Chapter I 1

i. Emotive Language

The medium of the poet, as we know is words or language

and he shapes it according to his will. Yet language as a

medium exercises certain influences on him and his work. In

The Foundations of Aesthetics the authors point out :

"every medium has as a material its own effects on

our impulses". 1

Modern structuraiist studies2 emphasise the influence

of language on the writer. But as a critic Richards was not

a structuralist.

There are writers who argue that pleasure is the end of

poetic experiences. They stress the role of medium in giving

full play to the impulses, such full play shall give the

maximum pleasure to the poet and the reader. The poet should

fully respect the chnracteristics of the medium and exploit

i t to the fullest. Art is the exploitation of medium.

Objects arouse impulses in the poet which he seeks to

synthesise through a process of 'inclusion'. The medium he

chooses for expression also nccessitates a readjust~~ler~t of

the impulses. A mutual accomodation of the experiences and

the medium is not a simple process. A language adequate for

the expression of the poctic experiences 111ust makc itself

1 i I I t 1 I I I . I i I I I I r ~ r ~ I lit,i~~~y ,)I'

poetry wol~ld be complete unless i t is replenished by a

theory of language. Richards and C. K. Ogden expounded a

theory of language in the book fileaning of hlcaning3. For our

purpose however w h a t Richards has said about thc two

distinctive uses of language, 'the referential' and 'the

~ . I I I C ) ~ i v c ' i I I 1 1 i :, I 1 1 I l,iLl,~<~~~y (_'i..i..!jc i;?!~! I I I I , ~

Science -- and Poetry is more relevant. Also we have to think

about what he has written about the "Resourcefulness of

Words" anti "Poctry as an Instrument of Research" in his book

In tl~c essay "The Resourcefulness of Words" Richards

wr i t es :

W~>!-cl>: coul(l IILIL tlo Ll~e i I wc,~ k ~ I I lc:i:i Lhcy cou I d

I-igl~t ly incan alctny II I O I ' ~ things thnr~ : I I I ~ orlc mitn in

any one view can see them as meaning . . . All

non-tecllr~i cal words h;tvc a ~ ~ ~ b i g u i ty tllllorlg l.he

conditions of thcir service to us. They could not

cover our needs without i t . We are afraid of

this.5.

Ile wants us to study the ambiguity of the words rather

than to look for their dictionary meanings. Richards says

t t ~ r t t Ll~i:: q u a 1 i ty o f a111l)iguiLy l~c [)rcf.crs to (lcscribc its

'The Resourcefulness of Words'.

Pseudo Statements

Tr l 11 is essay, "lJoctry 11s an Inslr un~cr~l or I(csctir cl~",

Richards describes how he was denounced by critics for using

the expression 'pseudo-staten~ent'.~ By pseudo-statement he

did not mean false statement. Pseudo-statements are

different from statements which build up science or any

fabric of factual discourse. He explains :

The point here, however is that there is an

important use of words - very frequent in poetry,

which does not freeze its meanings, but leaves

them fluid, which does not fix an assertional clip

upon them in the way that scientific prose and

factual discourse must . . . 7

Poems are constituted of pseudo-statements. They are

con~posc(i o f w o r - ( 1 s LllnL I~ctvc i.c.sou rcc T I ) I tlcir:. Or! I I!(: I J ~ I F I i 3 of'

this he attempts a definition of a poem.

In poetry the words are so uscd

"that their meanings are free so as to dispose of

themselves to make up together whatever they

can. . . 8

Richards averred that there are two distinctive uses of

language, the referential and the emotive. I t is pointed out

thnt the poetics of Kich;~rds is founded or1 the oppositiorl

between the emotive and referntial functions of language.

Scientific language produces statements, poetry produces

pseudo-statements. The delicate organisation of the mind can

I)c t~chicvctl or~ly by frceir~g our sour-cc ol' krlowlctlgc 11.o1r1 Lhc

narrow limitations of factual statements. I t is emotive

language that accomplishes this freedom.

Five I:ur~ct ions of Language

Richard dist i~~guist~ed five fur~ct ions that language

could have in a given c o n t e ~ t . ~ They are :

1. Symbolising a reference.

2. Expressing an attitude towards a listener or reader.

3. Expressing an attitude towards the object spoken of

or written about.

4. Promoting certain intended effects through such

statements and

5. Managing or supporting the whole sLatemcnt

effectively.

In Emotive Language Still, Richards speaks of six

functions of language and in 'Semantics' of seven

functions. ' 0

Richards said that besides the functions mentioned

above there are also broad uses or principles of structuring

or organisation to which all the functions in varying

tlegrecs may be put, the 'refcrcntinl' and 'the emotive'.

Their uses correspond to the division,science and artll

Referential Language is a certain type of expository

prose, the ideal medium for scientific communication. I t is

emotive language that engages the attention of literary

theorists.

Emotive Language --

Richards describes emotive language with clarity and

precision. 'Emotive language' is more massive, more dense

with association (and inter animation) than 'referential

language'. Emotive language has a body lo i l , i t employs all

the devices of language, sound, rhythm, image, stanzaic

pattern, typography and so forth. Moreover emotive language

ties the writer to history.

"What are awakened arc feelings, attitudes,

ii~~pulses to action which werc irl lhc nlove in thcsc

ptrsl silutrlior~s wilh wl~ich ll~c c~nolivc wortlu arc

cnjoincd". 12

The emotive language has three main functions.

1. I t expresses an attitude or feeling to the listener.

2. I t expresses an attitude to the object which is the

referent.

3 I t produces the desired effect in the listener.

The ernot ive use is exprcsscd through lhc clllol i vc

tnear~ir~g of words. Itichards bc l ievcs lhtll in poetry lur~guagc

is used to provoke emotions and attitudes. The emotive

language gives commurlications a more profound character than

what the rcferntial langungc can give.

Richards admi 1s that emot ive 1 urlgunge does not deny

poetry its sense of words and statements.

"So far ns words are used emotively no questions

as to their truth in the strict sense can arise.

Ir~direclly no doubt truth in this strict scrl:ac is

involved". l 3

Poetry which conveys experience gives us meaning as

well. Poetry does not totally abolish or do away with

referential meaning, but it is never limited by its

referntial sense. Also though both the emotive element and

the referential element are distinct in principle, they may

occur together in poetry. In poetry, the emotive use of

words co-exists with the symbolic use oC words though thc

emphasis is on the former. The point is thf~t :

Many, if not most of the statements in poetry are

there as means to be manipulations and expressions

of feelings and attitudes, pseudo-statements made

with emotive language are also true, but their

truth consists in their service in producing

certain desired attitudes. 14

Thc truth of ll~esc pseudo-staLernenLs is cnlircly

determined by their effect in releasing or organising our

impulses. Erroneous statements shall not be mistaken for

pseudo-statements. Pseudo-statements are not at all false.

Utterences which are false from a scientific point of view

may be poetically true.

In Principles of Literary Criticism, Richards deals

with language as a medium. A statement may be used for the

sake of the effects in emotion and attitude produced by the

references i t occasions. This is the emotive use of

language. We may use language either for the sake of the

references or we may use i t for the sake of the attitude and

emotions which ensue.

Marly nrr:~r~gcmcr~Ls of words evoke tilt i tudcs wi thou1 any

relation to references. Thcy operate like 'n~usical

phrases 'l5. But in the initial state of our encounter with

words, tl~c c111o1 ivc level L I I I ~ O I C I Y i I . I L i : i I I O L I (:S~:I.IIC~!:I

t11:tL are ili~porti~nt, 1,ul the nltit11tlcs~~. Sin(:<: i t i:i

all itudcs Lhal reul ly ~nclttcr, i t is ol' no corrsequcr~ccs

whether the references such as there, are true or false.

Their sole function is to bring about and support the

attitudes. A logical connection bctwccn idcns and a logical

evolution of thought are characteristics of referntial

language. Hut in emotive language a logical structure, if

present may be an obstacle, i t is altogether unwanted. The

series of utti tudcs rlue to the sefernce~ shoul(l hnvc their

own proper organization. Our emotional interconnections and

this havc rio rlcpc~ldcnce 'or logical rclal iorl:;' . l 7

The Intellectual and Emotional Streams - -~ ~p

In Science and Poetry, Richards writes that the

experience of reading poerty has two branches, the major and

the minor. The two branches are interconnected. The minor

branch is the intel lectual stream, thc major brar~ch is the

emotional stream. Richards writes :

The intellectual stream is comptkratively casy to

follow, i t follows itself so to speak, but i t is

the less important of the two. In poetry i t

matters only as a means, i t directs and excites

the active stream . . . the realm of pure thought

is not an autonomous state. Our thoughts are the

servants of our interest and even when they seem

to rebel, i t is some among our interests which are

in insurrection. 18

lticliz~rtls corit i rlucs :

In the poetic approach, the relevant consequence

are not logical or to be arrived at by a partial

relaxation of logical. Except occasionally and by

accident logic does not enter at all. The relevant

consequences are those which arise through our

emotional organisations. The acceptance which a

pseudo-statement recieves is entirely governed by

its cifcct upon our ice1 ings u~ld 111 li tudca. ''

Richards says that a pseudo-statement is true if i t

su i 1s i1r111 :;c~vc:i soll~c i l l 1 i ludc 01. l ir~ks Loycit~cr. c l t t itt~tlc::

whicl~ on ltlc ot hc!r i;rour~cls nr.c tics i r t ~ l > l c . 'Tt~c t r.11l11 i r l r l

pseudo-statement is opposed to scientific truth.

Christopher Norris in The Deconstructive Turn says :

"Poetry is seen as an emotive use of language, as

opposed to the cogni t ivt: or referential uses

available to sciences. And i t is precisely here

according to Richards that its unique and

irrepnrable value lies".20

With emotive language a poet creates a verbal structure

adequate to express the balanced poise of impulses that

con3t itucs his ncsthet ic expcri cnces.

I n I ? I : ~ ~ ! C ~ ~ . I I ~ C ~ or ! , , i . . t ~ ~ . c ~ ~ . ~ y Cci.L.i~civ111 Rjcht1r11>1 w r i t(::q :

Words when used symbolically or scientifically not

figuratively and emotively are only capable of

directing thought to a camparatively few features

of the more common situation. But feeling is

sometimes a more subtle way of referring, more

dangerous also, because more difficult to

corroborate and to control and liable to

confusion. 2 1

Raaian Selden writes :

J<ichnrds' psychological theory with its strange

r~uerological diagrani and pseudo-scient i Iic

underpinning, soon seemed outmoded. llowever his

account of poetry's power to harmonise impulses by

the use of non-referential (emotive) language was

taker1 up arid developed in Ncw Criticism. The rlew

critics also preserved his rather crude poetry-

prose distinction in more subtle forms. 2 2

According to Richards, emotive language arouses

emotional attitudes which in their turn stimul~ite broad

areas of mental experiences. These are organised by these

attitudes and a temporary equilibrium is achieved. A stable

and balanced poise experienced by the poet is communicated

to the reader through the poem. A poet is basically a

communicator, his major concern is to master the url or

communicating with the reader the eqilibrium of impulses he

has experienced.

i i Communication

In Principles of Literary Critcism Richards says :

"An experience has to be formed before i t is

communicated, but i t takes the fornl i t does

largcly bccausc i t may hnve to bc

conimuriicatctl". 2 3 .

The poet's major pre-occupation is to make the work

embody, accord with and represent the precise experience

upon which its value depends.

"The degree to which i t accords with the relevant

experience of the artist is a measure of the

degree to which i t will arouse similar experiences

in

Man is a communicating animal. lle has been

communicating for thousands of years. The structure of tho

human mind has been largely determined by this fact.

w,, 1 . .i~gc . pnr t of the distir~ctivc renturc of thc

mind are due to its being an instrument ior

COIIIIIIUII i C U L i OII" . 25

'l'l~e (lesil c to cornrnurlicrllc ur~tl 10 [ ) I O ~ U C ~ 11 work w11icI1

has corn~nunicut ive efficiency is inborn in II I ~ I I . Every

communicator must verify for himself whether his production

satisfies him.

In any case i t is certain that no more careful

study of communicative possibilities, together

with any desire to communicate however intense is

ever sufficient without close natural

correpondence between the poet's impulses and

possible impulses in his reader. 2 6

Communication succeeds only when there is such close

correspondence bctween the poet's experiences and the

rcitdrr's experiences. Communicatioii in cmot ive languagc can

rlnt bc successful l y accornpl i shed by any dcl iberatc or

conscious at tempts. The process of communicat ion or poe t ic

experiences is both indirect and unconscious. As we have

seen already the process of poetic creation is a mystery

which can not he explained.

Di ffercrit 'I't~eories --- -

There ore different theories of communication. There is

a view that in communication there is an actual

trrir~sfcrcr~cc o f the poet's cxl~criericc:: i rlto thc rni r ~ r l o f Lhc

reader.Z7 But the process is explained in a different way

too. The explanation is that since the human minds are wider

than we believe them to be, parts of one mind pass over to

bccomc piirts or another c ~ r ~ t l 1111nds i~itcr[~c!r~eL~~~~Le 11r1t1

inte~rningle.2~ The thought that there are different minds is

illusory, hut Richards does not agree with this view.

Richards says :

"All that occurs is that under certain conditions

separate minds have closely similar expericces". 29

We start then from natural isolation and severence of mind.

Communication takes place when one mind so acts upon

i Ls crivironl11cr11 th;lL rlr~oLtlcr mind is inllucr~ced by i 1 . 1 r 1

that mind an experience should occur which is like the

experience in the first mind. Communication as such is a

complicated affair. Communications involving attitudes are

tlccpc~. t htlrr L lro:<c i r ~ which ~rcl'c~c~~cc:; t~lorrc ; I I C cc,rrc:cr.r~ed.

I t is att itutlcs tl~at art nr~cl poetry chief ly cornrr~ur~icatc.

Paul DeMan, a modern critic has to say the following

about the communication theory of I . A . Richards :

For Richards, the task of criticism consists in

correctly apprehending the signifying value or

meaning of the work, an exact corresponder~ce

between the author's originary cxperienccs and its

corn~nur~icnted cxl)rcssion. f o ~ . Lhc i~uthc~r., t h(:

labour of formal elaboration consists in

constructing a linguistic structure that will

correspond as closely ns possible to the initial

experience. Once i t is grr~ntecl that suctl ri

corresporldence is establ ishctl by the author i t

will exist for the reuder and what is called

3 0 communication can occur. .

In general communication is easy between people whose

circumstances have corrcsponded. Peoplc must htivc nn

cxceptiorral furid of commori expericrlce, if they arc to

conlrnunicate with one another effectively. Even people

endowed with communicative gifts have succeeded in difficult

instances to the extent to which past sinrilarity in

cx11c1 icrlcc cc,irld l)c rl~i~dc u:;c < , I . Wi Lhc~uL :;uch :; ibri l i l r i 1 ic:-i

communication is impossible.

In difficult cases the communicator has to impart to

the I istcncr most of thr causes of the 1 ister~cr ':.

experiences. The listener has often to struggle against the

intrusion of elcments from his own past experiences which

are irrelevant.

The Vehicle of Communication

The vchicle of communication must inevitably be

complex. The effect of a word varies with other words among

which i t is placed. What is highly ambigious by itself

becomes def inte in CI suitable context, so i t is throughout.

Thc effect of tiny clcmcr~t de~>cntls upon thc other elcmcr~t:;

present with i t . Certain experiences are incommunicable and

indescribable. They are so subtle that they elude any

attc~npl ;rt i~pllrchcndir~g thcrr~. I3ul i r ~ the arts w u lint1 Lhc

record o S cvcrl lnost subtle experience:; in Lhc or~ly forn~ irl

which these things can be rccordcd.

Arts and poetry are thus the records of experience

which have seemed worthy to the most sensitive and

discriminating person.

Richards says :

"The arts are our store-houses of recorded

v n 1 u c s " 3 1 .

Richards points out that they spring from and penetrate

the Finest hours in tlic 1ivc:s of(?xecj~tiorit~l [~crr[)lc. Sllch

hours arc 1.cn1a.rk;lblc for their control and command or

experiences at its highest.

During such hours the v a ~ y i n g possibilities of

existence are most clearly seen, the different activities

are most exquisitely rcconci led. They are hours.

"When habitual narrowness of interest or confused

I~cwi ldc~r~css arc r cplacctl hy nrl ir111 icately

wrought composure". 3 2

Critics like Chetan Karnar~i have said that according to

Richurds i t is not fruitful lo Firltl out thc drive that

prompts a poet to create a poem. Chetan Karnani writes :

'I'hc co~n~nurii cut ivc ns[rccl. is what rrlal. Lcr:: thc 1110st

in the arts. Those who indulge in finding out the

motives, the drives and the unconscious o f the

artist are only amusing themselves because that

sort of detective work is a good exercise in

biography, but has no relevance to a work of art

itself . 3 3

The communicator has his own distinct faculties. The

conllnunicator is pre-eminently accessible to external

influences and discriminating with regard to them. Ile enjoys

the freedom to hold his impressions in suspension. With

remarkable case, these impressions form new relations

between themselves. Unlike the ordinary man the poct has

grc;~Lcr 1 1 1 (lcl icacy i ~ l ~ d r~ C C ~ O ~ I I in L ~ I C c011ri~c1 i t 1 1 1 hc

makes between the difficult elements. Also he has grcater

power in communicating his experience.

i i i The Poet and the Reader.

In What is Art, Tolstoy introduces his theory of

infectiousness of art. I . A . Richards does not subscribe to

Tolstoy's theory of art. Yet he was influenced by i t .

Tolstoy writes :

There is one indubitable sign of distinguishing

r.c;rl i1r.t fro111 its counter-rcit, nclrr~ely, the

irifecLiousr~css of art. I f il loar1 wi thou1 cxcr-cising

cf Tort i ~ r l c l wi tltoul 111 Lcr ~ I I K I l i :; xl.flr~ll-l~oi~~t i l l

reading hearing or seeing another man's work,

expercinces a mental condition which unites him

with that man and with othcrs who arc also

affected by that work, then the object evoking

that condition is a work of art.34

Tolstoy defines a work of art on the basis of its

infectious quality. IIe says :

If a man is infected by the author's condition of

:;ou I , i f l~c rcel s this erl~ol ior~ ar~d this union with

others, then the object which has affected this is

~ I I . I f t l r c r c l)c 11oL (11is trni t )n w i t h t l r r : r r ~ t I i o r

tinri w i t h o t h c r s whc, a r e moved b y t l i e samc w r ~ r k

I l ~ e ~ r i I i : I i l l ( . ( ' I ' I I ~ J , 1 7 8 )

The q u a l i t y t h a t ' I ' o l s toy v a l u e s m o s t irr a n a r i t s t i s

s i n c e r i t y . Ilc s a y s :

"Dut m o s t o f a l l i s t h e d e g r e e of i n f e c t i o u s n e s s

o f a r t i n c r e a s e d by t h c d e g r e e o f s i n c e r i t y i n t h e

a r t i s t M . 3 5

We s e c t h a t R i c h ; ~ r t l s a l s o v;iluc:; s i r ~ c c r i t y irl t h c

n r i t i s l t o t h e u t m o s t . A s Rene W e l l c k s a y s :

I:i c l r i~rd: ; ' t l r e o ~ . y i :; t l ~ l r s ;I r c : ; L i ~ l c ~ ~ r c r ~ t ol' t l rc

; ~ f f c c t i v c t h c o r y o f a r t w h i c h c a n 1)c t r a c c t l b a c k

t o A r i s t o t l c ' s c a t h a r s i s a n d h a s i t s a n c e s t r y i n

t h e t r n d i t i o n o f t l i e p y c h n l o j ; i c i ~ l a c s t h ~ : t i c : ; i r r

Germany a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . . . 3 6

I n i t i a l l y R i c h a r d s w a s o f t h e v i e w t h a t t h e r e w a s n o

a c s t h c t i c Inode o r a e s t h e t i c s t a t e a s d i f f e r e n t i a t e t l f rorn

o t h e r modes a n d s t a t e s .

"The w o r l d o f p o e t r y i s i n no s e n s e ;irry ~ l i f r e r e n t

r e a l i t y f r o m t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d . I t h a s n o

s ~ ~ c c i a l l a w s , n o o t h e r p e c u l i a r i t i e s . I t i s made

u p o f e x p c r i c n c e s o f e x a c t l y samc k i n d a s t h o s e

t h a t come t o u s i n o t h e r w a y s . " 3 7

Yet he points out:

" TI i ? IIIOI I~ 11 i p t ~ 1 y I I T I ~ ~ I I I O I t , ( le i 1 :I I r, I \I 0 1 J C I I I I i ,.c.il

tllncl ordinary experier~cc of the street or the hill

side. I t is fragile. Further i t is

communicable"38

Richards h a d t o admit that there was difference

between ordinary experience and poetic experiences. The

chief difference is that. greater number of impulses are

intcgrated by artistic experiences. Finally he says that

art effects a resolution, an inter-animation and a

l~alnncing o r i111l)ulscs.~9.

Tl~e ordinary experience does not eSfcct such a

resolution. Impulses consist of stimuli which induce in us

attitudes, imaginal and incipent activities or tendencies of

action. In poetry the poet embodies his experience of

bzilancing of impulses, harmony and equlibrium. Therefore,

i t has its special efect upon the reader. Before we examine

how a pocm produces an equilibrium in the mind of Lhc

reader, we may consider the general effects of the poetry

upon the readcr.

Poetry Orders Our Minds

According to Richards poetry orders our minds, makes

us happier and healthier. Poetry brings about an enlargemnt

of mind the widening of the sphere of the human

s e n ~ i b i l i t y . ~ ~ Poetry gives us a shock of discovering how

everything is n l ivc with rlcw nsl~ccts. Pot:try i:: clo::cr t o

real i ty, ;IS such i t breaks u p unreal itlcas and rcsponscs.

'It stretches our mind'. 4 l

Richards asserts that peotry makes a fuller complete

life more easy. He deplores :

"Not a tenth of the power of poetry is rclesaed

for the general benefit"42

Kichartls seems to echo Matthew Arnold wher~ he says that

poetry is c ~ p n b l e of saving us. No doubt, i t is n

perfect ly possible mcarls of overcoming chaos. I t is

because:

In Richards, as in Shelley and in the Neo-Platonic

tradition poetry has becorne indent if icd with myth

and religion or in Richards with myth deprived of

its ancient claims to truth and rcligion

stripped of its revelation doctrines$, biblical

history and any claim of knowledge. 4 3

I I I c ir~:i~:r~si L i v e L O ~ O C L I . ~ III I V C : ~ G I I C I . I L I Iy u

low imaginative life. Richards denies a work of art its

objective structure, A poem is 'a mental condition', the

whole 'state of mind'. There is nothing 'out there'. Beauty

is not inherent in physical objects, i t is a character of

some of our responses to objects. 4 4

Strata of a Poem

li icll;~~.tl:: allalyscs Ltlc c l i ficr.crlL :;l 1 r i 1 L i ~ of i~ [)OCIII

meticulously. Or1 Lt~e surface are the printed words. There

are the sounds imagined or voiced. One could feel in a poem

the presence of relatively free images. Poetry can not

dispense with references totally. But i t chiefly deals with

emotions. In a poem sound and meaning merge, meter and sense

n r c ullifictl. 1'11~ gl.ci~Lcsl L I I y is LIIIIL i t evukea

volitional attitudes. That is why it is said that a poem is

a mental state.46. In Practical Criticism Richards says

(footnote on 204) :

lllc wl~ole >:LnLc or r n i r l t l , Lhe 111er11nl corrtl i L ion,

which in another sense is the poem. Roughly the

collection of impulses which shaped the poem

originally to which i t gave expression, and to

which in an ideallysusceptible reader i t would

again give rise.

A poem is a unique experience which exists in our mind.

Richards defines n poem as a

ri class of e ~ ~ ~ e r i e r ~ c e s w h i c h rlo not differ in nrly

character more than a certain amount, varying for

each character from a standard experience. We may

take as the standard experience the relevant

experiences of the poem when contemplating the

completed c o m p o ~ i t i o n . ~ ~

A poem does not hove a specific or proper meaning. I t

is words that chuncc lo say somclhir~g. 111 "Gobdbyc arid othcr

Poclns" Richnrds wri tes :

A poem is on a page

Or in a reader's eye,

For in a poet's mind

Its freedom may engage.

For I , a pocnl, I

Myself alone can find

Myscl f ulor~e coultl bind. 4 7

It i chr~rtls corlc l utlcs Lhi~ L ci~ch r)c rsorl ur~tlcrs Lt~r~tlh 11 I)ocnl

according to his 'levels of response and width of appeal'

and that each person recrcates the experience which a poem

comprises, according to his own symbol and psyct~ological

contexts.

The theme of subjectivity is developed in regard to all

aspects of the poem. Words in poetry are free to mean as

they plerisc. Therefore Rict~ards pointed out that poclic

1 nngungc is bound to bc UIIIII iguous , For co~l~tt~ur~ i ct~ L i or1 L hc

use of metaphoric language is needed.

" A metaphor is a shift, a carrying over of a word from

its normal use to a real use"48 There are sense metaphors,

sense arising out of a similarity or analogy, betwecn the

original object and the new one. In an emotive metaphor the

shift rises out of a similarily between the feelings that

the ricw situt~tior~ nrltl <tic nortnnl sit'ltclt ion arouse.

Richards says:

" Metaphor is a semi-surreptious method by which a

greater variety of elements can be brought into

the fabric of experience". 49

With the aid of the metaphor, the poet can crowd in to

the poenl rrluch rnore than what he would be able to (lo othcr

wise. The metaphoric language brings about an inter-

re1111 ion of scrlsc, tr~nc, reel ir1g.s arlrl irltcrll ior~ wllich ilc

elaborates in 'Practical Criticism'. Every pocm is a fine

blend or sc~lue, f e e I , Lorle iirltl irllcrltiorl. I t i:;

constituted of a metaphoric language integral of emotive

language in to which the irtetrc has irtcrgctl. Mctrc cckt~

expedite the self-organisation of the mind. Initially the

poet's sensibility is stimulated by some experience which

disturbs him. The mind thus disturbed seeks a state of

balance or equilibrium. The poet organises the impulses

that are stimulated and helps them attain a balanced poise.

I L is this poisc that tie transcribes in a verbal structure.

This structure in its turn stimulates the reader. The mind

of the reader thus stimulated seeks a state of equilibrium.

Poise

I'oisc is ;~chicvcd only whcn inlpulses ilrc sulisfictl.

Richards givcs us a detailed discussion of the value of

poetry in his 'Principles of Literary Criticism'.

"We pass as a rule from a chaotic to a better

organised state by ways we know nothing about, typically

through the influences of other minds. Literature and the

arts are the chief rncilrls b y which these inl'lucnccs arc

diffused. I t should be unnecessary to insist upon the

tlcgrcc to wl~ict~ 11igt1 civi I iz(11io11, I I w free,

varied, unwasteful life deperlds upon then1 in a nurrlerous

society."50

AIIY 111 ill!: i s I I i ~ e w l c l wi l I :+111 i:sl'y 1111 I I I I L I C I I L C I I C Y

without involving the frustration of some equal or more

iniportant appenterlcy.

"That organisation which is least wasteful of

human possibilities is the best".51

The mind is a nervous system, i t is a system of

impulses as well. As the mind of the reader comes in to

contact with a poem i t experiences a stimulation and this

necessitates an adaptation or adjustment. Richards says

that thcl-c arc certair~ patLerrls i l l which organic responses

forrn themselves. Such are the emotional states of fear,

g r i c f , j o y ant1 a n g c r . The n a t u r e o f t h e m c r i t ; ~ l ,st; lLc

d e p c n r l s on t h e s t i n ~ u l u s t h a t t h e pocm provokes. T t n 1 s o

1 1 i I I I I I V I 1 I I I I I I ~ I ~ :I I i (111 i C ~ I l

t e r ~ t l e ~ ~ c y t o w h i c h t l i e m i n d i s s u s c c p t i b l c . T h c cmot i o n a l

s t a t e s e n g e n d e r e d a r e f e e l i n g s a n d n o t s c n s a t i o n s .

The rc ; l r lc r p r c c c i v c s t l ~ c poc.111, cvc11 ;I:; 11c e x p c ~ i cr1c:c:;

i L , he 11;- tc , f i n d u n ~ o d c o r n i c c t i r ~ g i t .

A s a r u l e a p r o c c c 3 s o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y c o r p l c x i t y t n k c s

p l a c e b e t w e e n p e r c e i v i n g a s i t u a t i o n f i n d i n g a mode o f

m e e t i n g i t . 5 2

The r e a d e r e n j o y s c q n n i m i t y o n l y when t h e i m p u l s e s

a r o u s e d b y t h e poem a t t a i n a s t a t e o f p o i s e , b a l a n c e , o r

e q u l i111-i urn. C t i c t a n Knr'nan i s a y s :

R i c h a r d s c o n c l u d e s t h a t e a c h p e r s o n u n d e r s t a n d s a

poem a c c o r d i n g t o i t s l e v e l s o f r e s p o n s e s a n d

w i ( 1 1 11 o r apl1ci11 f ind c a c l ~ ~ C I . S I I I I r ccrc : ; l tc : ; Lhc

c x p c r i e r ~ c e w h i c h a pocm conlpr i s e s a c c o r t l i n g t o h i s

own s y ~ n b o l i c a n d p s y c l ~ o l u g i c a l c u r l t e s t s

T l ~ o u g l ~ ;i poc111 i L ; cxc1uic.j t c a n d p o w e r f u l a r e a d e r may

m i s r e a d i t f o r v a ~ ious r e a s o n s . I n h i s ' P r a c t i c a l

C r i t i c i s m ' R i c h a r d s g i v e s u s a d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f t h e

v a r i o u s s o u r c c s o f m i s r e a d i n g .

iv. Sources of Misreading

Visceral and vascular changes produce a host or

elernerlts that go ir i to the corisciousrless. Every change of

thought is accompanied by some degrees of general organic

change. We have images of their organic sensation just as

we have changes of tastes.

The assulnption is that "I'eelirig is their bodily

sensation and imagery aroused through a complete system of

instincts by the things we think of."54

Acco~.(I i ng to t 11 i :; ~I:;SLIIII~~ i ~ 1 1 1 :i III~L:::.~ of t 11 i :; ser~?~a 1 i or1

and imagery of definite internal structure isret.erredto as

feeling or eniot ion.

Jallics Ward was of the vicw:

"we have not first a change of fecling, and then a

change in our sensation, perceptions and ideas,

but these changing, change of feeling

fol 1owsV.55

I<icl~i~r-rls L ; ~ ~ I I I S to subscribc Lo this vicw, I n

'complementarities' he says that emotions came to art in six

different ways. 5 6

The first incidence of emotion is simply as part of a

vehicle. We may have full acquaintances with the form of

a work of art. Yct wc fail to apl~rchcrld i t because our

statc of e~ind is1 cor~tcmplat ing it is irlcon~plct:;. EmoI iorls

wl~icl~ should tlirccl ly bc arouscd by Lhc form which is

necessary to apprehension of the import of the form may be

lacking.

In instances where such emotion is missing emotion may

be introduccd a:: a vchicle.

I : r i I i 1 I I i 1 w c r i l occurr;

in the nature of some imports. Most but not all of the

i ~ ~ ~ p o r t s wi Lh whicl~ a r t dcc~ls ur'ousc crllol ion wl~crl gr'ils~iccl.

The difference between the second case and the other is seen

very clearly, if we compare the emotions which acconlpany the

reading of any tragedy with the emotions which ensue as the

ilnporl of thc tl.r~gcdy i:i urlclcl':.iLootl. '1'hc r i r:11 is

constrictir~g and painfu1,the second is emotions of expansion

and rclcasc. I t is t i n1ist;ikc to conclude thiit urt ulonc crin

arouse emotion, for i t is possible to arouse emotions

imaginatively without the works of art. This may be done as

I o 01' 1 i111e111 C X C C ~ C ~ S C . 'l'hct~ wc II L L V C tl~c CIIIOL ion

which rises from a perception of the perfect fulness of

vehicle to proposition. Emotion occurs in connection with

the ease or difficulty with which we apprehend an import.

I t is true that the poem evokes emotions in the reader.

On that account we cannot conclude that there has been a

comrlluniorl of' Lhc poct's serlsibility with that of thc reader

through the poem. Richards says that many renders misread

Lhc poc~~l Lhcy clnirrl Lo hilvc ci~joycd.

Richards lists ten sources of misreading the poem. 57

Each stands in the way of enjoying the poem. First must come

the difficulty of making out the plain sense of poetry.

Readers of poetry fail to make out its prose sense, its

plain overt meaning, and equally they misapprehend iLs

feelings, its tone and its intention. Parallel to, not

uncorir~ected with Lhcse difficulties of ir~terprct ing meaning

are the difficulties of 'sensuous apprehension'. Words in

scclucncc h i ~ v c i~ I L o I r ~ i r ' : ciil. rtr~d Ltlc ir1i1111's

tongue and larynx, even when silently read they have a

moverncnt arid may havc a rhythm.

There are difficulties that are connected with the

place of imagery, chiefly poetic irrlagery in poetic readir~g.

Our capacity to visualise differs widely. But images are

erratic things, lively images aroused in one mind need have

no similarity to the equally lively images stirred by the

same line of poetry in another mind. Also such jmagcs may

have nothing to do with what must have existed in the poet's

mind. The influence of mnemomic irrelevances is also

powerful and pervasive.

Stock response is another source of misreadings. The

reader nay have formed certain views and emotions relating

lo ccrtnin things. l~le will be ablc to rend a poeni only in

the l ight or l~is [)I.(: - cor~cc ivctl r~ol. ion::. Such ::lc,t.k-.

I-csponscs i.cr~tlcr gcnuinc :ippr'eciaL iorl inlposs iblc.

Another source of misreading is sentimentality. Some

rcadcrs with over-facility move in certain crnotional

directions. Certain othel readers may be inhibited which is

described as hardness of heart, Another source of

misreading is the interferences of doctrinal loyalties such

as religion, pol i t ical, i ~ r ~ t l phi Io~~o[~hic:ll prejutli~cs.

'I'hcri Lhcre is Lhc reader's ussurnpt ion nl~out tt~c poct ic

technique, f o r cxan~ple the reildcr rntly have u likir~g for pure

rhylllc, 1)uL Lhc pocl':; corlccpt i c l r ~ t ~ i ct>y~rlc 11111y l)c c J i irc~,cnL.

Asaccording to Richards, still another source of misreading

is 1 . 1 1 ~ 1 1 c 1 1 i L i : I i~:;:-i~~~l~[>Liot~:i (111(1 1)1.io1. ~J C . I I I I I I I < I : ~ 0 1 1

the nature of poetry.

Sense, Feeli~ig, Tone and Intenst ion

Irl "PrncLical Criticism" A . Kicf~t~rds lists tllc four

distinct aspects of poetry as Sense, Feeling, Tone and

5 8 Ir~Lcr~t ion:

I t is difficult to identify and grasp feelings.

Richards says that, 'for hand1 ing feeli~ig we have nothing at

all'; with a logical machine of great scnsitivcness and

power, sense may be elucidated,the difficulty with feelings

is that thcy vanish when we turn our introspective attention

upon them. The poets express both scnsc and feelings

Lhrough mctopt~o~ . Wc have al rcady scerl what n~cti~phori c

language is, readers must be familiar with such language.

A good reader can overcome difficulties in

appreciation and experience the mental state the poet has

communi ca ted in his poem.

v . 'l't~c St~cr~.ir~glor~ Model .

I. A Richards wanted to portray the mind under the

expcricncc of art. For that he formed such scientific

expressions as impulses, attitudes, and equilibrium. These

terms helped him form an elaborate metaphor to describe

experiences. He found that i t was not possible to depict

the mental state through intelligence and so associnted

creative intuition with it.

The mind under the experience of art is an energy

system of prodigious complexity. The organising of impulse

is an extrcmely delicate process, it affects an indefinitely

large number of stable poises. Richards badly needed a

testing structure to describe this state. After a careful

study of C.S Sherrington 5 9 he devised a model patterned

after a posited feature of the human system, its integrative

action. This was chiefly a psychological approach.

S11e1.r i~]);tor] 11i111sclr W ~ I S corlscii~~~s < ) I ' L ~ I C i~~i~(Jcc~t~ccic:~

of psyct~ology. YcL its f i r i < l i r ~ e r ; on ihc wor-kir~k: (IT tl~c

IIU I I I ~ I I I I I I ~ I I ~ wc1.c IIIOL.~ scic~~tific Lhiln those 011 ar~y ottlcr

branch of knowledge.

I t was difficult to explain scientifically the process

of the reader's ident i f icat ion with the poetic expc~'ierlces

symbolised in the verbal structure. I t was far too early in

the history or Lhc scientific enquiry to be so definite

about mental action. Yet Richards found that Shcrrington's

ricuro-psychology corlstitutcd the latest research in the

field. In England, such an account of the mental action was

surc to be subtantiatcd by future research. D e h a v i ~ u r i s m ~ ~

and psycllo ;~rinlysis infnrrned by the gestalt schoo161nrici

corrected by neuro physiology62 could be utilised to

explain the mental action, but that was possible only

partially. In fact Richards himself made use of both to

somc extent in order to expound his theory which was

basically expressive nnd affective.

"Shcrrington's concept of nerve integration" writes

Jandith P.Swashy, "gave unified meaning to a host of

phenomena and processes previously discussed in

isolationM.63

According to Sir John Eccles :

I n almost cvcry respect, Sherrington's conceptual

11c:vc lol)c~~~c~~Ls wi th 1.egilrtl Lo ll~c syr~;~p:;cs tlur.irlg

the early decades of this century were on the

direct path to the present position.64

By 1920, Sherrington's concept of nerve integration had

been widely absorbed. Rechards says: " I transalated Shelley

into herringt ton"^^. Ideas expressed in poetic

phraseology by Shelley were scientifically expresed.

The Common Path Model -- ~ ~. ~

The common path model of nerve impulsee integration

enunciated by Sherrington helped Richards organise a wide

range of psychological activities and gave him the nueral

fuur~dat ion Tor. his concept of' at t i tulle i ~ r ~ t l nn anal ogue f o r

poetics of org;lrlic contextual ism. The t rilslat ion of She1 ley

i r ~ ,Lo Sherrington was itself part of w larger goal, the

co~i~l.~Ic~~~cr~tarity of itleal i sm and &losit ivisln. I t was a re-

stiitcl~ler~t o r the F:l~gl ish ror!~irnl i c values in twent ieth

century terrns.G6

Sherrington unifies his experimental data with a

thesis that animal behaviour lesults from the integrative

action u C ncrvous system. Integration begins with the

impulse, n physico - chemical event in nerve cells over

between cells (which SherringLon discovered and named

synapses) and passes into the adjacent cells and the action

con1 ir~ues.

Three billion impulses per second traverse the nervous

system in various patterns one of which is the reflex arc,

the neural path way of evolutionary responses. Reflexe-arcs

in turn are integrated to bind one part of the organism to

another part. The organism carries out but one main thing

at a time. The integrated motor nurses the infant mind,

higher conciousness merely increases thc range, thc fineness

and adaptability of motor control.67

A central idea of integrative action from which

Richards drew the structure of his model concerns the

interplay of impulses; these impulses are along their reflex

I i II I . I I < ~ ~~c~~v<iu;i :~y:~Lctl~:i It1c1 ucll I I ~ ' 1 1 1 1 Ll~c I~CEIOIII L:O:I'

of the brain.68 Claims of precedence must be settled among

the in~pulses for both activation and restraint of muscular

tissue. The actual thing in nature is not for one exciting

stimulus, to begin immediately after another ceases,

Sherrington writes :

but for an array of environmental agents acting

concurrently on the animal at any movement, to

exhibit correlative change in i t so that one or

other group of them becomes, generally by increase

in intensity, temporarily pre-potent. Thus there

dominates now this group, now that group in

turn.69

Sherrington posited a common path model to eplain how

in~pu lses are co-ordinated.

Impulses are either allied or antagonistic to one

another as they stand in competition for the path ways of

the nervous system. A common path is one on which allied

impulses travel to perform a given action, and a final

common path is the last exit rurlnir~g before the ~ ~ e r v o u s

system into the effective motor or a glandular organ. By

that point all activating impulses must be canalized and all

restrianing impulses shunted away.

Critics have pointed out the textual similarity between

Sherrington and Richards on the nature of reflex action.

Sherringtor~ says :

A simple reflex is probably u purely abstract

conception because all parts of the nervous system

111 c cor~~~cclctl Loyct t~cr ur~tl r~o pf~r L of i 1 ot,nbl y

capable of reaction without affecting and being

affccted by various other parts, and i l is a

system cerlainly never ubsolutely fit rcst. Rut the

simple reflex is convenient, if not a probable

fiction. Reflexes are of various degrees of

complexity and i t is helpful in analysing

complexes to separate from their reflex components

which we may consider apart and that as though

they wcre simple r e f l c x e ~ . ~ ~

And here is what Richards says :

In uctunl experiences single impulses or course

never occur, Even the simplest human reflexes are

very intricate bundles of naturally dependent

impulses and in any actual human behaviour the

number of simultaneous and connected impulses

occurring is beyond estimation. The simple impulse

in fact is a limit and the only impulses

psychology is concerned with are complex. I t is

often convienient to speak as though simple

impulses were in questions, as when we speak of an

impulse of hunger or impulse to laugh . . . . 7 1

IJni tary Ilarmony

Richards takes Sherrington's definition of impulse and

makes i t the instrument producing a wide variety of mental

I I I ; llul Sl~cr'ri r~ylorl rrlso S U ~ ~ C H ~ V LIrftL bctr~tvi~~ur~~~l

patterns emerge from the integration of impulse. If the

nervous system is in tact, as a result of the reactions of

the various parts of that system, the simple reflexes are

combined. They forn~ 'unitary harmonies 9 72,

I t is Sherrington's great unitary harmony on the

physical and behavioural plane that Richards interprets as

reconciliation oi behavioural acts which satisfy impulses.

This happens in consciousness. This reconciliation helps us

'to better dominate the e n v i r ~ n m e n t ' . ~ ~ Sherrington based

his neuro psychological model on Darwinian idea of evolution

Chiefly in Richards :

rlcrvc irllcp,rirlion 111. oric c~ucitrl I I i s

raised to the nth power to explain the ordinary

process of the highest mental action. He has taken

Sherrington's concept and generalised the term to

covcr. a1 1 final common paths, however colnplex and

tl~c i r co111pc1 i 1 ious rrs Lo oulco~~~es i r ~ ci ll~cr.

physical action or mental attitude.74

Richtiids r1esc1-ibcs thc pocm as n collcctiorl o f ilnpulsc:;

7 s transferred from the poet to the reader. There are

mi I lions of feelings iinpulses, mostly semi-inrlcpend;~~~t

They are trapped in a momentary structure of fabulous

complexity. They achieve an equilibrium of opposed

impulses.

According to Richards, a poem is a structure of a

fabulous complexity and this structure is the expression of

an integral mental structure. Richards' conception of a

poem, is modelled after Sherrington's integrated structure.

The roundat ions of Aesthetics wri tteri by James Ward, --- --- C.K Ogden and 1.A Richards has a beautiful structure. In

ninety two pages Richards and co-authors outline sixteen

theories of beauty. Its aim is not to bring theories into

opposition with olle ar~othcr, but by distinguishir~g thcn~ to

allow each its separate sphere of validity.

In The Foundation5of Aesthetics the authors attack the

theory of expressionism advocated by Croce with its emphasis

on intutition, feelings, form, method and end. 7 6 B y

intuition is meant the preception of poetic elcment by means

of which the value of a work is constituted. This raised

the question whether a particular intuition is art or non

art. A discussion of this question led to a tentative

answer that i t was based on one's own impression and taste.

Richards and his co-authors described their theory of

beauty as synaesthesis and not as synaesthesia which has

been common in literary usage. Synaesthesia we know is the

use of analogues between the senses, one sense replacing,

supplementing or interpreting another. 7 7 Richard's and his

co-authors selected the the word synaesthesis bringing

attention to both the scientific and philisophical tradition

to which they were heavily intlebtetl. A11 Lhc terms shrlrc

the Greek root " aesthesis" which means perception by the

senses especially by feeling, but also by seeiing, henring

etc.

The prefix 'syn' derives from the Greek 'syn' meaning

'together with'. Conaesthesis is a term which Richards

adopted in "Principles of Literary Criticism". This word

also shares the same root, but its prefix derives from the

Greek 'Koinos' rncarling conlrrlon.

The mind synthcsises from prc-existent elements and

experience a sense of wholeness and complexity 78

I t is pointed out that proponents of synaesthesia were

concerned with supplementing or combating extreme British

Associationism - ( British Associationism - This reduced

psychological activity to the association of selective

concept ions and is bnscd on ilume's phenomenal ism. Sce - A

ictionars of Philosophy, (Moscow : Progress Publications,

1 9 6 7 ) . ) with its tendency towards atomist prcccption,

feelings, ant1 sensut ion. Ward's concept of syr~i~estt~c:;is is

pivotal in the making of Richards' synaesthesis.

In Ward's philosophy, sensat ion, motor respol~ses,

feelings and idcas arc great objccls. These objects are

presented to R subject which had grcnt power of curious

allerllior~. l'tlougt~ attention is irlvolurltary in its primordiul

state attention becomes voluntary in the course of

evolutionary development. I t is drawn by whatever is

intense in the external field.

In actual experience sensations and feelings do not

exist in isolation from one another.

"Every sensation is a differentiation within a

presentational continuum of consciousness, that

partakes of thc intensity which belongs L o it".79

Ward tricd to bring Kant's axiom of intuition

into line with our present knowlegde. Axioms govern

transendental imagination that links concepts of the

understanding into the manifold data of sensuous intuition.

Ward refers to the anticipation of perception by which

Kant accounts for the "flowing character of consciousness".

I t is because of thc anticipntion of preccption that cvcry

sensilt ion arid its correspondent phenornenr~l real i ty tit tains

its intense magnitude. Though we can anticipate i t ' a

priori' we cannot know its specific empirical qualities 'a

p i o i ' As for Ward axioms help explain inter-relations of

sensations presented to consciousness.

As with visual and actual perccplion so with the

perception of feelings. Wnrd objected to the reduction of

feelings Lo absolute and identical units of feelings by

Herbert Spencer 81 and to units of sensibility by G . H Lowes

8 2 . $The analogical leap between the physical the mcntal

and the psycological was to be characteristic in Richards'

construction of his own psychological model.

In an organism's primordial state, experience has only

a vagueness and a generality to i t . However as the

premature general sensibilty or coenaesthesis develops and

as organs of sensations and faculties of perception

differentiate, we find 'new characterstics', not the lapses,

of old ones. Coenaesthestic experiences are not mixtures

nor co~i~plcx sensalioris - for sensations are single, - rather sensation - complexes. (The complex whole is greater than

the sum of its parts).

Synesthesis and Coenaesthesis

Richards synuesthesis resembles Ward's coenaesthesis in

its focus upon the conscious free subject, in the wide range

of sensations, images and feelings involved and their

movelnents about the centre. The similarity is in thc strcss

upon the synthetic, dynamic activity of the impulses, as

they are experienced together in broadening or deepening the

mood. Also there is comparison in the ideal of an

underlying tonal ~ n - i t y , ~ ~ that does riot crluse thc frccrlorn o f

the democratic particulars.

Like Ward Richards approaches synaesthesis from the

emotional and psychological sides.Scemingly he gives the

strong impression that ideas matter little or not at all:

But this impression is not right, for we have seen that

ideas and feelings are part of the poetic experience. The

three overlapping phases of Richard's concepts of

syriaesthesis are equilibrium, i,armorly ancl frcedorn.

The state of equlibrium is not one of passivity,

inertia, overstimulation, or conflict. The state may not be

dcscribcd in such terms as Nirvnrra, Ecstasy or a1 orlcrrcss

with nature.84.

The word synaesthesis covers both equlibrium and

harmony. It creates an aesthetic state in which impulses

are experienced together. In equlibrium there is no

tcn(1ellcy to action. Action is not at all the propcr outcome

of aesthetic appreciation. M'here impulses are harmonised,

they work together and such disciplined co-ordination in

action is much to be desired in other places.

In aesthetic equilibrium 85 the mind's various impulses

are systematised and intensified. This is beyond lhc range

of everyday experience. It serves as an example of order,

corriplcxi Ly ar~d coit~plclcriess for expcr icnce. The i~~ipulses

enjoy the free play of the intellect and emotions in a

complete systematisation. Such completeness means that the

mind does not feel any frustration.

I t is the sense of other needs that causes

discqulibriuri~. D u t in cquilibriun~ t h e mirrd docs not riced

anything, there is no tendency to action to supply a need.

If there is a tandency to action in a state of any type of

equilibrium that state is not related to beauty; it is a

stntc r:iusctl by somc oLl~cr s t isruliitivc.

Harmony 86 is the process by which impulses strive

together towards an end state. I t is a consciousness. For

Richards i t was easiicr to define harmony in the negative.

If the impulses in aesthetic contemplation begin to

interfere with one another, the experience breaks down.

Then the experience will not be aesthetic; if i t is

aesthetic i t will bc of a lesser aceslhctic kind.

In oscillation or dead-lock two or more conflicting

states of mind fail to resolve. The phascs nlternatc either

too rapidly or too weakly. As a result neither can claim

the other fully in aesthetic balance. In false balance only

one self-sufficient state is allowed to hold the field, the

operations are suppressed. False balance gives a sense of

completeness. So i t may be mistaken for synaesthesis.

InCensc joy or driving anger may lend lucidity, self-

possession and freedom to the mind. These states are

equally characterstic of synaesthesis. But this is not its

hall-mark for such a state may repeat itself. The mind may

even tire, the suppressed impulses will exert pressure to

distrub the harmony. This is the reason why Richards says

that his concept of equilibrium is different from that of

Wilbur M.Urban or of Ethcl D P u f f ~ r s . ~ ~

The Balance of Imi~ulse -

The balance of impulses according to Urban arises from

el i~t~irlat ion of clerncrlt s which arc unt~i~rmorlious arltl of (11 1

disturbing elements. In the thought of Ethel D. Puffers

equi 1 ibr ium and balance of forces arise through the

suppression of antagonistic impulses. Both Wilbur M. Urban

and Ethel D.Puffers have advocated a process of exclusion.

But Richards and his co-authors of The Foundationsof

Aesthetics are of the view that a true aesthetic equilibrium

requires inclusiveness and dynamic progression. At some

point i t reaches a limit, i t brings the whole personality

into paly. Balance refreshes and never exhausts. 88

Richard 11. Fogle was among the first to point out that

synacsthesisis the origin of Richards' poetry of inclusion.

In syr~i~cstllcsis uni Ly triumphs ovcr hctcrogcrli ly fir111

opposition of distinguishable impulses. If we suppress

impulses, tlle balance procluccd should bc false, and the

poetry made will be or lesser quality. In such poetry in

spite of the false balance, the sets of impulses run

parallel. I t is a lesser poetry of 'exclu~ion'.~9

The final phase of synnesthesis includes the interplay

of impulses, hcightcncd attention and distancc. This goes

under the namc of freedom.

"As we realize bcauty we become more fully ourselves

the more our impulses are engaged . . . . Our interest is

not canalised in one direction rather than another. It

becomes ready instead to take any direction we choose . . . . Si~~~ultaneously as another aspect of the same adjustmerit our

individuality becomes differentiated or isolated from

individuality of things around us. As we become more

ourselves, they become more themselves, because we are less

dependent upon the peculiar impulses which they arouse in

usw.90

This is the final stage. In the early stage as the

subject apprehends the object, the object arouses in the

subject impulses which such an object alone could have

aroused. These impulses correspond lo the in~pulses produced

in thc pact who presents thc object. 'The cxpcr icr~ccu: of

poetry that the reader gets corresponds to the cxpericncc of

the poet.

The interplay of impulses recalls Schiller's play

instinct and equipoise in 'On the Aesthetic Education of

Man' ( 1 7 9 5 ) ~ ~

Richards found Schiller's thcory of equipoise

historically analogous to and yet different from

synaesthesis . In Synaesthesis nothing excercises any force

in one direction. There is a state of readiness and we

choose the direction that we wish to take. The self becomes

more intensely aware of its individuality distancing itself

l'rou~ o t l ~ c ~ tl~i~rgs. 'I'llis again accounts both for

interpersonality and the source of freedom from any one

ditermining force. In synaesthesis one experiences a

fulness of beauty, the sense of all possibilities before

one. Equilibrium makes the reader fully alive rather than

partially alive. This constitutes synaesthesis which is

true ground plan for all aesthetic experiences.

In numerous ways, synaesthesis fore-shadows the entire

development of Richard's aesthetic theory, and psychological

criticism. I t contains the synthetic dynamic principle of

equilibrium of opposed impulses and takes into account his

notion of clarity, alterness, readiness, impersonality,

freedom, wholeness and completed being. Synnesthcsis invokes

an ordering of impulses. This is possible only if the poem

producing i t h a s an inncr u n i ty. 'T'here shou Id 1)c r ~ r l r>rgrlrr i c

i r l t c r . t ~ t ~ i ~ ~ ~ i . l L i t ~ r ~ ~ I I the pocnl, tlnd 111utua1 inter dcpcr~dcr~cc o f

the parts.

Chunv-Yung

The Confucian Chung-yung, the Doctrine of Equilibrium

and Harmony appealed to Richards. According to this

doctrine when the feelings have been stirred they act in

their due degree ; there issues what may be called, 'The

SLatc or lI;l~mi~r~y' and togcthcr they lead one the 'Way to

Heaven' . 9 2

A state of harmony as intense as this resulting from

poetic enjoyment was expounded by Abhinava Gupta and the

other Acharyas of India. We wish Richards could plumb the

depths of Rasa Sidhanta also. Nevertheless his final

statement of synaesthcsis which he has based on t h e

affective theories of the West and Western philosophy is

very much similar to the theory of 'Snnta Rasn' of Abhinavn

Gupta. 9 3

I t is our endeavour in this thesis to find out the

aesthetic areas where Richard's "Theory of Synaesthesis" and

Abhinava Gupta's "Theory of Santa Rasa" meet.

Notes

The Foundations of Aesthetics, 28.

Jonnthan Culler, Structuralist Poetics, (I.or~don :

Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1 9 7 5 ) . Refer John Paul Russo, 736.

I. A . Richards, O.K. Ogden, Meaning of Meaning

(London : Routledge & Kegan Paul, Trench Tribner, 1923).

I. A . Richards, m c u l a t i v e Instruments (London :

Routledge and Regan Paul, 1 9 5 5 ) .

I. A. Ricllclrtls, "Rcsourcefulr~css oC Word:;",

Specu_J&u.~c_ Instru~ncnts, (London : Rout ledge and Kcgan Paul, --

1 9 5 5 ) 7 4 .

I . A. Richards, "Poetry as an Instrument of

Research", Speculative Instruments, 1 4 7 .

I. A. Richards, Science and Poetry (London : Kegan

Paul-Trench, Tribner, 1 9 2 6 ) 1 3 - 1 4 , 58-61 .

I. A. I<icllnr(lb, "Poetry 11s ;1r1 1rl:;l~urllcnt o r

Rcscarch", &eculat ivg Instrulncnts (Lorltlon : Rout ledge &

Kegan Paul, 1 9 5 3 ) 1 4 8 .

I. A . Richards, 1 4 9 .

9 John Paul Russo, (Ed). 1. A. Richards,

Con~plcl~icnt_;lrit ics i r ~ Uncol lcctcd essays. (Mancl~estcr- :

Cnrcanet New Prcss, 1976) XVI.

10. U d , XVI.

I . A. Rich;lrds, "1':nrotivc 1,anguagc Still",

1 3 I . A. Rlcha~ds, C. K. Ogden, Menriing of Meilr~ir~g,

(London : Routledge & Kegan Paul) 150.

l4 1 . A. Richards, Principles of Literary Criticism,

267.

"Many arrangements of words evoke attitudes

without any refernces being made enroute. They

operate like musical phrases". I. A. Richards,

268.

Ycv[;c~iy Tlzlsin, Sc!nar~tic Phi losophy of Art, (Mo:;cow :

Progress Publishers,1979) 36. The task of staten~ents in

poetry is to act on ttie emotions, to order them and to

organize iinpulses and attitudes . . . Statements in poetry are not logical influences, logic here is subordinate to

feeliiig:~.

l 5 I. A. Richi~rds, Principles of Literary Criticism,

267.

I G 1 . A. Rictiilrds, 267.

l 7 Raman Sclden, Plato to the Prescrit, 185.

! I L ~ U _ ! ~ ~ _ ~ U . ~ G X _o_f !,Lleri~rv griticis!fi, 2rid E d n . 1 0 1 , 211 - 212.

Knman Selder~, 7'hc theory of Criticism From Plato to the

Present, 166. Kichards valued not the immediate sensations

of aestlictic cxpericnce, but ttie permanent and lasting

niodifications in the structure of the mind, which the

reading of poetry could effect.

l8 I . A . Richards, Science and Poetry (London : Kegan

Paul, Trench Tribner), 13-14, 58-61.

' 9 Raman Scldcr~, (Ed). Theory of Criticism Quotcd from

P1:lto !S tAg Preserlt, 185.

Scicncc and Poetry, 13-14, 58-61. . - -

20 Christopher Norris, "The Deconstructive Turn",

Essays in the Rhetoric of Philosophv, (London & New Yosk :

Methuen, 1984), 2.

21 I. A. Richards, Principles of Literarv Criticism,

1 3 1 .

22 Ramnn Sclden, Theory of Criticism, From P l a l o

Present, 167.

. . . . 23 I. A. ~ i c h a s d s , P r i r ~ c i p l ~ s gf LiLcrt~ry <~~_t!.c!.:;_m,

2 5 .

I . A. Richards, The Founclatior~s of Aesthetics, 33.

What has to be reproduced is what is affecting the

artist and nothing clsc. Nothirlg cluggcd f:rom sornc other

context or irrelevant experiences.

. . . 24 I. A . ~ict~r~~.tls, Ilri0c.i-eLcs of !,ltc_a-n.rx C~.:l . l .!c~s.~.,

27.

25 I . A. Kictiards, 25.

Also 'TLT Foundations of Aesthetics, 31.

26 I . A. Richards, Principles of Literary Criticism,

2 9 .

27 I. A. Richards, Principles of Literarv Criticism,

1 7 5 .

28 1 . A. Richards, 176.

I I I i !.'ri \.iic.i.snl A c ~ l l l c l i c s o11d

psy.qd!~llc~fiy (Ncw I)(: 111 i : A o 111c111un1, 1 9 7 7 ) 2 9 .

"lle agreed with the psycho analysts that our minds

are private but all the same we manage to

communicate because of all in each of every mind"

3 0 Paul DcMan, Blindness and Insight, (London : Mcthuen,lqoa

31 I . A. Richards, Principles of Literarv Criticism,

3 2 .

32 Principles of Literarv Criticism, 32.

3 3 Chetan Karani, Criticism, Aesthetics, Psychology,

2 9 .

3 4 Tolstoy, What is Art, Chapter XV, (London : Oxford

University Press, 1959) 2 2 7 .

Principles of Literarv Criticism, 1 8 7 .

Raman Sclden, Theorx of Criticism From Plato

Present, 164.

35 Tolstoy, What is Art, 2 2 8 .

36 Rcnc Wellek, Theory of Modern Criticism Vol, VI,

(London: Johnathan Bedford square) 2 2 3 .

37 I . A . Richards, Principles fi Literary criticism,

7 8 .

3 8 I . A . Richards, 7 8 .

3 9 I. A . Richards, Principles of Literary Criticism,

113.

4 0 I . A. Richards, Principles of Literarv Criticism,

67.

41 Rene Wellek, History of Modern Criticism, Vol. V I ,

223.

42 Rene Wellek, 223.

43 Rene Wellek, 223.

44 Rerie Wellek, Ilistory of Literary Criticism Vol. VI

223.

4 5 Rene Wellek, 229.

46 Chetan Karnani, Criticism Aestheties and Psychology

14.

47 Chetan Karnani, 14-15. From Goodbye & other k?CE@S

(London,1952)

48 I. A. Richards Practical Criticism, 221.

49 I.A. Richards,Principlcs of Litcrarv Criticism, 240.

- 50 I . A Richards, Princihlcs of Litera= C r i t i e ~ m ,

5 7 .

51 1 . A Richards, a c i p l e s of Literary .-am, 52.

52 I . A Richards, 102.

53 Chetan Karnani, CriticismI Aesthetics rind

rsy.c hql $)fix, 1 5 . 54 John Paul Russo, (ed) 9 Collected Essays,

~ ~ n p l , e ~ ~ ~ c ~ ~ . t ~ y . f i ~ ~ ~ . (Manchcstcr : Careilrlut New Press,

1976) 8.

55 J ~ I I I C S Ward, Psycholocicol Principles, 2 n d Ed.

(Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1920) 4 3 .

Also see Chctan Karnani, Criticism, ~esthctic and

Psychology, 7.

5 6 I . A Rich;~rds, _Comr?lell~cnt;trjties, 8,9.

57 I . A . Richards,Praclicnl Criticism (London:

R o u t 1cd::c ;1n1l Kcgnn P a u l , 1976) 13 - 17.

5 8 1 . A Richards, I'racticaJ Crilicisni i Stlldy of

Literary Judgement (London : Routledge 6 Kegan Paul, 1976)

1 8 1 .

"Four ;~:ipects can be casi ly d isl inguished. I,ct UF;

call them Sense, Tone, Feeling and Intention".

s 9 Jot111 I'aul Russo, I . A Richards,IIis I d i c e anti Works,

177.

60 Sol111 T':~ul Ru$so. R i c h n ~ l ~ llis L i Tc 2i11d Works,

178

John Paul Russo, 178.

6 2 John Paul Russo, 178.

63 .lolln P;~ul Russo, 179.

G 4 John Paul Russo, 178

G 5 .Tnllr~ I7;iuJ R 178.

" I should have made i t clear that my model was to be

1.o111111 i I I i I I L C 1 i I i r l 1'170. " I , j t ~ : . : 1

transalated Shelley into Sherrington".

Compare what Shelley says in Critical T e x t s ( 3 2 5 ) .

"nut there is a principle within the human being

. . . . . . . to the impression which excitc them"

with what Sherrington says

"Tlicre ib in thc mind of each person a prc

existing structure of the mind, the organizational

:;ysLelll o f 1)ossil)le impulses."

G 6 John Paul Russo, I .A.Richards, Iis Life and Works,

178

6 7 John Paul Russo, 180.

68 John Paul Russo, 180.

6 9 John Paul Russo, 180.

70 John Paul Russo, I, A. RichardsL IIis Life and Works,

181.

7 1 John Paul Russo, 181.

7 2 John Paul Russo, 181.

T4 John Paul Russo, 182.

75 John Paul Russo, 182.

7 6 ~ o h n Paul Russo, Richards His Life and Works, 98.

77 John Paul Russo, I.A Richards His Life and Works,

I t is pointed out by John Paul Russo that this was a sort of

Blakean overcoming of the division of senses. 101. Refer

Glenn O'Malley - Shelley and Synaesthesia (Bvansten 111 :

North Western University Press, 1964) Refer F.note 42 on

page 720 or John Paul Russo.

7 8 ~ o h n Paul Russo, I.A Richards I-Iis Life and Works,

102.

7 9 John Paul Russo, 103.

80 John Paul Russo, 103.

81 John Paul Russo, 103.

82 John Paul Russo, 104.

83 John Paul Russo, 104.

8 4 John Paul Russo, 104 - I ' . A 75.

8 5 John Paul Russo, 105.

E 6 John Paul Russo, 104.

The three overlapping faces of Richards' concept of

synaesthesis are equilibrium, harmony and freedom.

8 7 John Paul Russo, 105.

8 8 John Paul Russo..,I.h Richard's His Life and Works,

1 0 6 .

"In this regard synaesthesis, psychologises the ancient

principle of 'Concordia Discors'".

8 9 John Paul Russo, 106.

Thc Foundations Aesthetics, 7 8 .

91 John Paul Russo, I.A Richard', --- His Life and

Works, 10G.

92 John Paul Russo, 1 0 8 .

9 3 Kant i C h a r ~ d r i i Pandey, =parat ive &&ihetics, Vol

I, 249.