturalregions distinguished by their geology, topography, soils, vegetation and land Use*The boundaries are shown in Map 2 and the six regions are as follows:
Region 11 The unoonsolidated sands, not favorable for agricultural development.
20
Region 2: The old depositional mantle covering the basement rocks, with irrigationpossibilities only on the deep sandy latosol soils.
Region 3: The limestone plateau and periphery with deep clay grumusols favorable
for irrigation development.
Region 4: The weathered metamorphic basement with uncertain irrigation possibilitieson some "noncalcic brown" soils.
Region 5: The sandstone plateau, with sandy regosols not favorable for agriculture.
Region 6: The river alluvium.
The soil conditions and suitability for irrigation are described below, region
by region.
Region 1: The Unconsolidated Sands
General
This is a region of recent sedimentary deposits of quartz sands, two to rlyt,meters thick. They cover 25,000 ha situated in a band 5-8 km wide stretching from10 km east to 30 km west of Petrolina. (Small patches of similar material can befound near the river on both banks as far east as Cabrob6).
The topography is smooth with gentle slopes towards the river broken by theundulations of drainage lines and small intermittent streams. Owing to the inertparent material the soils show little development except for a slight accumulationof organic matter in the surface layer and some mottling in the lower layers in moistlow lying places. They are classified as sandy regosols (Orthic Psammustents in theUSDA 7th Approximation).
Bushes and trees form a dense cover but are of low stature. Grasses are rare
and the ground vegetation is generally sparse.
The use of such land might be expected to be slight, but awing to their pro-ximity to the river and to a large town a good many clearings have been made andfenced. In wet years cassava, sweet potatoes, beans, and water melons are paantedbut crops are reported to be very poor. Otherwise the land use is grazing at verylow density of animals per ha.
Irrigation development potential
The topography and location are favorable to irrigation development, but theacid, infertile soils, although deep and easily tilled, are likely to be very unpro-ductive and droughty. Such soils have been developed under irrigation in other partsof the world where other conditions were favorable. They tend to improve over theyears with additions of silt and fertilizer. The difficulty of irrigating such soilsand of building up their mineral nutrient status indicates that their developmentis not feasible at present. If the sandiest latosol soils are successfully irrigated,experience thus gained would be applicable to these sandy regosols and might makeit possible to reconsider their development in a few years time. Such developmentwould be important for much larger areas of sandy soils on the sandstone plateau.In the present state of our knowledge, however, it is not feasible.
Region 2: The Old Depositional Mantles
(i) General description
This region covers the whole of the area west of Gabrob6 except for the lime-
-21 -
stone are and the unconsolidated sands and alluvium and is extensive outside theproject area.
The geologioal basement here consista of Pro-Oambrian rocks highly stratified,folded and metamorphosed. They comprise for the most part acid gneisses with somemica schists. There are numerous quartz veins and rare oocurrences of darker basiorocks. Over wide areas this peneplaned basement is covered by deposits derived fromerosion of a former lateritized surface. The laying down of these deposits took placein two main phases: an early spreading of ooarse material (quartz gravel and iron-stone concretions) followed by deposition of a sandy and loamy mantle. This loamymantle now covers only a small part of the area: if it was originally more extensiveit has been reduoed by erosion, leaving the stony layer exposed.
The land surface may therefore be formed by the metamorphic basement rook(usually the gneiss weathers sub-aerially to produce rather ehaliow palo grey sandysoils with many rock outcrops), or by the gravelly deposit, or by the loamy lateritiodeposit on top of the gravelly one. The latter although restricted in area has deeplatosolic soils of importance for agrioulture. By far the greater part of the regionis covered either by very stony soils or by shallow-sandy soils with rock outcrops,neither of which are favorable for irrigation development.
The region presents the general aspect of a plain broken by ranges of hillsand isolated inselbergs. The topegraphy of the plain varies from being rolling andstrongly eroded where the stoney layers outcrop, to quite smooth on the loamydeposits, with smooth sandy areas separating rooky outcrops where the bed rock isnot covered by the lateritio deposits. The drainage system is not mature: there aremany intermittent lakes either lacking external drainage or imperfectly lined bystream beds which are irregular in slope and direction. Thus, although the uplandsare well drained the valleys have slow drainage, and although seldom wet they havestrongly cemented layers on the lower valley slopes and heavy hydromorphic soilsdeveloped by weathering of the rock in the intermittent lakes.
The vegetation of this region is a dense thorny and cactaceous thicket aboutfive meters high with eoattered taller trees. Grasses are almoat non-existent. Onthe pale grey sandy soils and among rock outcrops the vegetation is much more openwith scattered clumps of bushes and cactuses. The vegetation is often thickest wherethe surface is very stoney and few animals come.
The land use in this region is generally rough grazing (or browsing) with alow density of cattle, goats and sheep per acre. Hunting, the exploitation of timberand charcoal, and the collection of the wild "caros" fiber, are other sources ofincome. Small patches of cleared and fenced land can be found throughout exoept onthe most stony land. There are more of these clearings near the river and particular-'ly near Petrolina. Caosava, beans, maize, sweet potatoes, perennial cotton, watermelons, sesame and other crops are grown in years when rainfall suffices.
(ii) Soil descriptions
The hills and the stony, shallow, sandy or rocky areas were rejected by thereconnaissance survey. (Naturally some small tracts of better soil exist in theseregions too). Attention was then concentrated on the areas of deep and moderatelydeep deposits of fine loamy material. Most of these are near the river. During thesemi-detailed survey the lowlying land with cemented layers in the aubsoil, as wellas stony, rocky and ill-drained soils near the stream beds, were separated from thebetter drained uplands on which irrigation development dependa.
On the uplands there is a sequenoe of geological layers. At the bottom thereis the bed rook, gneiss or schist, either hard or more or lees weathered to a clay.This is overlain by a very irregular deposit of rounded or sub-angular quartz graveland ironstone concretions, sometimes cemented into a pan. It is from a few centime-
22
tors to three meters deep though usually varying between one and two meters. Abovethis is a deposit of fine earth varying in depth from nothing where the stony layeroutorops up to about five meters.
The divisions of the soils have been made primarily a000rding to the depthof thie top layer. Where it is less than 50 cm deep the soils are grouped with thestony soils as unirrigable. The deeper soils are divided into those with 50-150 cmand those with more than 150 cm of fine earth above the stony layer. FUrther sub-divisions were made by the semidetailed and detailed surveys.
Within the deepest soils several series have been separated according totexture and other associated characteristics. The commonest soils (called 37 AB)have a very shallow Al horizon (5 am) of dark yellowish brown porous, friable sand,underlain by an A3, 15-20 cm deep, of brownish yellow sand. This merges throughloamy sand to a reddish yellow (dry) and strong brown (moist) heavy sandy loam Bhorizon, and paler colours.
Quite largo areas have a more heavy textured series (37 BB). This, thoughalso sandy at the surface, has a sandy clay loam B horizon with a clearer boundarybetween the A and B horizone, redder colours, and more strongly developed subangularblocky structure with some clay skins (indicating leaching of clay). The 0 horizonis ueually sandy loam, and still porous.
The 37 AB soils are moderately to very acid (PH 5.0 to 6.0 in the surface and4.5 to 5.0 in the lower soil). The total of exchangeable cations is only 2.4 m.e.percent (mostly divalent ions) and P205 or extremely low (1-4 mg/100 g). The exchangecapacity is very low as the clays are kaolinitic and the eaturation varies from 40-60percent. The organic matter is confined to the surface and is very low (0.5 to 1.0percent) though not abnormally so for a dry climate. The carbon/nitrogen ratio isaround 8 to 12. The sandy 37 AA soils are poorer in all these respeots and the 37 BBsoils rather better.
The olay content is about 10 percent in the surface and 20-28 percent in thelower soil (15 percent in the 37 AA soils and 22-35 peroent in the 37 BB soils). Thewater holding capacity is therefore low, particularly in the topsoil, (15-20 peroent);the wilting point is also low (6 percent). Infiltration is very rapid and permeabili-ty is high except in the B horizons of some of the heavier soils.
Apart from these deep soils there are large areas of the soils with the gra-velly and concretionary layer appearing at irregular depths within 50-150 cm of thesurface. They are generally similar to the deeper soils and have been subdividedin a similar way. They are often intermingled with the deeper soils and are irrigable,though containing a higher proportion of nonirrigable shallow soils. They may tendto be rather less productive for some crops beoause of the restricted root room, andmay tend to develop a drainage problem.
There are also restricted areae in the drainage linee and hollows with stronginduration occurring within one meter of the surface. This is class 5 land, of doubt-ful value, though techniques may be found for developing it where it occurs contiguousto good upland soils.
The deep soils have been tentatively classified as dry sandy latosols. Inthe system of the US Seventh Approximation they fit into the imcompletely definedgroup of Idox. However, some of them appear to have textural B horizons and so maybe related to the red yellow podsolic eoils (but the clayey layer may be partly dueto differential deposition and development in a former.wetter climate). Even if themorphology ie much the same as in those soils of moist climates.the processes nowoccurring are likely to be different (e.g. the organic matter vole and the mobili-sation of sesquioxides and silica), and also the agricultural characteristics (suchas erosion susceptibility).
23
(iii) Irrigation development potential
The land classification took account of these conditions in the.following way.The low lying valley lands were put in class 5 in the semidetailed survey becausein apite of their unfavorable characteristics and the admixture of a good deal ofpoor land, they may have possibilities for partial deveiopment in oonjunotion withthe upland soils. They ara grouped with class 6 land on the maps made by photointerpretation.
The class 2 land is where nearly oil the soile are deeper than 50 cm with agood proportion over 150 cm deep. The class 3 land has much less of the soil over150 cm deep and a good deal of the shallow and stony eoils. The proportions varyfrom area to area, but in a general way it is likely that about 10 percent of theclase 2 and 30 percent of the class 3 land has shallow soil or is otherwise unsuitablefor irrigation andsmoreover,the proportion of really deep soils is much less on theolass 3 land.so the average productivity may be less.
These soils have some great advantages for irrigated agriculture as they ocouron smooth slopes with little erosion, and are deep, easily tilled, well drained,and have little danger of salinity. They will, moreover, tend to improve under irri-gation with repeated light fertilization and small additions of silt in the water.On the other hand they are very low in mineral nutrients, liable to nutrient imbalance,have a low moisture holding capacity (except the heavier ones), and are susceptibleto sheet erosion and to gullying and perhaps wind erosion if control measures are notapplied.
As the soils to which these are related usually occur in humid climates, thereis little information available from other places about the reaction of such soilsto irrigation. There is, however, no reason to suppose that they will be more diffi-oult to farm than other light and infertile soils sucoessfully irrigated elsewhere.
To sum up, the limited areas of better soils in this region occur on favorabletopography and in bloCks of land 50-2,000 ha in size,separated by unfavorable land.The soils are not rich and will require heavy fertilizer applications, and frequentirrigations. Much experimentation, will be required for finding the best agriculturaltechniques for the various soils. The differences in fragmentation of the good land,and in the distance from the river and the height above it, mean that costs will varyGreatly between the various tracts. The PB area, where the Bebedouro Experimentaletation is situated, is exceptionally favorable in these respects. Its deVelopmentcould act as a pilot for other regions which might later be developed in order ofsuitability. Finally, it may be noted that, poor as they are, these soils are verymuch more promising than most of the other soils in the region of Caatinga.
Region 3: The Limestone Plateau and Periphery
(i) General
South of Juazeiro there is a region of hard freshwater limestone (probablyof Tertiary age) which forms a plateau with a gentle slope from eouth to north.Here there are heavy swelling and oradking clays3mostly between 150 and 200 cm deep,known as grumusols. The slopes around the plateau vary in steepness and erosion andhave various soil types. The most important are moderately deep and deep "noncalciobrown" soils which are sandy clay loam at the surface and sandy clay in the lower soil.
The vegetation on the limestone consists of open low trees with a wet seasonthin ground vegetation of the short nonedible legume "mata pasta" and some shortgreases. Some areas have denser clumps of bushes and trees, while othera have almoatbare ground or the small shrub "pinhac". Clearing is therefore relatively easy. Thevegetation of the peripheral zone ie thicker. Land use is grazing at very lowintensity.
-B horizon 25 to 50 cm)C horizon 100 to 150 cm)
- 24 -
Table 3: Avera e Anal tica]. Data for Main Grumusol and Latoso]. Soils
A horizon (0 to 10.-20 cm) Average of 17 profiles ofeach soil
Grumusol Latoso].
Laboratory Determination 52 Unit
min. max. ay.
37 AB Unit
min. max. ay.
Fine Gravel % A 5 A 0 5 2
4 B 1 99 31 9 6
Sand % A 28 A - 8725 B - 80
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Silt % A 7 35 15 A 0 4 23 31 14 B 11 6 2
2 12 5
Clay % A 32 60 53 A 7 17 10B 36 75 57 B 12 27 18
15 27 22
Ex. Calcium me% A 16 52 30 A 0.50 2.90 1.72C 18 38 28 B 0.45 3.20 1.08
0.50 2.20 1.31'
Ex. Magnesium me% A 0.8 12.0 3,4 A 0.10 0.30 0.240.4 8.0 2.9 B 0.05 0.80 0.30
0 0.10 1.10 0.47
Ex. Potassium me% A 0.14 0.56 0.26 A 0.17 0.38 0.230 0.10 0.38 0.16 B 0.10 0.46 0.20
C 0.10 0.27 0.18
Ex. Sodium me% A 003 008 0.5 A 0.1 0.3 0.11.0 4.6 2.5 B 0.1 0.2 0.1
0.1 0.2 0.1
Sum of exchangeable bases me% A 19 55 35 A 0.97 3.53 3.02C 28 50 36 B 0.95 4.66 1.79
0.94 3.35 1'91
Total exchange capacity me% A 19 55 35 A 2.1 4.6 3.4B 28 50 36 B 2.2 5.9 3.3
0 2.8 4.7 3.7
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(ii) The Limestone Plateau
(a) General description
The limestone plateau is flat with a general slope of 0.5 percent, but islocally cut and eroded by narrow valleys. In places the basement rocks protrudethrough,the limestone oapping, forming abrupt hills. The greater part of the plateauis covered by deep heavy clay soil. Areas with outcrops and boulders of limestoneoccupy perhaps a fifth of the surface. Smaller tracts have shallower soils andsteeper slopes. Some parts, probably where drainage water accumulates, have becomealkaline and salino (Solonetsization).
Laboratory Determination
Base Saturation % AC
Grumusol52 Unit
min. max.
100100
ay. min.
100 A100 B
C
Latosol37 AB Unit
max.
34 10026 8723 73
ay.
5252
34
Cation exchange capacity of clay me% 67 A - /768 B - - 17
(inc. 0.M.) 0 - - 17
Calcium Carbonate % 1.8 7.5 3.6 A o2.0 25.2 6.5 B O
O
PH H20 A 6.9 8.5 7.7 A 5.0 7.1 5.87.2 8.6 7.8 B 4.5 6.8 5.1
0 3.8 5.2 4.8
pH KCI A 5.4 6.9 6.5 A 4.0 5.9 4.86.5 6.9 6.7 B 3.6 4.6 4.1
C 3.4 4.2 3.8
ECe mhos x 1O3 A 0.12 0.29 0.21 A 0.13 0.34 0.210.31 6.50 2.62 B 0.05 0.28 0.16
C 0.06 0.19 0.13
Phosphorus P205 mg/100 g A 0.8 8.4 2.7 A 0.2 3.5 2.5
Organio Carbon % A 0.14 0.68 0.37 A 0.35 0.84 0.52
Nitrogen % A 0.04 0.10 0.08 A 0.03 0.07 0.05
C/W A 3.5 10.0 6.1 A 7.0 14.0 10.7
Organic Matter A 0.24 1.17 0.64 A 0.60 1.45 0.85
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These latter areas are put into class 5 land as non-arable until the feasibi-lity of leaching these heavy soils has been demonstrated. The patches of rocky andstony land and shallow soils cannot be mapped separately on the scale used, but theirfrequency is taken into account in classing the land as 2 or 3 (i.e. fairly good ormarginal).
(b) Soil description
Three main soil units are distinguished, though detailed surveys are requiredto make further divisions. The 52 and 53 soils are olive brown or yellow brown clays150 to 200 or more cm deep. They are calcareous, at least in the lower layers, andare slightly to moderately alkaline in reaction. They have a granular or blockyA horizon 5 to 20 cm deep, underlain by a C horizon deeply cracked with angular blockystructure and numerous slickensides. The surface has numerous cracks and potholesthough these tend to be concealed by the granular or crusty topsoil. There is oftena gilgai micro relief of depressions and elevations (with less than 20 cm altitude)oaused by the shrinking and swelling and ohurning of the clay as it wets and dries.
The clays are of the expanding lattice type (beidellite). The field moisturecapacity is very high (25-35 me per 100 g soil) with 100 percent saturation. Calciumpredominates making up 90 percent of the exchangeable bases, though magnesium is alsooccasionally high. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are all very low. Organicmatter is low but deeply distributed in the soil. The carbon nitrogen ratio, at 6.5,is unusually low for a grumusol, though not for a desert soil. Exchangeable sodiumincreases down the profile but even at the bottom is low compared to calcium. Thesoluble salt content, as indicated by electrical conductivity, also increases and isgenerally low but in a few cases is high in the lowest layer. Subdivisions wouldobviously be made during a detailed survey.
The main differenoe between the 52 and 53 soils are that the former has ahigher clay content (50-60 percent) and has a granular self mulching surface and welldeveloped angular blocky structure below. The 53 soils with 30-45 percent clay havea more massive surface soil and a more compact subsoil. Intergrades between thesetwo are most common.
The 55 soils are similar but have a grey colour throughout. They seem to bedeveloped in hollows with moister conditions though often it seems that the colouris a relict of former moister conditions. They tend to have a higher salt contentin the lower layers. In some places they grade into soils with a solodized Solonetzprofile, with sandy surface and alkaline and saline subsoil.
These three soils are sufficiently alike to be grouped together for a preli-minary appraisal of irrigation potential.
In the U.S.D.A. 7th Approximation soil classification these soils are mostlyVertisols (Entic Grumusters and Liazusgerts) but according to the strict criteriaestablished, some must be classified as Haplargids, or Desert Soils, and many aremarginal.
(o) Irrigation development potential
Similar soils are cultivated and irrigated in many parts of the world. Theyare generally quite productive under irrigation, though the range of crops may belimited. Cotton, rice, sunflowers, sorghum, beans, pastures, maize and sugarcaneare commonly grown. The root crops and tree crops are adversely affected by thesqueezing, cracking and churning of the soil. Roads, buildings, irrigation structures,and drainage ditches are also badly affected. Permeability is low when the soil iswet, and drainage is difficult but may be needed, if excess water is applied, to avoiddegradation of the structure and perhaps salinization, should it be serious. Heavy
-27-
fertilization with phosphorus and nitrogen are essential and micro elements may alsobe needed on these alkaline soils. The soils are susceptible to sheet and gully ero-sion on slopes. Another problem may be the abundant destructive ants.
Tillage is difficult because cultivation must be done when the soils areneither too wet nor too dry, and to achieve this on a large-scale usually impliesheavy machinery. Because of these difficulties large areas of such soils are unusedexcept for rough grazing, and this in spite of their relatively high mineral nutrientstatus. These soils are only productive under good management with modern techniquesof tillage, irrigation, and fertilization. They are not very suitable for peasantfarmers unless irrigation is firmly oontrolled and assistance with advice and implementsis available.
(iii) The Peripheral Zone
General description
The slopes around the limestone plateau and between it and the river have veryheterogeneous soil conditions. The main hope for irrigation lies in the deep, yellowbrown loamy and clayey "non-calcio brown" soils which grade into grumusols at oneextreme and into latosols at the other, with associated small patohes of both sorts ofsoil.
Only the gentle slopes with deep soils have development potential. The steeperslopes (over 4 percent), and the eroded, stony, rooky and shallow soils are eliminated,and these cover well over three-quarters of the land.
Soil description
The main "non-calcio brown" soils are deep, brownish yellow in colour, withsandy loam or sandy clay loam topsoils merging gradually downwards to sandy olay.They are massive, more or less porous in the topsoil, and sub-angular blocky inthe lower layers, becoming increasingly compact and less porous with depth. Theyare moderately aoid at the surface and slightly alkaline and calcareous in the lowerlayers. They may contain some gravel and concretions and are often underlain by astoneline like the latosols. The soils at the grumusol end of the range are moreclayey and calcareous, while at the latosol end they are more acid and porous andredder in colour. The fertility status is also intermediate and generally low.
Other extensive similar soils are only 50 to 100 om deep. These are veryvariable, including some with abrupt textural changes between A and B horizons,and some with a tendency to alkalinization. On the flatter, less eroded slopes, withlittle admixture of poorer soils, these soils are class 5 land, but otherwise theyare included in class 6.
Irrigation development potential
Where they occur in reasonably large tracts the deep "non-calcio brown" soilsare class 2 land, but where they are mixed with poorer soils the group is downgradedto class 3.
There are also calcareous soils similar to Red Yellow Mediterranean soilswhich are also class 5 land when deeper than 50 am. .Besides this there are soilssimilar to Rendxinas, Solodiied Solonetzes and Lithosols which are all unsuited toirrigation.
Reasonably large blocks of the better soils occur olose to grumusols and shouldgive comparable yields. There is, therefore, a very useful additional area of olass2 and 3 land (with a gross total of 15,000 ha) which can be irrigated, without much
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extra cost. In Table 4 (Land Classes for Irrigation) these areas are the class 3xland, plus the class 2 lands in Areas CB (and CC), where there are no grumusols, and
1,700 ha of the class 2 land in Area CH and 1,900 ha in Areas CE, CF and CG.
ReEion 4: The Metamorphic Basement
General description
This is the region east of Cabrobó where any overlying mantle has been removedby erosion and soils are developed in the metamorphic basement of acid gneisses andschists, veined with quartz veins. The downcutting river is encouraging severeerosion but some flat surfaces remain, dissected by stream channels. The soils aregenerally shallow and the better "noncalcio brown" soils are much intermixed withshallow, stony, eroded and sodium rich clay pan soils. Most of the region isunsuitable for irrigation, but 147,000 ha of land were separated which have a higherproportion of the better soils.
The feasibility of irrigating these shallow soils is unknown but some experi-mental work was begun on the Itacaruba experimental station. They may be inundatedin part if the new Itaparica dam is built. The heterogeneity of the soils and theirheight and distance from the river are unfavorable factors. Photo interpretationtechniques do not permit the separation of the different soils. Because of the uncer-tainties no further work was done in this region after the reconnaissance; studieswere concentrated on the more favorable regions.
The land with some irrigation potential occurs in three blocks. The blocksouth of Chorrochò covering 85,000 ha is 60 m above the river and 20 km from it. The9,000 ha tract west of Cabrobó is 10-30 m above and up to 10 km from the river buthas very mixed soils transitional to the latosol area. The land around Abare, Belemand Itacaruba is about 30 m above the river and up to 10 km from it.
The relief in these better areas consists of a general regular slope to theriver cut by small valleys with narrow alluvial bands and sloping eroded sides(3-4 percent slope). The most favorable parts have interflives 1 km or more wideand up to 10 km long.
The vegetation is open caatinga with a thin growth of low grasses in the wetseason and scattered trees which are easy to clear. Land use is grazing (or browsing)with some cultivation in the valleys.
Soils description
The best soil has a yellowish red topsoil, 5 to 20 cm deep, of porous loamysand and sandy loam. This changes abruptly to reddish brown, or yellowish brownclay or sandy clay, with prismatic breaking to angular block,y structure. Thismerges into decomposed rock and then to hard rock within 50 to 100 cm of the surface.The surface is moderately acid, the lower soil is slightly alkaline. Organic matteris low but deeply distributed. Mineral nutrients are quite low in the topsoil butthere is a large reserve of calcium and magnesium in the lower layers. There is ageneral tendency to increased sodium at depth though it is still low compared to thecalcium. In some cases there are oalcium carbonate concretions in the lower layers.These soils have been classified as (Planosolic) noncalcio brown soils (or Haplargidsin the U.S.D.A. 7th Approximation).
Irrigation development potential
The better soils cover less than 50 percent of the total area. They haverestrictions due to their limited depth and the abrupt change in texture. Drainageis likely to be difficult, levelling is not very advisable, erosion control is essen-tial, applications of phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers will be needed.
-29-
The problems and the high cost suggest that some years of reeearoh at Itaour-ruba should pass before a decision on development is taken.
Region 51 The Sandstone Plateau
General description
Between Belem and Petrolandia there are cretaceous formations, °briefly eandr.atone but with some shales, covering 296,000 ha in the project area and extensivoareas outaide it.
The topography is very gently sloping on the upper slopes with fairly steepsided valleys. Most of the land is 50-110 m above the river. The vegetation iscontinuous, but not dense, oaatinga of low stature, with few emergent trees. Thereis some grazing but muoh of this area ie untrodden ground.
Soils description
Most of the region is covered by very deep, looee yellowish brown sands orloamy sands with little horizon development (regosols). They are well drained,stone-free, with gentle slopes and not notably eroded at present, but their droughti-ness, acidity, infertility and liability to disastrous erosion when oleared make thema poor irrigation prospeot. Such soils are irrigated in other parts of the worldwhere special local conditions are favorable, and such conditions might arise hereif natural sub-irrigation resulted from the proposed dam near Itaparioa.
Besides the yellow brown sands there are paler coloured sands in the valleys.Some of the larger valleys have outorops of shale on which heavy grumusol olays deve-lop (sometimes buried by sandy oolluvium). Such soils °over little area, some 7,000 hain total, and their chief interest is that experienoe gained on them at the Barreiraeirrigation station may be of value in avoiding mistakes on the grumusols of the lime-stone plateau.
The sandstone outcrops near the river and is severely eroded into a badlandstopography covering about 3,000 ha.
Irrigation development potential
The region is not favorable for irrigation at present. If research on thevery sandy latosols and later on the regosols near Petrolina were to give promisingresults, or if the lower parts of this region viere inundated by a dam, it would beworth reconsidering the possibilities.
Region 6: The Alluvium Plain and Tributary Alluvium
(i) So Francisco alluvium
The alluvium band of the river totals 58,000 ha. It varies in width fromnothing to over a kilometer, probably averaging a few hundred meters. Geomorpholo-gioally typical of a large river there are a levee, baok swamps and a flood plain,here very restrioted and merging to the uplands. The total area includes lagoons,old river courses, stony terraces, ill drained saline clays, and soils transitionalto the uplands with sandy surfacee and indurated, clayey, sodium-rich subsoils.Probably less than 50 peroent is suitable for normal agriculture.
The levee and floodplain soils typically have depositional layers of varyingtexture and vary in average texture from heavy sandy olay to loose sand, though mostare loaras and clay loaves. The ooloure vary from grey to yellowish brown. Most of
- 30 -
the soils are mottled in the lower horizons and the mottling often extends almostto the surface. Some are slightly saline though surface salinity is not seen exceptrarely in irrigated fields. The relief is broken and slopes are often quite steep
(4 Percent). Fields must therefore be small exoept in a few exceptional places.
The baok swamp depressions, subject to flooding by rain and from the river,usually have compact sandy clays, mottled, oracked when dry, moderately saline inthe lower layers and covered with tough swamp trees. They are unpromising but mayhave speoial uses.
Muoh of the good land is farmed already, even if not very efficiently orintensively. Besides the staple food crops (cassava, maize, beans) the best cashorope up to the present have been onions, sugarcane, citrus, and more recently grapes.
A good deal of work has been done on private farms and experiment stations and oompi-lation of the information obtained should give a good understanding of the agricultu-ral possibilities of the alluvial soils. Their productivity under irrigation hasbeen shown to be reasonably good. Their physical and chemical charaoteristios arequite favorable. Levelling, erosion control and drainage are necessary and fairlyexnensive operations. Fertilization gives satisfactory results though much more studyof this and other agronomic problems iv necessary.
Conditions on this narrow band of heterogeneous soils are suited to smalllocal projects which could greatly improve productivity. Where the alluvium adjoinsirrigable upland soils it may be developed at the sama time in order to spread coste.However, the good alluvial soils are generally separated from the upland soils bythe back swamp and transition zone, and agricultural planning and techniques are likelyto be different on them. The areas of the alluvial soils linked to upland soils areshown in Tabla 2.
(ji) Tributary all vium
The alluvium of the tributaries is extremely limited in extent. Many streambeds are incised and have none. The alluvium is usually less than 100 m wide andis not flat but cut by seasonal stream channels and has many rock outcrops. It isgenerally stratified loamy sand or loam, but with more clayey material associatedwith the grumusols and noncaloic brown soils. Saline and alkali conditions arecommon and also reversibly indurated layers.
Some cropping is already practised in the moister places and below small dameand might be increased. Small areas may be irrigated in conjunction with the latosols,and very little near the grumusols, but there is, in general, only slight developmentpotential.
5. Land Available for Irrigated Agricultural Development
(i) Reconnaissance survey
As shown in Pablo 2 the reconnaissance survey found only 6 percent of the landwhere soil conditions were generally favorable for irrigation development. A further14 percent has lees favorable conditions but still some possibilities for irrigationdevelopment. These lands are denoted A and B respectively in Table 2.
The remaining 80 peroent of the land had little or no irrigation developmentpotential, except in rare special cases. (An example of such a situation is the CHarea, where the land lying between the grumusols and the river was surveyedbecause ofthe possibility of irrigating it in conjunction with the grumusolsand some patchesof arable land delimited).
- 31
(ii) Semidetailed survey
The lands denoted as A and B in Table 2 include associations of unlike soilsome suitable and eome unsuitable for irrigation. The object of the semidetailed sur-veys was to separate out, as far as possible, the arable from the nonarable land. Aix,-
ther study of the "noncalcio brown" and alluvial areae was abandoned for the reasonealready given. The land classification adopted is based on the U.S. Bureau of Recla-mation system. No class 1 land was recognized because although the better soils aredeep and on favorable topography, their fertility is low and their texture eithertoo coarse or too fine. These soils are therefore class 2 land. Other eoils withshallower depth, sloping topography, erosion or drainage problems, were placed inolese 3, i.e. still irrigable but Of marginal value. The rest of the land was groupedin class 6, except that where full soil surveys were done some land was separatedinto class 5 as having some possibilities of partial reclamation. No clase 4 land,suitable for special purposes only, was separated at this stage.
The resulta of the semidetailed surveys are shown in Table 4. Differencesin area surveyed between the reconnaissance and semidetailed surveye result from thelimits being sometimes reduced on advice from the engineers or inoreased to roundoff the shape of the tract, and fram the inclusion of associated alluvium*
As the land classification refers only to soil and topographic conditions twocolumns in the table show the height above the river and the distanoe from it. Somaareas with suitable soils were eliminated from further etudy after the reconnaissanoebecause of their small size, altitude, or distanoe from the river. Other less highor dietant tracts were discarded after semidetailed survey because the better soilsoccur in scattered, relatively small patches.
The gross areas of arable land delimited need some reduction because on thescale used it is not possible to separate all the patches of stony, shallow, poorlydrained and eroded soils. The peroentage reductions, given in the table, were madeto assist the eoonomists. These overall reductions are unlikely to be much exoeededand there will be individual areas where smaller proportions of the gross arable landhave to be out out. There are, for example, largo tracts of grumusols without rookypatches, while other districts are extremely rooky.
For economic assessment it is desirable to have some idea of how muoh loweryields will be on class 3 land than these expected on class 2 land. As there are asyet hardly any yield data even on the class 2 land, this information is not available.Coneidering the largo differences likely between the several soils within the class 2land, and the fact that some crops may be unaffected by shallower soils, any generalfigure must be more or less unrealistic). However, for purposes of a preliminaryeconomio appraisal it is suggested that class 3 land estimated yields on the latosolsshould be reduced by 5 peroent and on the grumusols by 10 percent, with no reductionson the alluvium and class 3x "noncalcio brown" areas (where the soils are not shal-lower).
6. Development Potential and Fnrther Studies
Reliable estimates of production possibilities and costs are not possible tillmuch more research has been aocomplished. However, consideration of the distributionof the arable land already permits some conclusions to be drawn about a developmentprogram. Clearly there is no single large surface of good land which is homogeneous,accessible, and easy to farm under irrigation, that can be recommended at present fora largescale irrigation projeot. On the contrary, the project has to be seen as aseries of relatively restricted development areas. Theae areas are more or leseattractive aocording to their looation in relation to the river and the distributionof the arable and nonarable land within them. One can therefore determine a oertainpriority in their development.
-32
The latosol soil areas occur in tracts 5,000 to 50,000 ha in size. Some ofthem are bands running parallel to the river while others run at right angles. The
fragmentation of the patches of good land and the proportion of poor land varies great-ly. Taking these factors into consideration it becomes olear that the PB area is themost suitable for development and it is here that the experiment station and pilotproject are sited. The BA and PD areas are also favorable, while the BB area is notso attractive and the PA area is also less advantageous except for its large size andproximity to Petrolina.
In contrast the grumusols and associated soils occupy a single region andthe main body of them occur as wide uniform tracts, unfortunately very high andfar from the river. There is a long tongue,of the limestone plateau extending northtowards the river east of Juazeiro. Most of the arable land in this area OH (whichincludes grumusols, "noncalcio brown" soils and alluvium of the river and of theriachos Tourao and Pogo Comprido) is less than 40 m above the river and within 12 kmof it. This is the place most suited to development and to the establishment of apilot irrigation project. The northernmost grumusols are only 25 m above the river.Two thousand ha have already been surveyed in detail on the Fazenda Favela. It isfortunate that development can begin here and, as the agricultural problems are solvedand need arises, the higher regions to the south can be tackled in turn. Every addi-tion to the height to which water is pumped adda some land, and it is worth notingthat the rise from 420 to 425 m (c. 60-65 m above the river) adds a very large amount.
In the future, detailed surveys will be required for the development of theselected areas. These can be based on those already completed for the ExperimentalStations and will be much more securely based when research has revealed how thesoils respond to irrigation. Research needs to be directed towards determing therelative productivity of the various arable soils. Work is also required on thepossibility of reclaiming tbe Class 5 lands which if feasible would make the develop-ment of some areas (such as PA) much more interesting.
- 33
-T
AB
LE
4:
LA
ND
CL
ASS
ES
FOR
IR
RIG
AT
ION
(In hectares rounded to the nearest 100 hectares)
Based on Reconnaissance and Semi-detailed Soil Surveys
Net area irrigable
iGestimated by reducing the gross areas by the following proportionsto allow for inclusions of unsuitable soils (not roads, etc.).
These are no more than a rough guide offered for the
ourpose of economic api)raisal.
Latosols
Class 2
107
Grumusols Class 2
20
Class 3
20-,;
Class 3.
..... 30;=
Class 3x
40;1
(these are nnon-oaloio brown" soila
associated with the grumusols)
The total includes 270,000 ha of the 507,000 aa total ofIna reconnaissance survey.
,3../
39,t;00 ha (60.000 ha of "non-calcio brown"
areas aud 29,000 ha of alluvium) are ,mitted from this total.
A possible total cross arable would therefore be 262,300
ha (173,300 + 89,000).
AREA
Total
mapped by
Reces.
Arable
Land
Total
Arable
A rable
La n
dNon-arable
Land
Total
Height
mapped by
above
semi-det.
river-m
Distance
from
river-km
Gro
ss!Estimated
Net
Class
2Class
3Class
3dtk
Class
3xAlluvium
Class
5Class
5d
Class
6G
ross
ME
= G
ross
Net 1
Gro
ssM
IMI
Gro
ss m
umIM
ME
MM
I22
1121
1111
1111
1111
1111
11
INIII
NIM
INIII
IIIIM
EN
NII
1121
1111
1110
1111
1111
11M
EIN
IMS
1311
1111
timus
imm
ilmom
mtm
En
Kan
sam
mgm
ram
mlis
m
00
2 000
26
00
2000
0-40
0-14
10
00
8 000
2 000
1 800
600
200
--
2 000
1 000
included
with
class
6
100
111E
ME
IN0-
10 000
0- 0
0-40
0-20
0-30
12 000
5um
gaur
IEC
3111
4 200
211:
111=
1111
1213
C31
1111
1101
11IN
UE
1111
1111
11:1
1111
1111
1111
111:
1111
MIN
IIII
IIII
LII
III
arm
anII
IME
:111
1111
1111
1=11
1111
1111
1111
241l
AIN
IIM
EL
EII
IILE
M=
-12
3 300
00
20 nOG
17
00
sena
mag
mrs
1 .00
1 300
min
amm
im.
2 000
1 000
11 :00
I: 200
,'00
0_,
3 WO
3 300
Niff
ircom
mtu
mm
imm
amm
omm
ilmia
mm
ium
am1 000
02 000
0-1
lo 000
1000
1100
Ega
mm
ulgu
n600
4 200
-11
1111
2111
111M
=11
1111
1111
1311
1111
1111
1121
1111
1UM
1111
11=
2111
1111
1111
1111
2111
11=
1121
1111
3111
1111
1111
1111
1:=
1111
Imam
400
IIII
IIE
IMII
IIII
IIIC
IMII
INE
EII
IIII
IIIE
fEX
IIII
,00
_-
-2 ,00
included
with
class
6
-000
0-2
imxi
mpu
mm
o0-
10ig
amm
IN,PF,
Total latosol
areas
11/1
1111
11CE and lower Ct
1300
30 200
0-26
1100
14 00
.10 600
00
800
3 00
1 700
1 000
2 000
1 000
3 400
000
Egi
mm
ium
uuga
m.
1111
1911
1111
1111
1111
CE
CF
OG
340
07
000
1000
111=
1111
1111
1MM
EIM
MI
1101
0111
1111
1111
111=
1111
1111
1112
1=11
1111
101E
3111
3121
3211
1111
1131
1111
1111
0111
1111
1111
1110
3111
o 300
00
2 300
iste
cup
o2
00
o2 .00
1.11
1112
1111
1111
.111
311/
0111
11.1
3.1.
6XIM
IIM
EM
IMA
Nw
ww
ilam
mE
ca11
1111
1111
1111
1111
1MI3
1111
1111
11C
110.
00
400
EM
SEE
MIl
l-140
12
0bo 000
ggim
arn
CA CD
Total grumusol
eas
MIN
IPJ
000
o0-20
0-10
'4 000
Nc Data
,O; .ossib
arable- experimenta
roceedin. at Itaouruba Station.
51 Deveiorment must waitdecision on new dams.
Do further work after reconna seance
MI1
1111
Grand Total
07 000
Small trac s.
Partl
'rr -ate .
la
be inundated b new dam.
nggg
zmgg
nggg
mgm
gwm
mm
ggm
gmag
mrg
gjgg
omou
am37' 600 2/11.01111.111111:111111111111MMOT o -00
Partl
included in other areas above.
700
4- 00
ßlII
12 100
.00
+0 100
.00
II
I: 200
n5,l00
Alluvium
Class 2
la%
Class 3dtk
501.
- 34 -
CHAPTER 4: WATER AND POWER RESOURCES: IRRIGATION REqUIREMENTS AD DRAINAGE
General Climatological Conditions
The project area is located in a semiarid region with relatively eventemperatures. Air temperatures range from 23°C to 280C, with 39.500 absolutemaximum and 1200 absolute minimum. The hottest months are October and November,the coldest Juno and July. The daily difference of temperature amounts usually tosome 12°C or more.
There is one rainy season, from November to April, but rainfall is veryirregular and any month may have no rain at all, whereas no month, generally, istotally without rain. The average yearly rainfall is 443.3 mm in Juazeiro; theratio of the annual maximum to the annual minimum is about 6:1.
The relative humidity is usually between 55 percent and 70 percent but mayfall to 20 percent at the beginning of the afternoon) whereas dew point may bereached in the early morning.
Evaporation is high. In a storage reservoir of about 40 km2 water area atP090 da Cruz, at the eastern end of the project area, evaporation was found to beas high as 0.25 m in December 1960 and to range from 1.70 to 1.90 m per year. Forsmaller reservoirs, closer to the main project area, evaporation was found to be ofthe magnitude of 1.8 m to 2 m per year, with generally 0.23 m per month from Augustto December.
Groundwater Resources of the Project Area
Groundwater can in most cases be used as drinking water for men and animalsbut not for irrigation. The use of groundwater for population and cattle may possiblybe developed tenfold. For irrigation, salinity problems might quickly arise, andquantity would restrict such use to gardens only.
Tributary Rivers of the Lower Middle ato Francisco Basin
With the exception of Rio Salitre, already used up for irrigation of a narrowribbon of alluvial lands, all the Silo Francisco tributaries of the lower middle riverbasin are temporary rivers. They carry water after heavy rains only. Their speci-fic run off is small. From May to November, their beds are usually dry, unlessthere is some storage dais to release water upstream. Evaporation losses in suchreservoirs are very important. It is considered that, on average, a reservoir mayprovide just enough water to irrigate 1 ha per km2 of the river basin from whichit receives run off. Reservoirs have to be steep and deep. New reservoirs are stillbeing built, mostly for population and cattle.
The water resources of the tributaries are not sufficient for largescaleirrigation schemes but they are locally of the greatest interest.
Water Resources of the Main River
The only reliable source of water supply for largescale irrigation is themain river, whose greatest floods during the last fifty years ocourred in 1918-1919,1926, 1943, 1946 and 1949, i.e. apparently without any predictable interval.
-35-
Quality is highly suitable for irrigation purposes. Sediment charge is ingeneral low, but the designs of piture irrigation intakes, some of them envisagedup to a pumping capacity of 15 m)/s, have to consider the local shifting of sandbanks,erosion and silting.
For the period of 32 years 1929-1960, the average daily discharge at Juazeiro(Bahia) was 2,756 tO s, the absolute verified maximum discharge over a day (13 March1949) was 12,724 s and the minimum was 609 m3/s (October 1955). nigher dischargesof nearly 14,000 m3/8 were observed during the 1918-19 and 1926 floods. Once theTr8s Marias storage dam at the lower end of the upper basin of the river is ful;.yoperating, the minimum discharge is expected to be raised to,about 960 or 990 m-5/s.Future programs exist to raise this minimum to about 2,000 m'/s.
5. Existin and FUture Irri ation Intakes alon the Lower Middle So Francisco
The existing small irrigation systems, along the main river, implementedwith motor or wind driven pumping, could be extended up to ten times the present wateruse. This corresponds roughly to 20 m3/s, or 3 percent of the natural minimum riverdischarge, which is negligible.
For larger schemes, important intakes may interfere with power generation,although pumpings may be slightly compensated for by an increased drainage or run offto the main river from the areas which will be kept humid by irrigation. The rateof development of large-scale irrigation during the next few years is expected to benegligible compared with the rate of extension of the existing Paulo Afonso powerplant and has to be taken into account only for future major steps of multipurposeriver basin development.
Power Resources in the Project Area
The main source of power in the project area and throughout the Northeast isthe hydroelectric plant of Paulo Afonso. Its firm capacity at the end of 1965 was375 megawatts3 with a possible peak capacity of 400 NW, corresponding to a water useof some 600 mJ/s. The average rato of increase in demand during the three last yearshas been about 10.7 percent per year. The yearly rate of increase during the nextfew years is not expected to be much higher than some 11 percent, which means thata discharge equivalent to the expected minimum of 960 mi/s mentioned in section fourabove might be used up towards the end of 1970 at the earliest, but most likely onlyin the course of 1972, according to the present general trend in the Northeast.
New intakes upstream for irriga4ion, industries or public use are unlikelyto exceed in the same period 10 to 15 in le, a rato of increase which wculd not inter-f ere with the power development program.
Intakes totalling, for example, 100 m3/s or more may easily be contemplatedin the future for the major steps of multipurpose river basin development, with rega-lated flows of some 2,000 m3/s. An appropriate timing has to be scheduled, however.
Power Lines and Cost of Energy
Among the various power delivery lines constructed from Paulo Moneo towardsthe main cities of the Northeast, the line stretching 225 km westwards to Juazeiro(Bahia) is of the utmost importance for this large-scale irrigation project. This132 kV lino and the Juazeiro substation were completed in December 1964. One distri-bution line equipped for 66 kV, but possibly to be fed first at 33 kV, is being laidby the State of Pernambuoo in the direction of the irrigation pilot projeot area ofBarra do Bebedouro in the Petrolina municipality.
36
The cost of hydro-energy, at the prevailing prioe rates, would be US$ 0.004251Vonly per kilowatthour (4.25 mils/kWh), provided no pumping takes place between 5 p.m.and 10 p.m., which is quite feasible. The multipurpose secondary and tertiary distri-bution lines are likely to be established by the Statee with federal subsidies, buttheir maintenanoe sud operation costs might justify taxes paid by the customers.
The generation costs of Paulo Afonso are possibly only about US$ 0.002 per kWh.They might be lower if the demand were spread more evenly throughout the day. Henoea special low prioe to favor large-scale irrigation ia likely to be obtained as eoonas the first irrigation pilot projeots to be developed have furnished enough pumpingdata.
6, Irrigation and Drainage
Experiments on the physical properties of the soils and teste to determinefield capacity, wilting point and volume weight were carried out. On the basis ofthe data obtained the amount of available water in the soil, the water requirementsand the irrigation intervals were articulated. Por the latosols the amount of availablewater is 3.5 cm, 7.2 cm and 10.6 cm for respectively the upper 40 am, the upper 80 amand upper 120 cm of soil.
For the grumusols these figures are 4.6 and 9.5 cm for the upper 40 cm andupper 80 cm.
Infiltration tests on the latosole with the double ring method ehowed thatinfiltration decreased oonsiderably after one or two oropa. For 37 AA soil theinfiltration was 17 om of water per hour before any oultivation; one year later,after two crops had been grown, the infiltration in dry soil was 8 cm/hr. For 37 ABsoil, the figures were 10 and 8 cm/hr respectively. Lateral infiltration on 37 ABand 37 BB soil was satisfactory: on the lighter 37 AA soil the lateral penetrationwae only 15 cm in the ridge, after a normal furrow irrigation.
On the grumusols the infiltration measured on normally prepared land was2-4 cm/hr.
In the decomposed layer on top of the mother rook in the latosol area theinfiltration was 1.2 cm/day and in the calcareous rook underlying the grumusols itwas 1-3 cm/day. It is believed that infiltration into the rock will oontinue. Thiswill present formation of a permanent water table and may diminiah the hazard of sali-nization.
As some heavy showers may occur (120 mm of rain per 24 hours once in 5 years,60 mm of rain per 24 hours once a year), surface drainage for the grumusols willbe neoessary.
Evapotranspiration studies were,made and, to test the theoretical studies,two experiments with groundnuts were carried out to determine potential consumption.The evapotranspiration of the adult crop was found to be 0.7 U.S.W.B. pan evapora-tion. The field irrigation efficiency in actual farming is estimated to be 60 percenton the latosols and 70 percent on the grumueole. Total water requirements havebeen calculated for some possible rotationa. On the latosols both gravity irrigationnnd sprinkler irrigation were used. The type of sprinkler was not eatisfaotory andthe water distribution wae poor, even under windless conditions.. Different typesof sprinkler are being tested, however. A sprinkler type with low pressure (2-4 atm.)and two nozzles, discharging 10-30 mm per hour, is recommended for the latosols.
1/ At the end of 1965, with exchange rate rounded at Or. 2,000 to 1 US$.
2/ U.S.W.B. pan = United States Weather Bureau pan, which is used as standard.
- 37 -
As sprinkler irrigation requires high capital investment, maintenance andreplacement cost and during the winay months of May-July will result in a poordistribution of the water, gravity irrigation is recommended for the pilot sobemos.It is advisable to continue investigations with the sprinkler system on both latosolsand grumusols, however, especially as gravity irrigation will have its difficultieson some parts of the area, because of stones or unsuitable topography.
For row crops furrow irrigation is preferred as it is easy to control; aminimum of packing down of the soil is involved and levelling does not need to beas correct as with other systems. Irrigation slopes can be up to 0.6 peroent on thelatosols and up to 0.2 percent on the grumusols; if the alopea are steeper, theirrigation has to be done along the oontours.
Border and basin irrigation might be tined on the latosols for groundnuts,grasaes and other fodder crops and on the grumusols for rioe and wheat. Very exactlevelling iS a first essential.
- 38 -
CHAPTER 5: AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK
1. Agronomy
General
Agriculture in the project area is practised at present only on the alluvialstrips along the river. Several experimental stations are situated on these soils.At the start of the project no information concerning cropping potential of thelatosols and grumusols was available.
Based on the findings of the reconnaissance soil survey, the latosols andgrumusols were considered the most suitable for largescale irrigation projeots.Two new experimental stations were established, one on latosols, Barra do Bebedouro,40 km downstream from Petrolina, in the State of Pernambuco, and one on grumusols,Fazenda Mandacaru, 10 km downstream from Juazeiro, in the State of Bahia. Eaohstation is provided with pump irrigation from the Sao Francisoo river. All this prepara-tory work took considerable time and resulted in delay in starting the agronomicalwork on the latosol and grumusol stations. On the former the first planting startedin May 1963 and on the latter at the end of 1963, while the full water supply for thestations was completed only many Months later. In the meantime investigations werestarted on the alluvial soils and on small plots on latosols and grumuspla irrigatedby tank car (see Figs.3 to 10).
Many of the results obtained in the 1 to 2 years of investigations werepromising and preliminary recommendations could be made, but several more years ofexperimentation are required to obtain data which would make a reliable basis forfirm recommendations. While many experiments were carried out and provided consider-able information, only those whose results are considered fully reliable are reportedin Volume 4.
Latosols
On the latosols a difference in productivity level was observed betweenthe 37 AA soil, which showed the lower yields, and the 37 AB and 37 BB soils. Possi-bly this difference can be overcome to a considerable extent by liming, as has beenshown in the case of groundnuts, where there was a significant increase in yield fromthe 2nd and 3rd planting after.initial liming.
An application of two tons of lime per ha after bush clearing is recommendedfor the 37 AA soils. On the 37 AB and 37 BB soils liming did not show a clear posi-tive effect. Experimentation should continue on all three soil types, however. Lime-stone is easily obtainable from neighboring areas.
Chemical fertilizers were applied on all plantings and several fertilizertrials showed that reasonable yields are not possible without them, especially afterone or two crops have been grown. Nitrogen application can be moderate for the firstplanting after clearing. For the later plantings, the optima], application is from60-120 kg/ha nitrogen, depending on the crop.
Phosphorus is a highly limiting factor, as all experiments have shown. Triplesuperphosphate is recommended as fertilizer, as more soluble fertilizers might easilybecome fixed in these soils. For row crops row application is advised. The firstapplication after clearing should be rather high, 906-120 kg/ha of P205; applioationsfor later crops should be about 60 kg/ha of P205. There was no response to theapplication of potash in the experiments, but chemical data show that this elementmay also be needed within a few years.
IA;
'
,s4
,
33 Typical view of the area to be deve1oeãmilw_tm.1
PWl.,444,:004", \ `'1, "444,
','"4 4\ n
uq1111
-39-
'"uuVu
''."':du;"""
, ,V4
r 4
Y 4 tlu. ,un
' N 033043
3KkA
'P
! ,
" '!!! ' '3's 3
, 3p
- - ' ,4'"N ;,7.7 4,1
,
Fig. 4: First experiments of irrilvEITILTILWE9Inly1112_IánhaTárl
utuuti
;, ;
-40
A rather strong wind blows from May to July. To prevent erosion the soils
should remain under crops over these months, wherever possible, and windbreaks should
be provided.
The most promising crops for the area on these soils are groundnuts, cotton,
beans, maize, elephant grass and other fodder crops. It is believed that on the
37 AB and 37 BB soil types, yields of 1,500 kg/ha of shelled groundnuts, 1,700 kg/haof beans and 120 tons/ha of green elephant grass can be reached, provided enoughfertilizer and water are applied and the farmers are well trained and sufficiently
interested. The production of most crops will be lower on the 37 AA soil. With
liming, the groundnut produotion on this soil type should be about the same as on
the two better soil types. Table 5 gives a typical example of the effect of lime on
the 37 AA soil.
Table 5: Results of the third planting of the phosphate/lime trial with groundnuts
on 37 AA soil
(32 factorial design with 6 replications, plots with 5 tons lime/ha with
only 2 replications, lime applied before first crops on 10.10.1963, phosphate applied
again with each sowing; all plots received 60 kg/ha of nitrogen; sowing date 18.8.1964).Fertilizer in kg/ha, results in kg/ha unshelled nuts.
Trial planting included also soya bean, potatoes, sweet potatoes, mandiooa,sunflower, tobacco, vegetables and fodder crops such as sorghum, Sudan grass,guineagrass and Dolichos lablab. All these crops show promise, and further experi-mentation should be carried out, provided marketing study first shows theirprofitability.
Several fruit trees and pineapples are being tried out, but market researchand studies are needed here too, to make a comparison between local possibilitiesand those in other parts of the Northeast e.g. in the hilly coastal zone, an areadifficult for annual crops.
Not too much significance should be attached to the yield data obtainedin view of the fact that the time available for field experimentation was very short.The only real test of the data obtained will be a pilot scheme with actual farms.As irrigation is almost unknown in the area and the standard of management on exist-ing farms is poor, the first pilot scheme should cover only a limited area and beused as a training field for further extension of the development scheme. The newfarmers must be well selected and trained. Ideas arising in the experimental stationsshould'be put to the test, irrigation methods compared, mechanical and animal tractiontried out, and different rotations investigated.
P205
lime
0
0
1599
60
2872
120
2905
mean
2459
1 2252 3508 3696 3152
2 2297 3497 3882 3225
mean 2049 3292 3494 2945
5 2669 3544 4023 3419
$
,"0. 1 u
Fig. 5: Air view of the three fields of the experimental station Barra do Bebedourojust before cultivation.
111
4's l''Ag'
o,
41
,
4,*
Fig. 61 Barra do Bebedouro Installing a pumping group to irrigate the experimentalstation.
rl!'s.
t
- 42 -
Fig. 7: Barra do Bebedouro Fertilizer trial with maize on the latosol under gravi-ty irrigation (furrows), June 1963.
"1 ^
4 4 4,4 ,,,,
-4r, 4` , ,',1,41',' u 4, 4 ,uuu'
p4 4' t 4 4'4.22 ''' I t ,',4s; ,u; , ,,u`' ': .. n, °''' '''. '''H , °' 4 ' Y ,k
I ' ' ' 4 . )4' , % 44' A, ,, ,,,,,4 e or , ,,,1` r A ' ' .r4 u)1' , ' u 'Au ',";1',744 ' u,' ",", uu, . y ,444'go'" u k4 , 4 4,, 's ,4"t
,u' 4r4h " ,4 ' `,,,,1 '. , , t ,o' *, .,
in ' ' ,,,,ri" , 0,t. 4 s, v l'su"k
' 4 ,
Fig. qt Barra do Bebedouro Variety trials with beans, groundnuts and cotton undersprinkler irrigation on latosols, June 1963.
Fio. 9: Barra do Bebedouro - Experimentation with sprinkler irrigation.
The individual farms should not be too big and should be designed for easymanagement. A family farm of about 5 ha seems to be indioated in view of the incomeand amount of management necessari and the family labor available. Which of theorops mentioned and whioh area of each should be included in the rotation will depend,among other things, on the market prospects of the moment and on further investigations,especially with livestock. Clearing, water supply, tractor and implement pool,industrialization of products, extension service and credit facilities should be inthe hands of a special development organization, which might eventually result inthe setting-up of a co-operative organization of farmers.
(iii) Grumusols
As these soils are heavy in texture (50 percent clay) they are difficultto work; heavy equipment is needed and cultivation must be done at just the righttime, otherwise the soil is too sticky or too hard.
As the formation of gilgais is not stopped by cultivation, levelling atregular intervals is needed.
Fertilizer trials with maize, cotton and groundnuts showed the great ladk ofavailable phosphorus in the soil and also the need for nitrogen.
, Tables 6 and 7 summarizing part of the result of 33 NPK fertilizer trialswith cotton and maize clearly show the highly significant responses to these ferti-lizers.
44
Table 6: NP two-way table of 33 NPK fertilizer trial with cotton (Sákha 4) on grIk-musol
Nitrogen applied as sulphate of ammonia, phosphate applied as triple super-
phosphate. Fertilizers in kg/ha; yields in kg/ha seed cotton.
N 0 60 120 mean
P205
0 512 321 260 364
60 807 1215 798 940
120 953 1380 1293 1209
mean 757 972 784
Table 7: NP two-way table of 33 NPK fertilizer trial with maize
Fertilizers in kg/ha; yields in kg/ha dry grain.
N 0 60 120 mean
P2°5
0 1174 1583 1236 1331
60 1791 4194 5223 3736
120 2731 4077 6253 4354
mean 1899 3285 4237 3140
Potash applioation had no significant effect.
An experiment on micro-elements with maize indicated that the addition ofzinc or manganese or both increases the yield, but further experiments are necessary.
The experiments covered cotton, maize, rice, wheat, groundnuts, sunflower,sesame, potatoes and fodder crops. The yields obtained of cotton, maize, and foddercrops were very promising and, though the period of experimentation was very short -on the grumusols little more than a year - preliminary recommendations can alreadybe made to grow these crops on a bigger scale. The results of the cotton experimentswith varieties of medium staple length indicate that with good irrigation, fertilizingand pest control farmers can obtain yields of 1,800-2,000 kg/ha of seed cotton. Formaize and elephant grass these figures are resp. 4,000 kg/ha of dry grain and 150tons/ha of green matter. The first results with rice, wheat, sunflower, groundnuts,sesame and alfalfa are also encouraging and all these crops, with the possible exceptionof sunflower, are expected to find a ready market, but first further field experimentsshould be carried out over several seasons.
In order to obtain a reliable picture of what yield and cost levels will beunder actual farming conditions, a pilot-scheme of suitable size will be necessary.As the soils are not easy to manage, it might be advisable to think in terms of bigfarm units (private or Government) run by highly skilled managers. Even one suchbig unit would be useful as a demonstration and servicing center, around which smallfarms could be grouped.
- 45 -
Fig. 101 Cotton and sorghum grow well on the grumusols. Photo shows field trial,planted 1st October 1962 (tankcar irrigation).
(iv) Noncalcio brown soils
As the results of plantings on a small plot on this soil were very encouraging,further experimentation should be undertaken, but not before additional data fromthe soil survey are available.
2. Livestock
Livestook production being likely to remain the most important means oflivelihood for the people in the Northeast, methods of improving this production mustbe given primary consideration in agTicultural development projects.
Recent work by the Animal Production Officer has disclosed the distribution,number, breeds and types of livestock, and their main diseases are known. Varioussurveys have estimated likely costs and income from livestock production.
The inoorporation of livestock production under semiarid equatorial conditionsinto crop produotion under irrigation offers a vast development potential. It alsoensures the important ancillary benefit of providing organic manure. It could alsoappear to afford the best approach to the local human factor, since most of the newsettlers will have to be selected from among animal breeders accustomed to live onlyby animal production.
The proposed incorporation presents many technical problems, towards thesolution of which the following recommendations are made:
(i) Different varieties of forage crops should be tested for suitability to
- 46 -
environment, their yield of animal nutrients and their value within envisaged systemsof crop rotation.
Various methods of forage conservation should be tested for effeotivenessend economic feasibility for finishing the seasonal influx of livestock from theCaatinga areas.
The cash crops envisaged for regular cultivation should also be evalua-ted for the feeding value of their byproducts.
The feasibility of producing feed grains extensively should be investi-gated.
Economic, systems of livestock moveiaent from the Caatinga to the irrigatedarea should be studied.
Indigenous breeds of livestock should be tested for their ability torespond to various levels of intensiva finishing operations and results should beexpressed in terms of the eoonomio feasibility of such operations*
Satisfactory arrangements of animal housing, management and diseaseand parasite control should be worked out so as to allow a regular zoning of productionin the most economic manner.
Measures should be taken to improve the genetic potential of indigenouslivestock so as to fit in with the expected changes in animal environment.
Animal production in the Caatinga should be impryved by improvementin and better utilization of feed resouroes, by better management praotices andby the organized adjustment of numbers to seasonal variations in feed resources,i.e. by treating animal production in the Caatinga and in the irrigated valley as oneunit.
Net hectares
15,750
4,310
750
31,320
11,400
41,470
47
CHAPTER 6: ENGINEMING PLANNING AND COST EST
1. General
The 119,500 ha net in the western half of the projeot area found, as a resultof semidetailed soil surveys, to have physical potential for irrigation development,are spread over nine areas; five of them, ranging in size from 2,000 to 44,000 ha,
on the Pernambuco side of the river, and four of them, ranging in size from 14,500
to 117,000 ha, on the Bahia side of the river.
The dispersal of the arable surface over a number of areas which can bedeveloped independently is from an engineering point of view advantageous. Startingwith the smallest and most economical area, a stop development will be possible.The experience gathered with the first areas will contribute to a correct appraisalof the irrigation potential of the following, less economical areas.
The semidetailed engineering schemes for these areas, and for an additionalarea of about 5,750 ha of alluvial soil not included in the 119,500 ha, total about105,000 net irrigable heotares, as shown below. Remote and high or dissected landswere eliminated; access roads and canals also reduced the cultivable area.
Table 8: Total areas, by soil type, of the engineering schemes
net irrigable hectares
alluvial soils 15,750.1/
latosol soils, and some adjacent other soils 43,500
noncalcio brown 750
grumusols and some adjacent other soils 45.000
Total 105,000
Average dynamic head, evaluated from 1/25,000 scale and 5 m oontour linemaps and from friction losses caloulation, were found to be as follows:
Table 9: Average dynamic head for irrigation schemes on various soils
Soil resouroes
alluvial
latosol
noncalcio brown
latosol
grumusols and adjacent
grumusols and 20%latosol soils
Dyn. head in m
11
20 to 35
20 to 35
40 to 59
40 to 59
77 to109
_1/ About 10,000 ha of the alluvial land are included in the 119,500 ha of the semi-detailed soil survey.
to TES
48
The soil types and the smooth surface, with maximum slopes of 2 peroent, makethe areas suitable, though not ideal, for gravity irrigation. In permeable latosolsoils the furrow or border length has to be restricted to an average of 100 m in order
to keep percolation losses within acceptable limits. The impermeability of the grumusoldemands a small to practically nil slope to prevent overflow at the end of the field.
The alluvial soils of the flood plain of the river have a flat topography intersectedby many depressions of old river arms. The flat areas between the river arms arewell suited for gravity irrigation, though intensive irrigation may cause salinizationand the rising of the ground water level.
Climatic oonditions for sprinkler irrigation are not favorable; low relativehumidity averaging 62 percent and the frequency of 'wind at rather high velocity will
reduce its efficiency.
Drainage of the latosol soils will probably be no problem with a well runirrigation system. The grumusols should present no serious salinization or highgroundwater problems, but, as they are very impermeable, they will require an elaboratesurface drainage system with sufficient drop struotures to take off the heavy rainsand keep flow velocities below erosion limits. The flat alluvial soils will needa drainage system that will keep the groundwater at a safe distanoe below crop roots.
Water reguirements for irrigation are 1.22 1/s/net ha for latosols and alluvialsoils and 1.04 1/8/ha for grumusols and non-calcio brown soils at the diversionpoint. These requirements are high partly beoause of the dry climate and oonstanthigh temperatures, and partly because of the envisaged intensive land use. In theplanned five-year rotation of beans, maize, forage, elephant grass, groundnuts andcotton, the crops will be on the field for 50.5 months (84 percent of total time).From the engineering point of view, this intensive use of land, involving year-rounduse of the irrigation system,is economical, since fixed oosts of the irrigationlayout can be spread over larger quantities of supplied water.
Method of Irrigation
All the water required for irrigation will come from the So Francisco river,the waters of which are well suited chemioally for irrigation (01-S1 Riversideolassification). The topography of the river excludes supply of the irrigationschemes by a simple diversion. The irrigation by simple diversion of the alluvialflood plain alone would require the construction of a long canal of prohibitive cost.
Elevating the river level by dams would offer only small advantages forirrigation. The dispersal of the areas, at 10-50 km distances along the Sao Francisoo,would make conveyance of the water from a dam to the areas too lengthy. Moreover,topographic conditions are such that dams could not be constructed high enough toserve the highest parts of most of the irrigable areas.
In the chosen conveyance systems the water is elevated in consecutive stopsby pumping stations and is carried and distributed by open, lined canals. The numberof steps, which is imposed by topographic conditions, varies for the areas from 2 to 7.
Bed load sediments of the river (fine gravel, sand) will be kept out of theconveyance system by regulating the sill crest level of the intake. Wash load ofthe river will enter, but canal velooities should be high enough to prevent it fromsettling.
Power Availability and Cost
The economic feasibility of irrigation schemes by pumping depends upon thecost of the available energy. Ladk of cheap hydro-electric power would have madethe feasibility of the project dubious as the ener oosts of elevating the waterby engine-driven pumps would have been prohibitive.
- 49 -
The hydroelectric energy is supplied by the Companhia Ridro Eléctrica doSao Francisco (CHESF), a company that supplies the whole of the Northeast, an areaof 516,000 km2 with a population of 15 millions. At the moment its main source ofenergy is the hydroelectric plant at Paulo Afonso, the installed capacity of whiohwas 375,000 kW in March 1965. Its points of supply nearest to the areas which werestudied in the semidetailed survey are Juazeiro, Cabrob6 and Santa Maria da B8aVista.
Energy is supplied at various price rates, two of which are of interestfor largescale irrigation purposes. One of the two rates, based on consumptionover 24 hours, works out for the envisaged irrigation conditions of the areas atan average price of US$ 0.0074 per kWh, whereas the other rate, based on offpeakconsumption, works gut at an average price of US$ 0.00425 per kWh, only 59 percentof the first rate 1/.
The advantage of the second rate is more or less counterbalanced by the extrainvestment required for the capacity inorease of an irrigation system that will workonly during offpeak hours instead of for 24 hours a day. On the other hand, animportant feature of the offpeak irrigation system is a reduction of the nightlyirrigating hours, as most peak hours come after darkness has set in. Irrigatingduring the night is difficult sooially and technically.
As a normal rule, pumping should not take place from 5 p.m. to 10 p.m., thefive critical hours of the evening peak demand. The maximum requirekents in exception-ally dry years have to be satisfied with 19 hours pumping per day. The average dailypumping to be oonsidered in the economic evaluation, however, is limited to 19 x 0.465slightly less than 9 hours per day.
Conveyance efficiency is estimated as 90 percent. The major source of loesis expected to be waste due to the intermittent character of supply; minor losseswill be evaporation and seepage. Farm efficiency being estimated at 95 percent andfield efficiency at 60 percent for light soils and 70 percent for clayey soils, theglobal efficiency is 0.513 for the former and 0.598 for the latter.
The maximum pumping rate on alluvial and latosol soils is (0.625/0.513) 24/191,.54 lit/s/net ha for 19 hours per day, equivalent to a maximum continuous diversioncapacity of 1.22 lit/s/net ha and, on the °Ivey grumusols (00625/0.6) 24/19 = 1.316lit/s/net ha (or maximum continuous 1.04 lit/a/net ha). The average continuousdiversion capacity to be considered for a river basin program will only be 0.79lit/s/net ha for light soils and 0.69 lit/s/net ha for clayey soils.
4. The Irrigation Schemes
(i) On latosols
The irrigation schemes on the latosol soils are in general identical as faras lay out is concerned.
In 4 of the 8 areas (PA, PD, PB and BB) more than one irri tion scheme willbe applied. Intake points are chosen as far as possible at points where there isno danger of obstruction by shifting sandbanks of the Sao Francisco. Pumping stationequipment will be sheltered. Cost estimates of the pressure conduits are based onreinforced concrete pipes with a protection against surges and water hammer by asurge shaft. Canals are concrete lined for the following reasons:
1/ This is a new figure, based on price rates published in 1965. In Volume 5 (Engi-neering) and in Chapter 8 below, the minimum rate (US$ 3.23 mils/kWh) applicablein June 1963 was used to estimate costs (see subsection (iv), seotion 4,Chapter 1 and item 7 of Chapter 2).
- 50 -
the soils are rather permeable;
the soils are shallow. Deep canals will cut partly into the rockysubsoil. A smooth lining reduces the canal cross-section and thereforereduces rock excavation;
pumping only during off-peak hours implies a discontinuous regime inthe canals, varying each day between q = max. and q = O. Daily abruptvariations of the water level are detrimental to the stability andpreservation of canal banks of unconsolidated material.
Small drainage flow will pass under the irrigation canal by means of culverts.At the intersection with large drainage courses the canal will pass over the drain viaan aqueduct, or under it via a syphon. In shallow soils, aqueducts have the advantageof a relatively cheap reliable foundation on the rock subsoil, whereas syphons needexpensive rock excavation.
The irrigation system will be regulated by checks in the canals and reservoiraat the downstream end of the pumping stations. The reservoirs will:
store eventual differences in pump capacities between two pumpingstations;
supply or store, at the beginning or end of the daily pumping period,the amount of water that will be stored or supplied by the inter-connect-ing canal between the levels q = 0 and q = max. Without this function of.the reservoir, pumping stations would lose one to two hours of the dailypumping time.
The regulation of the distribution of the water to the 5 ha farms is basedon a pre-established rotation. The farmer will receive the water at the farm take-offat a rate, for the latosol areas, of 20 l/s. His varying needs will be met by varyingthe length of the period during which he receives the water. The rotation will bebased on a time interval of 5, 10 or 15 days.
On grumusols
The two irrigation schemes on the gruMusol area are similar to those of thelatosols, but the clayey grumusol possesses a better water retention capacity andtherefore the time interval will be 8, 16 or 24 days. Moreover, it is expected thatthe less erodable and nearly level soil will permit larger furrow or border flows,enabling the farm take-off rate to be 30 1/s.
Contrary to the schemes on the latosols, the small size of which permitstotal development at once without too exorbitant initial investment, both of thegrumusol schemes have to be developed in 3 successive steps. The total developedareas will be respectively 11,400 and 33,700 ha. Space has to be provided at theoutset for the pumping stations and canal capacities needed for total development ofeach scheme. This means that a correct appraisal of the total potential of the areais needed before any experience on a small soheme is obtained.
In areas bordering the river
A study was made, with regard to scheme AP I (a purely alluvial area of225 net irrigable hectares) of the feasibility of grouping irrigated farms into amajor sàheme with protection against flooding, which is considered likely to ocourabout once in ten years. But the cost per hectare, based on the following comparativecosts for the main items, appeared to be excessive.
- 51 -
Table 10: Comparative percentage costs for flood protection of irrigated farms nearthe river
detailed surveys and land acquisition 4.27
clearing and levelling 5.94
drainage 10.24
flood protection 16.18
roads and culverts 10.30
pumping stations (78`h equipment; 22/0 construction) 15.76
transmission 2.22
canals, structures, fill, excavation 17.60
distribution and farm systems 14.36
livestock facilities 3.13
100.00
No alternative was studied. The alluvial lands are so dissected that anybetter evaluation of possible overall development oosts has to begin with preparingdetailed topographic documents and detailed soil surveys for sample areas. This isthe only place where irrigated farming has started. It is carried out on an indi-vidual basis, the pumping equipment is very small and there is nearly no drainage.
Grouping riparian farmers into several pumping schemes smaller than API,using, however, a common drainage course, but with much less flood protection andfewer roads and main canals, would be likely to reduce the costs per irrigable heotare,even though the total alluvial net area to be developed would also be slightly reduced.
The combined schemes PBI and PBII, of about 1,100 net irrigable heotares each,with 10 percent alluvial and 90 percent latosol soils, gave a cost per ha 65 percentlower than that of API. This was mostly because drainage, flood protection and roadshad lower relative values.
In combined schemes the flat flood plain, intersected by old arms and riverlevees, would complicate the construction of the distribution system, but the extracost would be compensated for by the lower pump and conveyance system costs. Overallcost of the schemes would be reduced if the alluvial soils were included. However,besides salinization and high groundwater tables, there exists the problem of inun-dation during high river discharge. Protection of the alluvial soils against maximumflood levels would be expensive, as seen above. An intermediate solution wouldbe the heightening of the river levees to a level which would rarely be exoeededby the river. Drainage of the alluvial soils to the river would be possible by theinstallation of flapgates to prevent river water from entering the polders. Theminimum level of the alluvial soils, which can be reclaimed without too much recurrentdamage by impeded drainage, depends on the frequency of coincidence of high riverlevels and of heavy rains (more than 5 om). Impeded drainage during 2 days once in6 years is thought to be acceptable.
52
5. Coste of Irrigation Schemes and of Power Supply Systems
Project oosts of the sohemes inolude connecting the substations of the ORES?at Juazeiro, Cabrob6 and Santa Maria da Bari Vista to the pumping stations. Estimatesof the oost of the power supply systems are based on the capacity of the largesoaleschemes only. A joint supply system for the largescale sabemos and for the river-side towns and small existing irrigation projects is not expected to reduce appre-ciably the power supply costs for the large schemes.
The transmission networks for the small schemes not more than 40 km fromthe CHESF substations consists of only 13.8 kV lines. Transformers at the pumpingstations will reduce the voltage to the 380 V of the pump motors.
Schemes with high power requirements and situated too far from the substationswill also be supplied by 13.8 kV linos. The 13.8 kV lines will be kept short byinstalling, in the center of the scheme, a 66/1308 kV substation connected by a66 kV line with the CHESF substations (PC and BB schemes).
The pumping stations of the 33,700 net ha Salitre scheme on the grumusolarea will be fed directly by 66 kV lines. Two of its pumping stations, however,with relatively small capacities, will be fed by a 13.8 kV line, connected via a66/13.8 kV substation with the 66 kV linee.
The cost estimates have been based on almost total development of.the areas;only tracts of arable land which would require oostly additional conveyance facilitieshave been excluded. For most areas, further elimination of the parts which are themost expensive to develop would reduce investment and annual costs per heotare develop-ed. It would be possible for the areas which have a cost benefit ratio lower than 1,to eliminate as mach of their marginal surface as is necessary to obtain for theremainder a cost benefit ratio of 1. However, at the present stage of the studies,thiu would not give a reliable indication with a view to extending the irrigablesurface in the project area.
For all the schemes, costs were based on local market prices in Brazilianoruzeiros as they were in June 1963. They were thereafter transformed into US dollarsby the engineering section at the TAB rato of Cr 600 per US$ 1. Ratos were as followsfrom January to July 1963; higher rates were applioable for imported foreign equip-ment.
1/ From Canambra Engineering Consultants Ltd. UNSFL-IBRD Brazil, Power SurveySouthCentral Brazil.
Table 11i Rates of exchange, cruzeiros per dollar in 1963
TAB ratefor UN
transition
year/month purchasing powerparity 1/
parallel rate official freesupplied by SULIOC 11 market rate 1/
1963/1 618 760 475 4602 662 685 475 4603 676 645 475 4604 704 710 620 4605 734 753 620 6006 ? 794 620 6007 ? 850 620 64008 ? .? 6009 ? ? ? 850
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The prices, especially those for pumping equipment, supplied at the UN TABrate of Cr 600 per US$ 1, appear extraordinarily high, when compared with world prices.The parallel rato shown in the above table, rounded to 800 cruzeiros per dollar, wouldhave reflected parity better. The results of the semi-detailed engineering surveysare shown in the following table at both exchange ratee:
Capital Costsaverage net mech, pumping equivalent US dollars
Scheme dyn. head irrigable equip. costs per net irrigable ha in 1963
PBIPBII
-
22.920.0
-1160
-11.15-
at Cr $ 600 rate at W75.:00
1970-meters hectares '--/;) of total
35.2 20701080 10.95 1940
PAI 50.3PAII 58.2 15.70
18101750
1133:72::
PDI 1357.5PDII 40.3 '4:2
PAII aTouriio a
2- c _1- b 4.4 14f13
J./ 55.0
54.5 11404 1/ 11.204'46'2 1/ 14:74
iiii 13.35
87101, 15.35
1880
2040
1880181018551900
11:115007.5
1111!1:5Salitre a . / 87.0
- b - 1-// 101.0 2123603570-1/
16.65 221017.70 2450
3366776g0 jj 183:2)
254095 1830 13%5
1313 19.25 2150 1612.54417 12.82100 1575
747 19.85 1830 1372.52253 18.55 2350
5785 16.8 2220 9E65670 26.0 2440
'225 12.35 2390 1792.5,alluvial soils-111.0 15750 unknown unknown unknown
1/ PAII a includes PAII; b includes a and c includes b for TourZo and Salitre..2/ Partly included.
For the calculation of annual costs, replacement was based on a 5 percent sink-ing fund over the useful life of each item. Capital outlay costs were tentativelybased first on a 50 year loan at 3/4 percent with no repayment in the first 10 years,a repayment of 1 percent for each of the next 10 years and 3 percent for each of thelast 30 years. Comparison with 6 peroent simple interest is discussed under economic:oonsiderations. The following table is based on a 3/4 P ercent loan:
Table 13: E uivalent annual costal/ of the various schemes in US$ er hectare
Ji' Include capital outlay costs, replacement, operation and maintenance costs ofdistribution systems; do not include annual costs on farm facilities.
PBI 103.50 TourZo a 98.00 BBI 119.00PBII 98.50 b 102.00 BBII 117.50PDI 99.00 o 111.50 BBIII 99.50PD" 95.00 Salitre a 127.50 BC 139.00PAI 104.00 b 145.00 PE 138.50PAII 107.00 c 161.00 PG 131.00PAII a 103.00 98.50 API 127.50
c 1/ 109.0BA - 41.6BBI 57.0BBII 58.6BBIII 32.2BC 77.2PE 51.8PG 82.5alluvial API 11.0
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CHAPTER 7: ECONOMIC APPRAISAL AND EVALUATION
The Situation
The project area, located in the semiarid interior of northeast Brazil, hasits share of basic resources, but the restriotions to development are intensified bythe uncertainties associated with the climate. Isolation does not seem to be a problemfor the projeot area in view of the size of the country. Important fleets of trucksregulax:ly cross the region, making journeys of 3,000 km to deliver manufactured goodsfroM Sao Paulo to Fortaleza or to other main cities of the Northeast (see Map 1). They
often return empty or carry cotton or even gypaum down to Salvador. The twin towns ofPetrolina and Juazeiro, the most important in the area, are developing at a fast rate.Primary products, including skins and hides in large quantity, are brought by roador river into these towns for the developing processing industries of castor oily cottonoil, local palm oil, biscuits, tanning etc.
Por bulk product movements, present access to the projeot areas main center,Petrolina Juazeiro, is 800 km by road from Recife, 500 km by rail or road fromSalvador, and 1,000 km by river transport from the southwest interior (Rio Grande).Rail tranaportation is particularly cheap, and road and rail links to join the areawith Fortaleza, 800 km to the northeast, to Terezina, 600 km to the northweat, andto other contera, are being improved or introduced. The rail and road connectionto Terezina crosses the BrasiliaFortaleza overland route, passing 250 km to thewest and provides through the TerezinaBelem route remote possibility of access tothe Amazon.
Overpopulation exists in the cities and along the river in the project areabecause the rural semiarid zones are devoted to extensive cattle breeding and cannotsustain a bigger population. The surrounding areas, except those upstream to thewest, are also overpopulated. There are at present a quarter million people in thetwelve municipalities of the project area. Livestock population amounts to a quartermillion cattle and one and a quarter million sheep and goats. Earketing and consump-tion might account for 50,000 cattle and half a million sheep and goats a year withequivalent numbers of hides and skins. Crops marketed, but not necessarily producedin the area, are about 10 million kg of cotton, 35 million kg of manioe, 30 millionkg of onions and perhapa 15 million kg of other crops.
Prospecta
The FAO UNSF Resources Survey aimed to discover how to achieve an increaseof production which would, among other things, enable the existing processing factoriesto form a nucleus around which development could take place. The results of agronomiostudies indicated that cotton, groundnuts, and forage production outputs could besatisfactory and that many technical developments would be relatively easy and product--Jaye, provided the socioeconomic environment met the need for development. An irriga-tion program should help to stabilize income and provide a greater degree of employ-ment. Necessary factors would be the extensivo use of labor in the production of foodfor local oonsuption and of partly processed export crops serving to strengthen theeconomy of the area. The pressure in nearby overpopulated areas would thus be relieved.
If development of a total of 100,000 ha of cropland under irrigation eventuallymaterializes, it could add to output, in gross terms, approximately 45 million kgof beano, 70 million kg of groundnuts, 33 million kg of cotton, and 100,000 oattle.It would employ 20,000 farm families (100,000 people) on the farms and more than doublethe economic aotivity required from the nonagricultural and commercial seaHent of
-55-
the population. An area for development of such a size needs not necessarily beselected only in the western half of the project area where semi-detaned surveys wereconducted. Schemes with higher cost benefit/ratios may appear in the eastern half ofthe project area and also in the adjacent area upstream from the western half, whenthe location of the future storage dama of the power development programe and theirminimum and maximum levels, are known. However, whatever the location of the areachosen,'the economy of the Northeast, and of Brazil in general, should easily absorbsuch a greatly expanded output. The economic activity associated with supplyingthe agricultural inputs and marketing the products would provide a signifioant stimulusto business and industry in the Northeast.
But this rosy picture of a future not immediate would require total capitalinvestments now which would exceed US$ 230,000,000 at present prices for the irriga-tion facilities alone. If the direct beneficiaries, the 20,000 farmers, were obligedto repay this sum collectively over and above the other necessary investments and inaddition to their annual costs of production, each farmer would pay USS 11,500 perfarm with no interest charged.
3. Project Evaluation
(i) A sample area - PBI
The present fragmentary evaluation was confined to the estimates of net outputfor some typical parcels of land in the western half of the project area upon beingbrought under irrigation and to the calculated costs of providing them with irrigationfacilities. Eventual development rests on proof by pilot project testing that theresults can be duplicated or improved upon in practice, and on the possibilities ofimproving cattle production in the surrounding semi-arid region, a matter which isunder study.
Estimates of the capital costs of introducing irrigation development have beenworked out in the engineering report for all the parcels of land considered. Table 14gives the items included for the development of land area, PBI, where pilot projectconstruction is already under way. As a matter of interest, the costs of the itemscomputed in dollars are also shown. It will be noted that capital costs include pri-mary roads and the transmission system, which, strictly speaking, should not be includ-ed among project costs, since the Government would be expected to provide this infra-structure, regardless of projeot development. To this extent, capital oosts may beconsidered to be inflated by approximately 10 percent.
Likewise annual costs for the selected areas have been worked out in theengineering report according to the schedule shown in Table 15 overleaf, where Area PBIis again taken as the example.
Capital outlay costs in Table 15 have been based on a 50 year loan at 3/4 per-cent interest, with no repayment in the first 10 years, a repayment of 1 percent foreach of the next 10 years and 3 percent for each of the last 30 years. It is assumedthat the loan period will start at the end of the construction period.
Capital with accumulated 3/4 percent interest during 1-8 years constructionperiod is as followst
1 year 1.00752 years 1/2 p.0151 + 1.0075) 1.01133 years 1/3 1.0227 + 1.0151 + 1.0075) 1.01514 1.01895 1.02286 1.026678
1.0305
1.0344
Table 14: Capital Costs PBI Area (in USO
DescriptionAcquisitionTopographic surveySoil surveyClearingDrainageFlood controlPrimary roads + culvertsSecondary roads + culvertsLevellingPumping stations mech. equipm.
civil struct.Pressure conduitsCanalsRegulating structuresAqueductsFill + excavationStorage basinsDistribution systemFarm irrigation systemTransmission systemLivestock facilities
General items add 5,;,
Contingenci s add 20%
Design and supervision add 5,/,
Table 15: Annual Costs PBI Area
UnithahahahahasumkmhahasumsumSUM
SUMsumSUMSUMSUM
Sumhasumha
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120210
ItemUnit
Capital OutlayUS$
Life R.O. and LI. AnnualGost US$
Replacement, Operation and KaintenanceDrainage + flood control 295000 40 4.83 14250Roads 156000 4.00 6240Pumping stations mech. equipm. 192500 20 6.03 11600
civil struot. 33000 30 2.51 830Pressure oonduits 23800 40 1.83 440Canals, aqueducts, structures 250100 30 2.51 6280Fills, excav, storage basins 45700 40 4.83 2210Distribution systemTransmission system
227700149400
3030
2.514.51
57206740
54310Electric power 2,190.000 kWh 0.00323 7080Administration 2283500 0.5 11420
b) Capital Outlay
7275
Annual equivalent outlay costs2.283.500 x 1.0113 2310000 2.05 47400
Quant. Rate per unit Amount1160 26.70 310001160 20.00 232001160 30.00 348001160 48.00 557001160 185.00 214500
8050023.9 2160.00 51600
1160 90.00 1044001160 53.00 61500
1925003300023800
235000118003300
382007500
2277001160 70.00 81200
1494001160 56.40 65400
172600086300
IT1-23003625002174600108700
TOTAL OP ESTIMATE 2283500
-57°
Por amortization over 50 years of the loan and repayment of interest, thecharge should be: 1
50 x 0.025 x 1/2 x 9.5996 x 0.928 + 50 x 0.025 x 372 x 26.775 x 40.8-6T7= i = 0.0205 per annum.
48.765
This is tantamount to an interest free loan carrying a 3/4 percent servicecharge1/.
(ii) Cost data for selected areas
For the development area the relevant cost data are summarized in Table 16.It should be noted that fixed costs are calculated on the basis of 3/4 percent interestwith capital repayment on a deferred and sliding scale as set forth in the engineeringreport. The variable costs (expressed entirely by the cost of energy) are computedat the rate of US$ 3.23 mils/k4h. This was calculated, in accordance with the marketprices and rates of exchange accepted as a basis for estimating costs, to be theminimum rate available for off-peak power consuption.
1/ Alternative schemes for reduced areas (Tourao Ia and Ib and Salitre Ia and Ib)can be developed at lower costs.
1/ Assume, for comparison, that investors demand 6 percent simple interest for loanfunds on an equal sum 40 year capital repayment schedule, following a ten yeargrace period from the start of construction. Then the equivalent annual costwould be approximately: $ 68500 (2,283500 x ix 6 ) for interest, and
100$ 57087.50 (2,283500) for capital repayment. The total annual repayment would
40be about $ 125600 - as contrasted with the $ 47400 figure resulting from thecomputations on the 3/4 percent schedule.
Table 16: S ze and Cost of Selected Develo ment Areas
Annual CostParcel Net MajorDesignation Area Land Casital
Outlay' per ha Fixed Variable
ha
PB I 1160II 1080
PD I 2070II 4450
PA I 599411,/ 7254Tours° Ic2/,11404Salitre 101/33667BA 5780BB I 1313
II 4417III 747BC 2253PE 670FG 5785Alluvial 15750
Class
223222223323233-
Av. per ha
1970194018101750188028802040254018302150210018302350244022202390
$ per (Er e_E3E.,4s )
ha97.0093.5089.5084.3090.0091.40
100.80140.5087.30
103.20102.5090.70
116.50124.30109.60125.00
-3-46-erha
6.735.309.48
11.0013.6815.9110.7320.6011.1315.6515.178.87
22.0013.9321.402.50
Total net2290 Av. per ha 129.50area 10794
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(iii) Farm returns
Estima-tes of falm production costs and output returns, shown in Table 17 below,have been computed in budgets for various farm production systems thought to be suitablein the proposed development. The validity of these data for evaluation purposes isoonditional on future market 1/ and production performance without significant diver-gence from the conditions postulated by this appraisal. It is thought that the differ-ences in net returns of grumusols relativo to the latosols will not be significantconsidering the variations in results bound to occur under actual production.
Hence the following estimates are generally applicable both to latosol andgrumusol soil areas.
Doubling the half-year net returns, as shown in Table 17, expresses the surplus production available for repayment of development costs. This is hardly asatisfactory conclusion since the crops have seasonal restrictions and the operatorworks under the limitations of labor availability, of his unwillingness to specializeor to bear risk and of his restricted managerial capability. Also, it must be remem-bered that farm production in the area will have need of steady production, suppliesof assured credit and marketing facilities. (To produce beef the farmer will initiallyrequire credit to cover $ 1,000 to $ 2,000 purchases of feeder cattle per year).Furthermore, the settlers and their families are dependent for subsistence on thesefarms: the repayment capacity, as expressed in these surr4aaries, does not take intoaccount the fact that a considerable amount of the calculated output value coulddisappear in consumption.
1/ Markets for staple crops such as cotton, maize, beans and groundnuts depend onBrazil's own needs for these items and may be expected to maintain about theeame demand and prices, relative to the general economy, considering theexpanding population. FUll development of irrigation potential would increasethe volume of production enormously in the immediate area, but not significant-ly in terms of Brazil's total production. The market for forage is a problemsince it must first be converted to beef for which, however, a rising standardof living provides an expanding market. Again full local development wouldadd greatly to local supplies but insignificantly to the total supply of theNortheast.
Value of output 173 247 235 250 198 197 163 280 393 420
Costs includingfarmers' labor 119 189 159 204 164 182 162 190 268 316
Half year return/ha 54 58 76 46 34 15 1 90 125 104
Annual repaymentcapacity/ha 108 116 152 92 68 30 2 180 250 208
Table 17: Returns and Costs per ha for various Crop and Crop-livestock Enterprisesunder Irrigationl_per crop season (half year)
Beans laize Ground Cotton Sun- Sor- Cattle Cattle Cattle Pigsnuts flower ghum and and and and
Forage Pasture Ele-phant
Nhize
-Dollars- Grass
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It is clear that the staple crop enterprises have return capabilities inferiorto those of livestock combinations. Some of these crop and beef production proposalshave been budgeted for the latosol arene and are being tested experimentally in thearea. It is thought that crop and forage yields, although higher on grumusol soils,will produce the same net returns in both situations, because of offsetting soilmanagement costs in the clay areas.
(iv) Four production systems for 5 ha farm
The results of four farm production systems that include a beef productionenterprise on the postulated 5 ha farms have been abstracted from the economics reportand are eummarized below.
These results are from favorable production systems. Consider that five hadoublecropped is equal to 24 acres in produotion in a temperate climate with a half-year cropseaeon. For these general plans the output value approximates to $ 248per ha, which would be good compared with efficient agricultural activities for asimilar enterprise in North America. For this result, the produoers in the develop-ment area will have to master efficient techniques which at present are unknown tothem.
The assumption is made that the farmers will initially engage in developmentand production for the labor return as shown. The marginal value of labor is lowin the area in its present undeveloped stage, and farm workers are reported to acceptmuch less than the official rate which is used in these calculations,. Hence the laborreturn allowed should provide some incentive fer necessary farmer entrepreneurshipin the initial stages. It is almost certain that more incentive will be requiredto maintain the development of farmer responsibility and of productive competenceamongst the workers.
4. Conclusion
Assuming that the restrictions indicated above are overcome and that the mostfavorable systems of produotion are used, the resulta aohieved are as summarized inTable 19. One can then expect, for the general soils and production conditions ofthe project area, that an average of 3 150 per ha will be available annually forrepayment, if no other charges are set against this residual. With this figure inmind, one may refer back to Table 16 for a contrast with the annual costs of selectedareas. If the whole projeot area is developed, the annual repayment (3/4 percentinterest rate) and operating requirements average 3 129.50 per year as against a returnof S 150.00. The benefitcost ratio is therefore 1.16/1. The situation in respect tothe current development areas PBI and TourZo Ia is given in Table 19.
Table 18: Summarj of Four Systems for Farm Production
Latoso]. B Latoso]. 0General Latoso]. ADollars-
Output value 2670 2363 2857 2470
Farm costs 942 900 947 933
Labor return 925 942 1028 742
Repayment residualtotal 803 521 882 795
per ha 161 104 176 15.9_,
average . . OOOOOOO ossoosoosooe0000150
60
Table 19s Benefit Cost Ratios of Selected Situatione
When analyzing the benefit/cost ratios calculated above, it should be bornein mind that the relatively low values reached are offset to some extent by thefollowing considerationss
the calculations do not take into account secondary benefits. In anarea such as the one covered by the project, the multiplier effeot ofthe sums invested in and generated by the project could be significant;
the demonstration effect of pilot areas which might be set up inthe project area could extend beyond its confines, benefiting areaswithin the region;
(o) current living conditiona in the project area ensure that the socialimpact of a resettlement scheme will be beneficial to the region as awhole.
Whole development, good output,
Cost offaculties
andoperation
Repaymentdollarsper ha
Ratiobenefitcost
3/4% interest rato 129.50 150.00 1.16
PB I soheme, good output,3/4% interest rate 103.50 150.00 1.45
1
PB I scheme, 6% intereat rate40 year repayment 170.00 150.00 0.81
PB I scheme, low otltput,3/0 interest rate 103.50 100.00 0.97
Tourao Ia soheme, low output,3/4% interest rato 98.00 100.00 1.02
1
The Government request forat the January 1966 Session of theCouncil. The approval provided acosts to be matched by a Brazilianwhich provides roughly $ 3,500,000the two pilot projects.
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CHAPTER 8: FOLLOW-UP
1. Introduction
As reported in section three of Chapter 1 and in section eight of Chapter 2,decisions regarding follow-up of the project were reached during late 1964 and early1965 before the official termination of the project in May 1965. The surveys andstudies up to this time had clearly indicated that a determination of the technicaland economic feasibility of large-scale development initially of some 100,000 hacould not be arrived at without a great deal more work. This was true not only fortechnical and eoonomic considerations, but also for the social and community develop-ment aspects which necessarily must be an integral part of the overall development.Since the grumusol and latosol areas appeared to offer a reasonable chance of success,the Government of Brazil decided to undertake small-scale pilot development on typicallands of each of these areas for the purpose of testing and demonstrating more definite-ly the problems and possibilities of establishing irrigated settlement projects inthe area. This phase two followup was planned to develop about 2,000 ha on latosolsand about 2,000 ha on grumusols. The Government was prepared to provide directlythe investment capital for this phase and decided to request the assistance of theUNDP (SF) in carrying it out, together with additional surveys and studies in otherrelated fields.
The request was prepared during the early part of 1965 with the assistance ofboth FAO and Special Fund. In addition, since phase two of the project was not expectedto become operational before July 1966, a request was also made for assistance from theUNDP Technical Assistance Program to continue project operations without interruptionduring the interim period June 1965 to June 1966. This assistance included five inter-national experts, together with the Government staff and facilities remaining from theoriginal project, and was granted under a Contingency Allocation, part in 1965 and partin 1966. The Project Manager remained on site up to the end of 1965 and was thenseconded to Headquarters for completing the report on the first project. Administra-tive 2ssistance continued without interruption and four additional experts joinedthe Sao Francisco venture from January to April 1966.
the phase two follow-up pilot project was approvedUnited Nations Development Program Governing
UNDP allocation of $ 726,000 for direct projectGovernment contribution of about $ 4,250,000,for actual construction and implementation of
2. Accomplishments from June 1965 to June 1966) the Interim Period between Phase Oneand Phase Two
One of the tasks of the interim period has been the transfer of project head-quarters from the agricultural station of the Ministry of Mines and Energy outsideJuazeiro to a new site of one hectare adjacent to Petrolina airfield. Here thefacilities being made available will be of greater service, both administrativelyand technioally, to the second phase of the project.
During the period under review further detailed soil studies have been carriedout on the proposed pilot areas and agronomical research studies have been continued,particular attention being given to the pasture and forage program. The complexproblems of improving animal husbandry in the surrounding breeding zone of the caatingahave been further investigated, especially with respect to possible developments inthe use made of seasonal natural fodder. Suitable livestock was sought for crossingwith local cattle in the pilot area. By the end of the period, 28 head of Zebu cattle,10 Nellore cows and two young bulls, 15 Gir cows, six of them young, and one young
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bull, had been purchased. Preparation of the firet 200 ha segment of the pilot projeotin the latosol area, including bush clearing, the installation of diesel pumps, and theconstruction of delivery channels for the family farms, was completed. Further studiesin agricultural and general economy were also begun.
3. The Soópe and Main Activities of the Phase Two Follove-up Pilot Project
While the primary goal of the followup project will be to implement the twopilot projects and to settle farmers thereon, it also includes many other associatedactivities. In other words, pilot projects are conceived as a comprehensive under-taking which will take into account virtually every field of activity required in asettlement or rural development project.
The new projeot will make use of results already obtained on UNDP ProjectNo. 18 and, in addition to testing and demonstrating the technical and economic feasi-bility of irrigation in this area, will also study the social impact that such develop-ment will have in the area. The ultimate goal actually is to create a nucleus ofdependable agricultural aotivity in the area which, it is hoped, will encourage initiee-tive on the part of private and commercial enterprises to support the development withassociated commercial and industrial undertakings. The selection, training and settlingof the farm population will be a major feature in the pilot projeots in an effort toensure that they will sucoeed, and because of this the sociological and farm managementaspeots will be of paramount importance. It is well known that previous attemptson pilot development in the area have failed for lack of sufficient attention to theseaspects, and SUDENE, being fully aware of this, is determined to take the necessaryaction, both financially and legally, to ensure that the development has a sound base.It is hoped that a high output level of agricultural produots will be achieved andthat diversifioation will make it possible to improve the supply of looallyneededfoodstuffs and to provide export crops which may attraot industry. In addition, it isplanned to integrate projects with the existing livestock industry so that the lattermay be strengthened and put on a more sound economic basis. The potential productionfrom livestook could represent a very important income to the area provided it can bestabilized and the level of production increased.
It is planned that the following main activities will be undertaken duringthe followup project:
completion of detailed surveys, planning and construotion of the twopilot projects, each of which will be 2,000 ha in siso and will include all thenecessary werks for the irrigation eystem as well as roads and housing fiem thesettlers;
execution of a program of settlement and training for the familiesincluding assistanoe in establishing a landowners' organization for subsequentmanagement and operation of the two pilot areae;
establishment of training centers for the farmers in conjunction witha mechanization center such that modern and improved methods may be introduced;
oontinuation of the agricultural research work at the two experimentalfarms in order to define more definitely the best crops and oropping practices forthe area, as well as improved irrigation and livestock management praotices; .
provision of assistance for social and community development includinghealth and education facilities;
continuation of the engineeri and economic etudies in other selectedareas in order to determine the feasibility of extending the developmaat into theseareas and to prepare more detailed development plane;
63
initiation of surveys, studies and research on both the alluvial andnoncalcio brown soils to determine the potential of these areas for future develop-ment;
additional studies for the improvement of livestock and pasture manage-ment as this relates to areas immediately surrounding the pilot areas.
The project is planned for a term of three years and it is hoped that duringthis time the full development on the 4,000 ha will be completed. SUDENE has stronglyindicated its intention to support the development to the limit of its oapabilitiesand considers this projeot one of the most important to be undertaken in the overallefforts to improve economic and living conditions in the Northeast.
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I/APPENDIX I
REVISEM PLAN OF OPERATION
(Amendment No0_.3)
UNITED NATIONS SPECIAL FUND PROJECT IN BRAZIL
SURVEY OF TEE SAN FRANCISCO RIVER BASIN
1/ The Revised Plan of Operation shown in this Appendix was followed byAmendment No. IV of 13/26 April 1965, which dealt with the revision ofthe Plan of EXpenditure and minor adjustments in the Work Plan for theextension of the project to 31 May 1965.
65
REVISED PLAN OF OPERATION
(Revision No. 3)
UNITED NATIONS SPECIAL FUND PROJECT IN BRAZIL
SURVEY OF THE SAN FRANCISCO RIVER BASIN
Special Fund Allocations U58 667,700
Consisting oft Special Fund Contribution US$ 604,550
Government Contributiontowards local operatingcosts US$ 63,150
Government's Counterpart Contribution in Kind:Equiv. of US$ 1,132,600
Durations 48 Months
EXeCuting Agency: Food and AgricultureOrganization of theUnited Nations
Cooperating Government Agency: Superintendency for theDevelopment of the North-East (SUDENE)
For the purpose of carrying out a survey of the San Francisco River Basinto be undertaken by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,acting as the Executing Agenoy for the United Nations Special Enna, this RevisedPlan of Operation shall be the Plan of Operation provided in Article I, paragraph2 of the Agreement signed on 16 September, 1960, by the Government of Brazil andthe United Nations Speoial Fund. This Revised Plan of Operation supersedes thePlan of Operation signed by the Government of Brazil, the Executing Agency andthe United Nations Speoial Fund on 7 October 1960, the Revised Plan of Operationsigned on 13 Ootober 1962, and the Revised Plan of Operation signed on 16 August1963.
I. PURPOSE AND DESCRIPTION OF WE PROJECT
A. purpose of the pEaitat
1. 'Po determine the physical and economical feasibility of large scale irriga-tion development in the lower middle reaches of the San Franoisoo River Basin.
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B. The Project
2. The project area covering approximately 25,000 square kilometers is locatedin the middle lower reaches of the San Franoisco River Basin between the towns ofPaulo Afonso and the Casa Nova.
3, The Plan of Operation signed on 7 October, 1960 provided for the project tobe carried out in three phases over a period of five years. The aotivitiesplanned for each phase constituted a comprehensive and progressive survey and in-vestigation of the potential development, whereby upon completion of Phase Itwhich primarily included reconnaissance soil surveys and hydrologic studies, afavourable determination of physical feasibility would be required as justifica-tion for initiating additional and more detailed studies in Phase II. Similarlya determination of economic feasibility at the end of studies in Phase II would bea pre-condition to carrying out Phase III.
Upon completion of Phase I in June 1962 and the reconnaissance soil surveyson roughly 2,500,000 Ha. in the project area, it was determined on the basis ofsoil characteristics alone that about 160,000 Ha. had good and about 350,000 Ha.had fair potential for irrigation development. These are mostly grumusol and drylatosolio soils which may present problems from the standpoint of drainage andfertility and additional research is needed to fully establish their usefulness.These soils are located in separated areas along both sides of the river, and thepump lift required to reach these lands varies from 20 to 75 meters.
In consideration that these conditions did not firmly establish technicalfeasibility nor justify continuation of the project for an additional three andone half years into Phases II and III, and recognizing that certain essentialstudies should be carried out in order to achieve a satisfactory conclusion ofthe project, a Revised Plan of Operation was prepared and signed on 13 October1962 which provided for a 12-month extension, beyond the termination of Phase Ior until July 1963, for the purpose of oompleting a modified plan of studies onsoil surveys, hydrology, agricultural research, engineering and economic, analysisleading to a determination of the teohnical and economical feasibility of thepotential development. These surveys and studies, during the 12 month extensionwere limited to the areas, roughly 300,000 Ha., found suitable during the reoon-naissance surveys and their scope was gauged so as to obtain, in the time allowed,the essential and basio information required to permit a valid appraisal of thedevelopment potential. The term of the project, including the 18 months of Phasebeoame 30 months, with the possibility for an additional extension of 6 months,it there was sufficient justification. The 12 month extension noted above, toge-ther with the objectives and Work Plan outlined in the Revised Plan of Operationreplaced Phases II and III as provided in the original Plan of Operation.
Due to delays experienced in putting the Revised Plan of Operation for the12-month extension into force, progress on the project activities was retardedduring the last half of 1962, such that the planned program of studies could notbe satisfactorily oompleted by 30 June 1963. In view of this an additional sixmonth extension of the project was authorized anda Revised Plan of Operation(Revision No.2) was prepared for this purpose, and signed on 16 August 1963. Thetotal term of the project thus became thirty six (36) months, or until 31 December1963.
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Upon continuation of the aurveys and investigationa during 1963, the prospeotsfor feasible development on about 170,000 Ha, divided between both the grumusol andlatosol areas, appeared more favourable. In conaideration of the Government'sstrong intention to enter the development stage on areas proved definitely feasible,it was agreed that the studies should continuo for another twelve months, untilthe end of 1964, primarily for the purpose of obtaining more conclusive results fromthe agricultural research work. The Work Plan for the twelve month extension, aspresented in this revision to the Plan of Operation (Revision No. 3), calls for areduced scale of operations which emphasizes the research activities and alsoprovides for completion of the hydrological, engineering and economic studies andplanning. This revision is for the purpose of providing a twelve month extensionfor the term of the project and adjusting the scale of certain project operations.It does not provide for any change or additions to the objectives as outlined inRevision No. 2, With this revision the total term of the project becomes fortyeight (48) months.
In view of the several previous extensions and revisions to the project, thedescription of activities to be carried out and the Nork Plan are presented belowas Phase I, II and III for the sake of clarity.
Phase I October 1960 June 1962 (Original Plan of Operation).Phase II July 1962 December 1963 (Amendments No. 1 and 2).Phase III January 1964 December 1964 (Amendment No. 3),
The surveys and investigations to be carried out in each phase shall be asfollows:
Phase I
A Reconnaissance soil survey of the project area leading to a selectionand classification of the land according to their suitability for irrigation deve-lopment.
H drolo.c.ical and meteorological studies on the main stream of the riverand the principal tributaries to obtain data for a preliminary evaluation of theavailability of water and climatic conditions as related to largescale irrigationdevelopment.
A survey of the present arricultural and land use atterns in theproject area and aPricultural exoerimental work on existing agricultural stationsfor the purpose of determining the most suitable crops and their productivo capa-city in the area and the water requirements for a variety of crops in differentconditions of soil and irrigation methods.
Phase II
Semidetailed soil surveys on areas judged most suitable in the recon-naissance surveys for irrigation development, for the purpose of defining theextent and looation of these areas and to provide information on which to evaluatethe production potential of these soils and their reaction to irrigation. .
Hydrologic Studies on the San Francisco river to assess the watersupply available for diversion; together with investigations on probable floodstages, sediment content and water quality. A summary of climatological data inthe project area will be prepared and the need for flood protection from theprincipal tributaries will be studied.
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(o) Agricultural research on small experimental plots in the areas judgedsuitable for irrigation to determine productive capacity and water requirementsof a variety of crops under irrigated conditions and to test the reaction of theseveral soil types to irrigation.
Pr21.inj.n42.'neeriuldejlt._iandestirnp._.teit on alternative plans ofdevelopment for the areaa selected as suitable, including estimates on total deve-lopment costs with roads, land preparation, community facilities and colonization.Recommendations regarding phasing of the development and financing will be preparedif the projeot is found to be eoonomically feasible.
An Economic appraisal of the proposed development taking into aocountall factors affecting the cost of development and operation and the potentialbenefits. Such factors as available markets, cost of transportation and an improvedregional economy will be considered.
Phase III
Completion of the Hydrologic studies as described for Phase II. Thiswill require about 4 months in 1964.
Continue the agricultural research work on the experimental farms in thegrumusol and latosol areas throughout 1964. This research work will be in two mainoategories, namely, agronomic) trials and irrigation experiments.
(o) Complete the en,'neering design and cost estimate studies as describedfor Phase II. This will require about 8 months in 1964.
Complete the studies for an economic appraisal as desoribed for PhaseH. This will require about 4 months in 1964.
Prepare a final próject report which shall include the results of alleurveys and investigations and studies carried out on the project and a,preliminaryplan for the proposed development.
10. Upon completion of the surveys and studies the project staff shall prepare areport with reoommendations regarding the technical and economio feasibility ofalternative plans of development together with preliminary plans and estimates forthese alternative plans. This report shall also consider an overall plan for astop-wise development and oorrelation of the proposed plans with the overall riverbasin development plan being considered by the Government.
U. The Government shall arrange with other Government Agencies in Recife forlaboratory facilities for soil testing and other working relationships as requiredto carry out the activities of the projeot, particularly with respect to theagrioultural experimental work on the experimental farms. The Government shallarrange for living accommodation, offices and field laboratory facilities in theproject area. The Speoial Fund shall supply additional laboratory, transport andfield equipment as required.
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II. WORK PLAN
A. Participation and Contribution of the U.N. Special Fund
Agenoys
TotalMan-Months
12. The Special Fund shall provide the following through the Eteoutive
Phases PhaseExperts I and II
Water Development Engineer (ProjeotMgr.) 24 12 36
Hydrologist 18 - 18Hydrologist 15 - 15Hydrologist 4 6 10Soil Scientist 12 12Soil Aerial Photoanalysist 26 - 26Soil Chemist 25 - 25Agronomist 18 - 18Administrative Officer 27Y2 12 39112Consultants 4 - 4Soil Scientist 30 30Design Engineer 14 8 22Agronomist, Irrigation Crops 16 12 28Agricultural Economist 5 - 5Consultant (Agri. Economics) 4 6 10Agronomist 12 12Animal Hudbandry Expert - 6 6
13. Equipment and Supplies
Laboratory and field equipment for soiland water testing . 24,000 4,000 28,000
Camping and medical equipment andsupplies 1,000 500 1,500
Aircraft (1) 85,000 85,000Hydrological and meteorological
equipment and supplies 10,000 1,000 11,000Equipment, materials and supplies foragricultural researoh 2,000 13,800 15,800
ToPographical survey equipment andsupplies 2,000 1,000 3,000
Miscellaneous technical and officeequipment and supplies, inoludingbooks and publioations 2,000 500 2,500
Vehicles (2) 4,000 4,000Preparation and printing of report 5,000 5,000
The total oost of equipment will not exceed US11559800.Total US$: 155,800
..........
14. Miscellaneous
Post and cable charges 1,500 500 2,000Secretarial and clerical assistance 1,500 1,000 2,500Contingencies 52 1,048 1 100
Total US$:...6.9.9.
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3 TrucksSprinklers irrigation equipmentCamp equipmentMiscellaneous materials, small 366,500 97,500
tools, local aupplies andstationery, office and fieldequipment and supplies.
Aerial photos and maps (supplies)Construction and operation ofAgrioultural Experiment Stations
B.
of US
Partici ation and Contribution of the Government
The Government will provide the following, ostimated to cost the equivalent$1,132,600 in kind.
15. Personnel Total Man-Months
Phase I Phase IIIand II
(a) Professional Staff
Co-Manager16 Agronomists (soil and agronomy)2 Draftsmen7 Engineers1 Computer 1,068 4921 Administrative Officer2 Pilot Aircraft1 Economist1 Topographer
(b) Clerical, Drafting and LaboratoryNon-Professional Staff and Labourers
2 Administrative Assistants1 Accounts Clerk1 Mechanic Aircraft1 Mechanic AutomotiVe 1,000 2,000
18 Drivers6 MessengersLabourers for soil and engineeringsurvey as requested on fieldparties laboratory work andexperimental work.
16. Equipment and Supplies Equivalent of US$
Phase I and II Phase III21 Motor Vechicles and 4 tractorsAgricultural Machinery and Irriga-
tion equipment
17. Sub-Contracts
Aerial photos and topography
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32,000
E(uivalent ef US $
Phaee I and 11 Phase III
2,300
13, Miscellaneoue
Laboratory facilities, office, roomfor field laboratory, spaoe forequipment and materials, fieldaccommodation for labour, traneportationwithin the country, insuranoe, handling 63,400 17,200and storage of projeote equipment andmaterials, hire of insurable aircraftfor reconnaissanoe flights, operationand maintenance of vehioles, aireraft,riverboats and equipment.
All Government contribution enumerated under paragraphs 15 to 18 ehall beprovided in kind, uniees it is agreed otherwise by the three parties oonoernedduring the oourse of the operation of the project.
Local Operating Coete
With reference to the payments ta be made by the Government under Article V,paragraph I (a) to (d) of the Agreement referred to in the preamble to this Planof Operation, exoepting the cost within the country for transportation of projeotsupplies and equipment, whioh is a counterpart contribution, the Government shallpay to the Speoial Fund in local currency the equivalent of US;1612.12.,0 towardalocal operating costs. This amount represents 15 per oent of the total estimatedoost to the Special Fund of foreign projeot personnel inoluding cost of foreignpersonnel of sub-contractors (if such are employed on the projeot).
The contribution towards local operating costs, the equivalent of US 863,150shall be depoeited by the Government in local ourrenoy to the credit of theOpeoial Fund Account No, 127250 with the Banco Boavista, Rio de Janeiro in acoor-dance with the following sohedule:
Equivalent of US $ 14,580 on the signature of the Plan of OperationEquivalent of US $ 21,000 on 1 January 1961Equivalent of US $ 13,590 on 1 January 1963Equivalent of US $ 1,950 on 1 July 1963Equivalent of US $ 12,030 on J. January 1964
The amount payable in such instalments is determined on the basio of theUnited Natione operating rate of exchange at the time of payment. Payment ofthe above amounts, on or before the datea specified, is a prerequisite to operation,
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C. Organization
Overall responsibility for the organization and execution of the projectreate with the Exeouting Agenoy who shall plan and direot operations.
The Government Agency responsible for Government participation in the projeotshall be the Superintendency for the Development of the Northeast (SUDENE). TheSUDENE shall ensure coordination of the work of the various Government Organiza-tions participating in the preject. The main participating Government Agenciesare: The National Service for Agronomio Research (for Soils and Agronomy), theSan Francisco River'Commission and the National Department for Anti-Drought Worksfor hydrography, hydrology, engineering and seleoted demonstration on experimen-tal stations along the river with irrigation and drainage systems.
The Executing Agency shall appoint a Project Manager in oonsultation withSUDENE. Under the general supervision of the Executing Agency, the ProjectManager shall be responsible for the detailed planning, administration and exeou-tion of the project, including the timing and budgeting of the various elements,the preparation of the technical reporta, oto. The Project Manager shall beresponsible aleo for the co-ordination of the work of the various experts andgroups of experts.
The SUDENE shall appoint a Co-Manager in consultation with the ExecutingAgency, who will co-operate with the Project Manager in the execution of theproject. He will be responsible for setting up preliminary arrangements agreedfor the project and for the administration matters related to the project person-nel furnished by the Government for the execution of the project. He shallobtain the concurrence of the Project Manager for the working arrangements of theGovernment personnel engaged on the project.
The Executing Agency will appoint an Administrative Officer who shall assistthe Projeot Manager in the administration of the project, servicing of theexperts, and keeping of accounts of equipment of the Executing Agency. TheAdministrative Officer will be primarily responsible for keeping acoounts ofGovernment expenditure, labor payrolls, ledgers of material and equipment belongingto the Government or handed over to the Government on loan.
Headquarters for the project shall be at Recife, Brazil.
D. Sequence of Operation
The Executing Agency shall commence operation of the project upon writtenauthorization to do so from the Managing Director of the United Nations SpecialFund.
Upon receipt of this authorization the Executing Agency, with the concurrenceof the Government, shall appoint the Project Manager and at the same time theGovernment will appoint the Co-Manager acceptable to the Executing Agenoy.During this time the bceouting Agency shall undertake recruitment of the exportarequired for the project.
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Upon arrival of the Project Manager the SUDENE shall eupply him with threecomplete sets of loose contact prints of the aerial photographs at scale 1:25,000covering 80,000 square kilometers or more of the area aeleoted for the resourcessurvey with the corresponding photo-index and one set of photomosaios or maps,at reduced scale; three sets of the existing 130 contour maps at scale 1:25,000covering about 25,000 square kilometers inside the projeot area. In addition tothe above the Government will also supply three sets of photographic reduction atscale 11100,000 ami of the maps at scale 1:500,000 and 11250,000 covering theentire river-basin of the lower-middle San Francisco river, all material withappropriate storage accommodation.
Upon arrival upon the project the Project Manager and the Co-Manager, inconsultation with SUDENE shall prepare a general Plan of Work for carrying outthe project operations. Reconnaissance surveys as required in the project areawill be carried out for the purpose of preparing this plan. This Plan of Workshall be submitted to the Executing Ageney for approval and it shall incluaesuch items such as the overall schedule for the project operations, detailed listeof the equipment and materials to be purchaeed, staffing plane, and arrangementsfor transport, and living accommodations, office and laboratory facilities inthe projeot area.
During this time the Government shall take steps to reoruit the local person-nel required on the project, to arrange for office accommodation in Recife, toplace orders for equipment and supplies to be furnished by the Governmentp and toarrange the necessary facilities in the project area to accommodate the fieldstaff. Liits of equipment and supplies to be furnished by the Special FUnd shallbe prepared by the Project Manager and oubmitted to the Headquartere of theExecuting Agency for approval and the placing of orders.
Authorization to commence the project was received on 10 October 1960.However, actual operations did not get underway until January 1961. It is plannedtbat the project will be completed by 31 December 1964,
IIT. BUDGET
The estimated cost of the services and facilities to be provided for theproject is detailed in the Plans of Expenditure appended to this Plan of Operation.Funds will be provided by the Special Fund and the Government as indioated below;
1. Allocation by the Special Fund (appendix I) US $ 667,700consisting of:
Special Fund contribution; US $ .6241.221Government contributiontowards operating costs' US $ 63,150.
2. Counterpart contribution inkind by the Government(Appendix II)
US $ 1A1:4222.
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IV. REPORTS
Final Report
Within four months of conclusion of project operations the Exeouting Agenoyshall submit a final comprehensive report on the projeot to the Managing Directorfor presentation to the Government, which shall include recommendations regardingthe economic feasibility for largescale irrigation development and preliminaryplans and estimates on alternative proposals for the development.
Financial Reports
The Government shall submit to the Executing Agency and the Exeouting Agencyshall submit to the Government financial statements in a manner and at times tobe agreed upon between the Executing Agency and the Government.
Equipment Inventory
36, The Government and the Executing Agency shall at the end of each calendaryear submit a joint certified inventory of project equipment purohased from theSpecial Fund allocation and for which title remains with the Special FUnd.
V. REVISION
The project will be subjeot to periodio review by the Special Fund. Anysubstantial deviation from the Plan of Operation will require a careful evaluationof the problems encountered by the three parties to the projeot in order todetermine the future course of action.
STEPS TO BE TAREN AT THE COMPLETION OF SPECIALFUND ASSISTANCE TO THE PROJECT
Upon the completion of the project, a report will be submitted by the Govern-ment to the Executing Agency and the Speoial Rind on the benefits derived fromthe project and the activities planned by the Government to further the purposeof the project.
At the successful conclusion of the project, the Government, the ExecutingAgency and the Special Fund will consult with a view to transferring the titleto part or all of the equipment provided by the Special FUnd in whose name ithas been held by the Executing Agency, to the Government or an Agenoy nominatedby the Government.
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40. The Technical Material obtained during the course of the projeot will behanded by the Executing Agenoy to the Government of Brazil for appropriate utiliza-tion as agreed with the Special Fund.
Agreed on behalf of the parties, by the undersigned:
Marina de Barros e Vasconoellos 9 March 1966
(Signature)Government of Brazil
George P4tet
(Signature)United Nations Special Fund
5 Ma ch 1966 (date)
A. Alarcón
(Signature)Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United NationsDeputy Regional Representative
for Latin America
Internationally Recruited Staff
Name and Nationalitz
R. Pioger (France) .
SOIL RESOURCES
F. Gray (U.S.A.)P. Mahler (France)O. Makitie (Finland)M.F. Purnell (U.K.)
WATER RESOURCES
O. Tilrem rorway)Kutena (Australia)Drouhin (France)
Heinrich Furrer (Switzerland)
PLANT & ANIMAL PRODUCTION
G.A.W. Wagenaar ITetherlands)G.F. Richardson U.K.)C.T. Van Vugt (Netherlands)B. Talegon Heras (Spain)
- IRRIGATION ENGINEERING
W.E. Roell (Netherlands)K. Zijderveld (Netherlands)
ECONOMY
Norman Hilton (U.K.Karl Gertel (U.S.A.T.S. Rackham (Canada)
- ADMINISTRATION
A.F. FernandezNafez Abu Adiya
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APPENDIX 2
LIST OF FROJECT PERSONNEL
Subject Matter
Land and Water Development,Project Manager.
Soil SciencePhoto-interpretation (soils)Soil ChemistrySoil Survey
HydrographyHydrologyConsultantGeology and Hydrology
Agronomy
Irrigation AgronomyAgronomy (Associate expert)Animal Production
Design EngineeringIrrigation Science (Associate expert)
Agricultural EconomicsAgricultural EconomicsAgricultural Economics
Aaministrative assistanceAdm. and clerical assistance
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Counterpart Team,
a) Professional Staff
Gerson Teixeira da CostaCo-Manager, Chief, Sudene Irrigation Group for the sao Franoisoo River.
J.G. Pedrosa de MeloDeputy Co-Manager
15 agronomists (soil, plant and animal production)7 civil and irrigation engineers1 topographer1 computer1 economist1 administrative officer2 aircraft pilots
h) Cleri'cal, Drafting and Laboratory Non-Professional Staff
2 administrative assistants1 accounts clerk2 draftsmen1 aircraft mechanic1 automotive mechanic18 drivers6 messengers.
soc Multigrafica V le Quattro Venti, 52/a - Roma
