of i -i a i - ncerti n the seventh and eighth centuries ce, islam spread towards spain and india....
TRANSCRIPT
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IN the seventh and eighth centuries CE, Islam spread towardsSpain and India. Islam came to India, particularly, with Muslimmerchants, traders, holy men and conquerors over a passage ofsix hundred years. Although by the eighth century CE, Muslimshad begun to construct in Sind, Gujarat, etc., it was only in theearly thirteenth century that large-scale building activity begununder the Delhi Sultanate, established after the Turkish conquestof northern India.
By the twelfth century, India was already familiar withmonumental constructions in grandiose settings. Certaintechniques and embellishments were prevalent and popular, suchas trabeation (brackets, pillars and lintels) to support a flat roof ora small shallow dome. While arches were shaped in wood andstone, these were unable to bear the weight of the top structure.Now, however, the archuate form of construction was introducedgradually in which arches could support the weight of the domes.Such arches needed to be constructed with voussoirs (series ofinterlocking blocks) and fitted with keystones. The domes, restingon pendatives and squinches enabled spanning of large spacesleaving the interiors free of pillars.
A noteworthy aspect of these migrations and conquests wasthat Muslims absorbed many features of local cultures andtraditions and combined them with their own architecturalpractices. Thus, in the field of architecture, a mix of manystructural techniques, stylised shapes, and surface decorationscame about through constant interventions of acceptance,rejection or modification of architectural elements. Thesearchitectural entities or categories showcasing multiple stylesare known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.
Hindus conceived manifestations of god everywhere in multipleforms as part of their religious faith, whereas, Muslims thought ofonly one with Muhammad as their Prophet. Hence, Hindus adornedall surfaces with sculptures and paintings. Muslims, forbidden toreplicate living forms on any surface, developed their religious artand architecture consisting of the arts of arabesque, geometricalpatterns and calligraphy on plaster and stone.
SOME ASPECTS OF
INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
8
Qutub Minar, Delhi
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AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART110
TYPOLOGIES OF STRUCTURES
Keeping in mind religious and secular necessities, architecturalbuilding like mosques for daily prayers, the Jama Masjids, tombs,dargahs, minars, hammams, formally laid out gardens, madrasas,sarais or caravansarais, Kos minars, etc., were constructed overa period of time. These were thus additions in the existing typesof buildings in the sub-continent.
Architectural edifices in the Indian sub-continent, as elsewherein the world, were constructed by wealthy people. They were, indescending order, rulers and nobles and their families, merchants,merchant guilds, rural elite and devotees of a cult. In spite of theobvious Saracenic, Persian and Turkish influences, Indo-Islamicstructures were heavily influenced by prevailing sensibilities ofIndian architectural and decorative forms. A lot depended on theavailability of materials, limitations of resources and skills andthe sense of aesthetics of the patrons. Although religion andreligiosity were very important to people of medieval India, aselsewhere, they borrowed architectural elements liberally.
CATEGORIES OF STYLES
The study of Indo-Islamic architecture is conventionallycategorised into the Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate), the ProvincialStyle (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur), the Mughal Style(Delhi, Agra, and Lahore) and the Deccani Style (Bijapur,Golconda). These categories help in understanding better thespecificities of architectural styles rather than putting them inimmutable slots.
Intricate jali work,Amer Fort, Jaipur
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SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE 111
ARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCES
Amongst provincial styles, the architecture of Bengal and Jaunpuris regarded as distinct. Gujarat was said to have a markedlyregional character for patrons borrowed elements from regionaltemple traditions such as toranas, lintels in mihrabs, carvings ofbell and chain motifs, and carved panels depicting trees, for tombs,mosques and dargahs. The fifteenth century white marble dargahof Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej is a good example of provincialstyle and it heavily influenced the form and decoration of Mughaltombs.
DECORATIVE FORMS
These forms included designing on plaster through incision orstucco. The designs were either left plain or covered with colours.Motifs were also painted on or carved in stone. These motifsincluded varieties of flowers, both from the sub-continent andplaces outside, particularly Iran. The lotus bud fringe was usedto great advantage in the inner curves of the arches. Walls werealso decorated with cypress, chinar and other trees as also withflower vases. Many complex designs of flower motifs decoratingthe ceilings were also to be found on textiles and carpets. In thefourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries tiles were also usedto surface the walls and the domes. Popular colours were blue,turquoise, green and yellow. Subsequently the techniques oftessellation (mosaic designs) and pietra dura were made use offor surface decoration particularly in the dado panels of the walls.At times lapis lazuli was used in the interior walls or on canopies.Other decorations included arabesque, calligraphy and high andlow relief carving and a profuse use of jalis. The high relief carvinghas a three- dimensional look. The arches were plain and squatand sometimes high and pointed. From the sixteenth centuryonwards arches were designed with trefoil or multiple foliations.Spandrels of the arches were decorated with medallions or bosses.The roof was a mix of the central dome and other smaller domes,chatris and tiny minarets. The central dome was topped with aninverted lotus flower motif and a metal or stone pinnacle.
Pietra dura work, Agra
Dado panel on the wall,
Agra
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AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART112
MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION
The walls in all buildings were extremely thick and were largelyconstructed of rubble masonary, which was easily available. Thesewalls were then cased over with chunam or limestone plaster ordressed stone. An amazing range of stones were utilised forconstruction such as quartzite, sandstone, buff, marble, etc.Polychrome tiles were used to great advantage to finish the walls.From the beginning of the seventeenth century, bricks were alsoused for construction and these imparted greater flexibility tothe structures. In this phase there was more reliance on localmaterials.
FORTS
Building monumental forts with embattlements was a regularfeature in medieval times, often symbolising the seat of power ofa king. When such a fort was captured by an attacking army thevanquished ruler either lost his complete power or his sovereignty.This was because he had to accept the suzerainty of the victoriousking. Some examples of strong, complex edifices which stillexercise the imagination of the visitor are the forts of Chittor,Gwalior, Daulatabad, earlier known as Devgiri and Golconda.
Commanding heights were utilised to great advantage toconstruct forts. These heights gave a good perspective of theregion, strategic advantage for security, unfettered andunhindered space to make residential and official complexes whilesimultaneously creating a sense of awe in the people. Othercomplexities woven into such topography were concentric circlesAerial view,
Daulatabad Fort
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SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE 113
of outer walls as in Golconda, so that the enemy had to breachthese at all stages before getting in.
Daulatabad had several strategic devices to confound theenemy, such as staggered entrances so that gates could not beopened even with the help of elephants. It also had twin forts,one within the other but at a higher elevation and accessed by acomplex defence design arrangement. One wrong turn in thelabyrinth or complex pathway could lead to the enemy soldiergoing in circles or falling to his death several hundred feet below.
The Gwalior Fort was invincible because its steep height madeit impossible to scale. It had many habitations and usages. Babur,who did not find much merit in many things he saw in Hindustan,was said to have been overawed at the sight of the Gwalior Fort.Chittorgarh bears the distinction of being the largest fort in Asiaand was occupied for the longest length of time as the seat ofpower. It has many types of buildings including stambhas or towersto signify victory and bravery. It was replete with numerous waterbodies. Innumerable acts of heroism have been associated withthe principal people in the fort, forming the substance of many alegend. An interesting aspect associated with forts is that withinthe palace complexes stylistic and decorative influences wereabsorbed most liberally.
MINARS
Another form of stambha or tower was the minar, a common featurein the sub-continent. Two most striking minars of medieval timesare the Qutub Minar in Delhi and the Chand Minar at Daulatabad
Gwalior Fort
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AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART114
Fort. The everyday use of the minar was for theazaan or call to prayer. Its phenomenal height,however, symbolised the might and power of theruler. The Qutub Minar also came to be associatedwith the much revered saint of Delhi, KhwajaQutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
The Qutub Minar, built in the thirteenthcentury, is a 234-feet-high tapering tower dividedinto five storeys. The minar is a mix of polygonaland circular shapes. It is largely built of red andbuff sandstone with some use of marble in theupper storeys. It is characterised by highlydecorated balconies and bands of inscriptionsintertwined with foliated designs.
Chand Minar, built in the fifteenth century,is a 210- feet-high tapering tower divided intofour storeys. Painted peach now, its façade onceboasted of chevron patterning on the encaustictile work and bold bands of Quranic verses.Although it looked like an Iranian monument, it
was the combined handiwork of local architects with those fromDelhi and Iran.
TOMBS
Monumental structures over graves of rulers and royalty was apopular feature of medieval India. Some well-known examples ofsuch tombs are those of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, AbdurRahim Khan-i-Khanan in Delhi, Akbar and Itmaduddaula in Agra.According to Anthony Welch, the idea behind the tomb was eternalparadise as a reward for the true believer on the Day ofJudgement. This led to the paradisiacal imagery for tomb
Tomb of Itmaduddaula,
Agra
Chand Minar,
Daulatabad
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SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE 115
construction. Beginning with the introduction of Quranic verseson the walls, the tomb was, subsequently, placed withinparadisiacal elements such as a garden or near a body of water orboth, as is in the case of the Humayun’s tomb and the Taj Mahal,which follows the charbagh style. Surely though, such vastexpanses of structured and stylised spaces could not have beenintended only to signify peace and happiness in the next worldbut to also showcase the majesty, grandeur and might of theperson buried there.
SARAIS
A hugely interesting feature of medieval India was the sarais whichringed cities and dotted the vast space of the Indian sub-continent. Sarais were largely built on a simple square orrectangular plan and were meant to provide temporaryaccommodation to Indian and foreign travellers, pilgrims,merchants, traders, etc. In effect, sarais were public domainswhich thronged with people of varied cultural backgrounds. Thisled to cross-cultural interaction, influences and syncretictendencies in the cultural mores of the times and at the level ofthe people.
STRUCTURES FOR COMMON PEOPLE
One of the architectural features of medieval India was also acoming together of styles, techniques and decorations in publicand private spaces of non-royal sections of the society. Theseincluded buildings for domestic usage, temples, mosques,khanqahs (hermitage of Sufi saints) and dargahs, commemorativegateways, pavilions in buildings and gardens, bazaars, etc.
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DU
AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART116
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117SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
Th
e c
ity o
f M
an
du
is locate
d s
ixty
miles fro
m In
dore
, at
an
ele
vati
on
of over
2000
feet
an
d o
verl
ooks t
he M
alw
a P
late
au
to t
he n
ort
h a
nd t
he N
arm
ada v
alley t
o t
he
sou
th.
Man
du
’s n
atu
ral
defe
nce e
ncou
raged c
on
sis
ten
t h
abit
ati
on
s b
y P
arm
ara
Rajp
uts
, A
fgh
an
s a
nd M
ugh
als
. A
s th
e c
apit
al cit
y o
f G
hau
ri D
yn
asty
(1401–1561)
fou
nded b
y H
osh
an
g S
hah
it
acqu
ired a
lot
of
fam
e.
Su
bsequ
en
tly,
Man
du
was
associa
ted w
ith
th
e r
om
an
ce o
f S
ult
an
Baz
Bah
adu
r an
d R
an
i R
upm
ati
. Th
eM
ugh
als
resort
ed t
o it
for
ple
asu
re d
uri
ng t
he m
on
soon
season
.M
an
du
is a
typic
al re
spre
sen
tati
on
of th
e m
edie
val pro
vin
cia
l sty
le o
f art
an
darc
hit
ectu
re. It
was a
com
ple
x m
ix o
f off
icia
l an
d r
esid
en
tial-
cu
m-p
leasu
re p
ala
ce,
pavilio
ns, m
osqu
es, art
ific
ial re
serv
oir
s, b
aolis, em
batt
lem
en
ts, etc
. In
spit
e o
f th
esiz
e o
r m
on
um
en
tality
, th
e s
tru
ctu
res w
ere
very
clo
se t
o n
atu
re, desig
ned in
th
esty
le o
f arc
hed p
avilio
ns,
ligh
t an
d a
iry,
so t
hat
these b
uildin
gs d
id n
ot
reta
inh
eat.
Local sto
ne a
nd m
arb
le w
ere
used to g
reat advan
tage. M
an
du
is a
fin
e e
xam
ple
of arc
hit
ectu
ral adapta
tion
to t
he e
nvir
on
men
t.Th
e R
oyal E
ncla
ve locate
d in
th
e c
ity c
om
pri
sed th
e m
ost com
ple
te a
nd r
om
an
tic
set of b
uildin
gs, a c
luste
r of pala
ces a
nd a
tten
dan
tstr
uctu
res, offic
ial an
d r
esid
en
tial, b
uilt aro
un
d tw
oart
ific
ial
lakes.
Th
e H
indola
M
ah
al
looks like a
railw
ay v
iadu
ct
bri
dge w
ith
its
dis
pro
port
ion
ate
lyla
rge b
utt
resses s
upport
ing th
e w
alls. Th
is w
as th
eau
die
nce h
all o
f th
e S
ult
an
an
d a
lso th
e p
lace w
here
he s
how
ed h
imself to h
is s
ubje
cts
. B
att
er
was u
sed
very
eff
ecti
vely
to g
ive a
n i
mpre
ssio
n o
f sw
ingin
g(H
ind
ola
) w
alls.
Jah
aaz
Mah
al
is a
n e
legan
t tw
o-s
tore
y ‘
sh
ip-
pala
ce’ b
etw
een
tw
o r
eserv
oir
s, w
ith
open
pavilio
ns,
balc
on
ies overh
an
gin
g th
e w
ate
r an
d a te
rrace.
Bu
ilt
by S
ult
an
Gh
iyasu
ddin
Kh
ilji it
was p
ossib
lyu
sed a
s h
is h
are
m a
nd a
s t
he u
ltim
ate
ple
asu
rea
nd
recrea
tio
na
l reso
rt.
It
h
ad
a
co
mp
lex
Hin
dola
Ma
ha
l
Hosh
an
g S
ha
h’s
tom
b
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AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART118
Jama Masjid, Mandu
arrangement of watercourses and a terraceswimming pool.
Rani Rupmati’s double pavilionperched on the southern embattlementsafforded a beautiful view of the Narmadavalley. Baz Bahadur’s palace had a widecourtyard ringed with halls and terraces.
A madrasa called Asharfi Mahal nowlies in ruins. Hoshang Shah’s tomb is amajestic structure with a beautiful dome,marble jali work, porticos, courts andtowers. It is regarded as an example ofthe robustness of Afghan structures, butits lattice work, carved brackets andtoranas lend it a softer hue.
The Jama Masjid of Mandu was built on a large scale to accommodatemany worshippers for Friday prayers. It is entered through a monumentalgateway, topped with a squat dome, beyond which lies an open courtyardflanked with columned cloisters on three sides, also topped with smallerdomes. The building is faced with red sandstone. The mimbar in the QiblaLiwan is supported on carved brackets and the mihrab has a lotus budfringe.
Provincial style architecture of Mandu is regarded as too close to thestructures of Imperial Delhi to make a bold statement of local traditions.Nevertheless, the so-called robust, austere Pathan architecture of Manduwith its surface embellishments of jalis, carved brackets, etc., and thelightness of the structures was an important intervention in the narrativeof the Indo-Islamic architectural experience.
Jahaaz Mahal , Mandu
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119SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
From 1632 onwards it took nearly twenty years
and 20,000 specialised workers to complete this monument.
TAJ MAHAL
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AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART120
Taj Mahal was built in Agra by Shah Jahan as
a mausoleum for his deceased wife MumtazMahal. Taj Mahal was the apogee of theevolutionary architectural process in medievalIndia.
The sublimity of the building comes fromits orderly, simple plan and elevation,amazingly perfect proportions or symmetry, theethereal quality marble has lent to it, theperfect setting of bagh and river and the pureoutline of the tomb silhouetted against the sky.The patina the Taj has lends it a different hueat various times of day and night.
The Taj complex is entered through amonumental red sandstone gateway theopening arch of which beautifully frames themausoleum. The tomb is laid out in a ChaharBagh, criss-crossed with paths and watercourses, interspersed with pools and fountains.The structure is placed on the northernextremity of the bagh instead of the middle totake advantage of the river bank.
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121SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
A straight path through the baghreaches the plinth of the tomb from whereis accessed the floor terrace of the edifice.At the corners of the terrace stand four tall,tapering minarets, one hundred and thirty-two feet high. The main body of the buildingis topped with a drum and dome and fourcupolas forming a beautiful skyline. Theplinth, the walls of the structure and thedrum-dome are in perfect proportion to oneanother. Towards the west of the whitemarble-faced tomb lies a red sandstonemosque and a similar construction in theeast to maintain balance. Marble for thebuilding was quarried from the Makranamines in Rajasthan and this white edificeis contrasted with the red sandstone of thesurrounding structures.
The tomb structure is a square withchamfers forming eight sides, recessed withdeep arches. This structural stylisationproduces in the elevation of the building avariety of contrasting planes and shade andsolids and voids effects. All sides of thebuilding, the twin elevations of floor to roofand roof to pinnacle, atop the foliated crestof the dome, measure 186 feet each.
The interior arrangements of themausoleum consist of a crypt below and avaulted, octagonal tomb chamber above, witha room at each angle, all connected withcorridors. Light to every part of the buildingis obtained by means of carved andperforated jalis, set in the arched recessesof the interior. The ceiling is as high as thefaçade creating a void with the help of adouble dome.
Four types of embellishments have beenused with great effect for the interior andexterior surfaces of the Taj Mahal. Theseare stone carvings in high and low reliefon the walls, the delicate carving of marbleinto jalis and graceful volutes (spiralornament on the pillar), and the creationof arabesques with pietra dura (yellowmarble, jade and jasper) on walls andtombstones and geometric designs withtessellation. Lastly, the art of calligraphyis used with the inlay of jasper in whitemarble to write Quranic verses. Calligraphyprovided a decorative element on the wallsand a continuous connection withthe Almighty.
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AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART122G
OL G
UM
BA
D
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123SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
Gu
mbad i
s s
itu
ate
d i
n B
ijapu
r in
th
e B
ijapu
r D
istr
ict
of
Karn
ata
ka.
It i
s t
he
mau
sole
um
of M
uh
am
mad A
dil S
hah
(1626–1656), th
e s
even
th S
ult
an
of th
e A
dil
Sh
ah
i D
yn
asty
of B
ijapu
r (1
489–1686). B
uilt
by t
he r
ule
r h
imself, it
is a
str
ikin
gedific
e in
spit
e o
f bein
g u
nfin
ish
ed. Th
e t
om
b is a
com
ple
x o
f bu
ildin
gs s
uch
as a
gate
way,
a N
aqqa
r K
ha
na,
a m
osqu
e a
nd a
sa
rai
locate
d w
ith
in a
larg
e-w
alled
gard
en
.Th
e G
um
bad is a
mon
um
en
tal squ
are
bu
ildin
g t
opped w
ith
a c
ircu
lar
dru
mover
wh
ich
rests
a m
aje
sti
c d
om
e, giv
ing t
he b
uildin
g its
nom
en
cla
ture
. It
is b
uilt
of dark
gra
y b
asalt
an
d d
ecora
ted p
laste
rwork
. E
ach
wall o
f th
e tom
b is o
ne h
un
dre
dan
d t
hir
ty-f
ive f
eet
lon
g a
nd o
ne h
un
dre
d a
nd t
en
feet
hig
h a
nd t
en
feet
thic
k.
Wit
h t
he d
rum
an
d t
he d
om
e, th
e b
uildin
g r
ises t
o a
heig
ht
of over
two h
un
dre
dfe
et.
Th
e tom
b h
as o
nly
on
e s
qu
are
ch
am
ber
an
d th
e d
om
e, w
ith
a d
iam
ete
r of on
eh
un
dre
d a
nd t
wen
ty-f
ive f
eet,
it
covers
an
un
inte
rru
pte
d f
loor
space o
f 18,3
37
squ
are
feet,
th
e s
econ
d larg
est
in t
he w
orl
d.
Th
e t
om
b c
ham
ber
con
tain
s t
he b
uri
al
pla
ce o
f th
e S
ult
an
, h
is w
ives a
nd
oth
er
rela
tives, w
hile th
eir
real gra
ves lie
perp
en
dic
ula
rly b
elo
w in
a v
au
lt, accessed
by s
tair
s. Th
e h
em
isph
eri
cal m
ason
ry d
om
e o
ver
a s
qu
are
base w
as c
on
str
ucte
d w
ith
th
e h
elp
of pen
den
tives. Th
ese p
en
den
tives
not on
ly len
t sh
ape to th
e d
om
e b
ut als
o tra
nsfe
rred its
weig
ht to
th
e w
alls b
elo
w. N
ew
vau
ltin
g s
yste
ms c
on
sis
tin
g o
f arc
h-n
ets
or
ste
llate
form
s in
squ
inch
es w
ere
cre
ate
d t
o c
over
an
gle
s form
ed b
y in
ters
ecti
ng a
rch
es.
Th
e b
uildin
g h
as a
n a
mazi
ng a
cou
sti
cal syste
m. A
lon
g t
he d
rum
of th
edom
e th
ere
is a
wh
isperi
ng g
allery
wh
ere
sou
nds g
et m
agn
ifie
d a
nd e
ch
oed
man
y t
imes o
ver.
At
the fou
r corn
ers
of th
e b
uildin
g a
re s
even
-sto
reyed o
cta
gon
al spir
es
or
min
are
t-like t
ow
ers
. Th
ese t
ow
ers
hou
se s
tair
cases l
eadin
g t
o t
he t
op
dom
e. Th
e d
rum
of th
e d
om
e is d
ecora
ted w
ith
foliati
on
. A
heavily b
rackete
dcorn
ice r
esti
ng o
n c
orb
els
is a
dis
tin
cti
ve featu
re o
f th
e facade.
Gol
Gu
mbad i
s a
fin
e c
on
verg
en
ce o
f m
an
y s
tyle
s l
ocate
d i
n m
edie
val
Ind
ia.
Mon
um
en
tali
ty,
maje
sty
an
d gra
nd
eu
r, in
tegra
l asp
ects
of
the
arc
hit
ectu
ral experi
en
ce in
In
dia
, are
associa
ted w
ith
bu
ildin
gs o
f B
ijapu
r.W
hile its
str
uctu
ral part
icu
lari
ties o
f dom
e, arc
hes, geom
etr
ic p
roport
ion
san
d load b
eari
ng tech
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AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART124
JAMA MASJID
Large mosques, spanning hugespaces, also dotted the landscape ofthe Indian sub-continent in medievaltimes. Congregational prayers wereheld here every Friday afternoonwhich required the presence of aminimum of forty Muslim maleadults. At the time of prayers(on Fridays) a Khutba was read outin the name of the ruler and his lawsfor the realm were also read out. Inmedieval times, a city had one JamaMasjid, which along with itsimmediate surroundings became the
focus of the lives of the people, both Muslim and non-Muslim.This happened because a lot of commercial and cultural exchangeswere concentrated here besides religious and indirect politicalactivity. Generally, such a mosque was large with an opencourtyard, surrounded on three sides by cloisters and the QiblaLiwan in the west. It was here that the mihrab and the mimbar forthe Imam were located. People faced the mihrab while offeringprayers as it indicated the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca.
Jama Masjid, Delhi
Minaret
Mihrab
Qibla
Aisles Tank
Maqsur
Screen
Courtyard
(Sahn)
Colisters
(Liwan)
Main
Entrance
Plan of Jama Masjid
N
S
EW
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ART OF THE INDUS VALLEY 125
EXERCISE
1. What do you understand by the term ‘Indo-Islamic’ or ‘Indo-
Saracenic’ architecture? Can you think of another nomenclature?How did this architecture evolve in India?
2. What types of buildings were added in India in the thirteenthcentury?
3. Name four styles of Indo-Islamic architecture.
4. What was the significance of a fort in medieval India? What werethe strategic devices adopted in the construction of forts to confuseor defeat the enemy?
5. Which forms of secular architecture evolved during medievaltimes? What significance did these buildings have in the socio-cultural lives of contemporary people?
6. How does Mandu showcase the fact that humans adapt to theirenvironment?
7. In spite of being unfinished how does Gol Gumbad symbolise thegrandeur and majesty of Indo-Islamic architecture?
8. Which are the places where the dead are buried? How do thesediffer from each other?
9. Why is the word ‘perfection’ associated with the Taj Mahal?
PROJECT
A. Period-Region-Political Association
E. Decorative formson the structure
Have you
visited any
medieval structure
in your locality/
region/country?
Document the
following aspects
of the structure:
F. Materials usedfor constructionof the structure
D. Architecturalforms locatedin the structure
C. Purpose ofthe structure
B. Typology of thestructure–Secular/Religious
H. The presentlocation andstatus of thestructure.
G. Is it conserved?Should it beconserved?
SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
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AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART126
GLOSSARY
Agate A fine-grained variegated chalcedony, itscolours arranged in stripes, blended in clouds,or showing moss like forms
Amalaka Ribbed, lenticular or globoid part resembling theamala (Indian gooseberry fruit) crowning the topof the North Indian style shikhara
Anda Semi-circular structure typically used forBuddhist stupa
Arabesque An ornamental design consisting of intertwinedflowing lines, leaves and flowers, a feature ofthe Indo-Islamic architecture
Ardhmandap Semi-hall in front of garbhagriha of the temple
Ashtadikpalas Guardians of the eight directions
Ayudhas Weapons
Batter Slope in the wall
Bodhisattva In Buddhism, Bodhisattva refers to the previousbirths of Gautam Buddha
Bosses Circular embossed decorations, usually in stoneof contrasting colours located on either side ofan arch and within the spandrels
Buddhism A religion originated in the sixteenth centuryBCE with the preachings of Buddha
Burin A pointed tool of flint or stone with a transverseedge made by the removal of one or more flakes.Used for working bone, antler and ivory, and,perhaps, for engraving
CE Common Era, replacing AD or Anno Domini(Era of the Lord)
Calligraphy The art of producing decorative handwriting
Caturasra Square
Chhatra Umbrella-like structure on top of the stupa
Chhatri Cupola resting on four pillars with a dome orpyramid-shaped roof
Chahar Bagh A square, walled garden divided into four byintersecting water channels
Chaitya Arch Semi-circular arch with pointed tip in the centretowards the top
Chaitya Place of congregation and worship
Chakra Wheel, a symbol used for Buddha’s first sermonat Sarnath
Chamfer To cut off the edge or corner, thereby, increasingthe number of sides
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GLOSSARY 127
Chert A flint-like material, usually black or darkbrown in colour. Although it has a conchoidalfracture like flint it is not so fine-textured
Chevron Patterning V-shaped patterns
Corbel The stone or wooden bracket laid horizontallyto support a cornice or an arch
Cornice A moulded roof-line
Crystal A high quality, clear, colourless glass or anobject, especially a vessel or ornament, madeof such glass
Dado panel Lower part of the interior wall when it is finisheddifferently from the rest of the wall. Someexcellent examples are Hoyasal temples ofHalebid, Jamali Kamali tomb in Mehrauli andTurkish Sultan’s palace in Fatehpur Sikri, Agra
Dargah Shrine of a Sufi saint, where the saint’s gravecalled mazar is located
Dhammachakrapravartan First sermon by Buddha at Sarnath nearVaranasi
Dravid Normally used for people, culture, language andarchitectural style of South India
Dressed stone Stone which is cut to size and polished
Encaustic tile work Inlay in ceramics
Faience Blue-coloured artificial glass-like material.Faience was used in a variety of ornaments andpieces of jewellery
Gahapati Big land-owner or big farmer involved in farmingand trade
Garbhgriha Sanctum sanctorum
Gopuram Main gateway; the storeyed structure over theentrance or entrances through the enclosingwalls to the premises of a temple
Harmika Small square fencing atop the anda orsemi-circular dome of stupa
Imam The person who leads a Muslim congregationin prayers. Over a passage of time, this positionbecame hereditary
Intaglio The process of cutting a design into the surfaceof a small hard stone or gem
Jagmohan Rectangular or square hall in front of asanctuary or main temple — a term used fortemple architecture of Odisha
Jainism One of the most ancient religions, it is a path ofvictory (jina) over life’s stream of rebirthsthrough ethical and spiritual practices.
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AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART128
Jali Ornamental, perforated lattice screens witharabesques, star motifs and other geometricdesigns such as pentagons, hexagons, octagonsand circles
Jasper A variety of quartz that may be red, yellow orbrown; long used for jewellery andornamentation
Jataka Stories of the previous births of Buddha
Jati Caste
Kalash Wide-mouthed pot; ornamental pot-designdecorating the shikhara of a temple
Keystone A central stone at the summit of an arch
Kos minar Distance marker or milestone in the shape andsize of a tower
Kuta A shrine of square plan
Lapis lazuli A rich blue semi-precious stone. The mainsource in the ancient world was the mountainsof Badakshan, northern Afghanistan, fromwhere it was traded widely. Lapis lazuliwas used as inlay in ornaments, jewellery,seals, etc.
Linga Phallus, the form in which Lord Shiva is beingworshipped
Mahamandapa Big hall in the temple
Mahaparinibban Death of Lord Buddha — liberating him fromthe cycle of life and death
Mandap Hall
Maqbara Mausoleum or tomb
Medallion Circular discs in the spandrels of archesdecorated with motifs or calligraphy
Mihrab Prayer niche indicating the direction of Mecca
Mimbar Stepped pulpit in the Jama Masjid or Fridaymosque from where the Khutba was read
Mukhlinga Phallus with face
Multiple foliations Many curves in an arch
Mural Paintings made on the walls of caves, buildingsor temples in Fresco or any other style
Nagara North Indian style temple architecture
Naqqar khana Drum house from where ceremonial music wasplayed which was usually situated over the gate.It was a popular feature in Mughal palace-complexes
Natyamandapa Dancing hall in front part of the temple
or Rangmandapa
Panchayatana Main temple surrounded by four sub-shrinesin each corner
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GLOSSARY 129
Pendentive A triangular bracket in the angle of two walls,connecting the base of the dome to itssupporting arches
Phamsana A buildings/ temple which tends to be broaderand shorter than Latina type
Pietra-dura Pictorial mosaic work using semi-preciousstones. Found on walls, cenotaphs and marblejalis in the Taj Mahal
Polychrome An object or a work composed of or decorated inmany colours
Pradakshina Circumambulation
Qibla Liwan The wall of the mosque in the direction of Mecca
Qila-i Kuhna Masjid Built by Humayun or Sher Shah between 1530and 1545, it is located inside Purana Qila inDelhi
Quartz A variety of stone found in many parts of theworld and variously used for toolmaking and inceremonial contexts. Varieties of quartz includeagate, chalcedony, chert, flint, opal and rockcrystal
Rekhaprasad or This type of temple has square shikhar at theLatina base and its walls curve slowly inward towards
the top
Rupkar/Shilpi Artisan
Sabha Mandapa Assembly hall
Saracenic A style of architecture popular with Muslims inWest Asia particularly from the eleventh to thefourteenth century
Sarai Dharamshala or a traveller’s lodge
Shala ayatasara Elliptical
Shikhar Superstructure above the garbhagriha in thenorth Indian style of temple
Shilpa texts Ancient Indian texts/manuals describing theelements and principles of art and architectureto be practised by artists
Shraman A Buddhist or Jain sect, whose followers usedto wander from place to place
Sovereignty The authority of a ruler/state to govern himself/itself absolutely independently
Spandrels The almost triangular space between two sidesof the outer curves of an arch and a rectangularenclosure
Squinch An arch spanning the corners of a squarechamber and acting as support for a dome
Steatite A greyish or greenish stone, which is generallysoft and can easily be worked to make figurines,vessels, seals and other objects
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AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART130
Stellate Arch nets arranged in a radiating pattern likethat of a star
Sthapati Architect
Stupa A mound-like structure containing relics ofBuddha or Buddhist monks worshipped byBuddhists
Stucco A fine plaster used for coating wall surfaces
Suzerainty A sovereign/state having some control overanother ruler/state who/that is internallyautonomous
Tablet A regularly shaped, separate panel, or arepresentation thereof, often bearing aninscription or image
Terracotta Literally, ‘baked earth’ mainly used to refer tofairly coarse, porous clay that, when fired,assumes a colour ranging from dull ochreto red
Tessellation Decoration on walls and floors with mosaic
Torans Carved, serpentine-shaped ceremonialgateways
Trefoil Three curves in an arch
Turquoise A semi-precious stone, sky blue to pale greenin colour, highly prized for its use in jewelleryby many ancient cultures
Valabhi Sub-type of nagara temple
Vanga Ancient name of the Bengal region
Varna Four-fold division of the society based onprofession i.e. Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya,Shudra during ancient India
Vesara Term used for the independent style of thetemple during the time of the Chalukyas ofKarnataka. It consists of a combination of thenorthern (nagara) and southern (dravida) styles
Vihara Place of residence of Buddhist monk
Vijanain Temples having a rectangular building with aroof that rises into a vaulted chamber
Viman Superstructure over the garbhagriha of shrinein the south Indian temples
Volute A scroll or spiral ornament on a pillar
Voussoir A wedge-shaped or tapered stone used toconstruct an arch
Vritta Circular
Yakshas/Yakshanis Demi-gods and demi-goddesses — protectors of
nature and resources
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GLOSSARY 131
NOTES
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NOTES
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