OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS

PSYCHOLOGY

GENERAL LEARNING OUTCOMES

* Evaluate psychological research (through theories and studies) relevant to the study of human relationships.

* Distinguish between altruism and pro-social behavior

* Evaluate research investigating altruism.

* Explain cross-cultural differences in pro-social behavior.

* Evaluate research investigating bystanderism

Socio-cultural PsychologyVocabulary

Norms (social) Diffusion of responsibilitySelf-serving biasJust-world hypothesisNeed for achievement

(nAch)CultureConversational distanceMonochronic culture

Individualist cultureCollectivist cultureSocial identityEthnic identityAcculturationCulture-free testsCulture-fair testsStereotype threatEthnocentrism

1) SOCIAL BEHAVIORS

A) Pro-social behaviorBehavior that benefits another person or has positive social consequences.

-does not consider motivation

B) Helping behaviorBehavior that intentionally helps or benefits another

person (“making a difference”)

C) AltruismOne helps another person for no reward and even at

some cost to oneself.

REALLY?What is your motivation for participating in CAS?

C) Altruism (cont’d)1: Biological altruism (evolutionary)

a) Kin selection theory* closer relationship = greater chance* selfish or unselfish?* Dawkins (1976) survival of genes

b) reciprocal altruism theory* expectation of returned favor* mutual cooperation = survival

ie: The prisoner’s dilemma

BE A THINKER:Answer the following questions

To what extent is “reciprocal altruism” part of politics?(Use issues like the regulation of the economy or protection of

the environment as examples)(or think of your own)

C) Altruism (cont’d)1: Psychological altruism (cognitive)

Batson et al. (1981)“Carol”

a) negative-state relief model* reduces OUR stress

b) empathy-altruism model* personal distress (anxiety & fear)

leads to: egoistic helping* empathic concern (sympathy, compassion)

leads to: altruistic behavior

Imitation promotes helping (Van Baaren et al. 2004)

READ “John Rabe: a good Nazi?” (pg 263)Answer the following questions

1. To what extend could Rabe’s actions to save theChinese workers be classified as “altruism”?

2. What other explanations can you think of for his behavior?

D) Pro-social behavior and the bystander effect

Answer this question:1. What are the factors that make some people more

likely to help than others?

Read: “The Good Samaritan” Bateson & Darley (1973) pg 2641. What concerns do you have about how the study was

conducted?2. Do you think the results could be applied cross-

culturally? Why or why not?

D) Pro-social behavior and the bystander effect cont’d

1) Bystanderism (not helping someone in need of help)ex. Kitty Genovese

a. Diffusion of responsibility=People are generally more likely to help when they are

the only person available to offer assistance=believing that someone else will help(Latane’ and Darley 1968)

b. Pluralistic ignorance=looking to others to know how to react.(informational social influence)(Latane’ and Darley 1969)

D) The Bystander Problem – Harm can also come from inaction. (Kitty Genovese)

1) Experimentation

a) Studies on bystander intervention problems

b) The more bystanders in a group, the slower they were to respond

c) Diffusion of responsibility1) Weakening of each group member’s obligation to help2) Conformity

d) Training1) Knowledge of CPR, first aid, even the “bystander effect”

e) Ask for Help1) Let others know you need help

2) Reduce ambiguity

Read the two studies done by Latane’ & Darleyon bystanderism (pgs 264 & 265)Answer the following questions

1. Outline two ethical considerations in the experiments described here.

2. Do these considerations affect the way that the results of the experiments were interpreted?

3. Do you think that the research can be justified? Why or why not?

Support your argument.

E) arousal-cost-reward model of pro-social behavior

1. social exchange theory = human relationships are based on a subjective cost-benefit analysis

2. arousal-cost-reward model = emphasizes the interaction of mood and cognition in determining behavior

Arousal factor:arousal is unpleasant and bystander is motivated to reduce it

Cost-reward factor:assessing possible costs and rewards associated with helping or

not

Pillavin: arousal can be reduced in a number of ways

Means motivation to help is not altruistic but in order to reduce unpleasant feelings of arousal.

F) Social norms in pro-social behavior

1. Socials norms either positive OR negative influence on helping

ReligionFamily matters (65% vs 19%)

Can changing social norm change helping behavior?

G) Cross-cultural research on pro-social behavior1. Culture does play a role in helping behavior2. Structure of family

U.S. children scores lowestDifferences correlated with children’s

involvement in responsibilities of family life.3. Social Identity Theory = we tend to provide more

help to those whom we perceive similar to ourselves – our IN- GROUP

1. Do you think passers-by felt empathy for the people in the pillory?

2. What would the example of the pillory suggest about the role of social norms in relation to pro-social behavior?

3. Using social-identity theory what would thereaction of the passers-by be?

G) Cross-cultural research on pro-social behavior cont’d

3. Social identity theory cont’d

more likely to help own ethic group (Katz)

4. Population densityLevine U.S. * people in small and medium cities in

south-east most helpful* people in large north-eastern & west

coast cities were least likely to help* BEST PREDICTOR = POPULATION

DENSITYINT. * highest-ranking in Latin America

* highest helping rate in countries with low economic productivity

* higher in cities with slow-paced lifestylesStudies show that where a person was raised has less effect on

helping than the place where they currently live

D) arousal-cost-reward model of pro-social behavior cont’d

Questions to consider:

Can we translate behaviors across cultures?

Why do some people refuse to help?

Why is cross-cultural research on helping behavior difficult?

LEARNING OUTCOMESInterpersonal Relationships

• Discuss the interaction of biological, cognitive and sociocultural factors in human relationships

• Examine biological, psychological and social origin of attractionDiscuss the role of communication in maintaining relationships

• Explain the role that culture plays in the formation and maintenance of relationships

• Analyze why relationships may change or end

1) Interpersonal Relationships

Abraham Maslow: “there is a basic human need to belong and to be accepted by others.”

Research indicates:

* Married people are happier and healthier than those who are single (Steinhauser 1995)

* Those who are happily married have immune systems that ward off infections more effectively than people in troubled marriages (Kiecolt 1987)

* Chronic loneliness increased gene activity linked to inflammation (Steven Cole 2007)

1) Interpersonal Relationships

What is a close relationship?

“a relationship involving strong and frequent interdependence in many domains of life. (Interdependence means that each partner’s thoughts, emotions and behavior influence the other’s)

What about a “loving” relationship?

How do we define “LOVE”?a) passionate love

complete absorption in another that includes sexual

feelings and intense emotion.b) companionate love

warm, trusting, tolerant affection for another whose life is deeply intertwined with one’s own

1) Interpersonal Relationships

What about a “loving” relationship? cont’d

Passionate love gradually replaced by companionate love

* women need to continue to feel “sparks” of passionate love

Triangular theory of love (Sternberg 1988)

Three ingredients in love:

1) Passion = erotic attraction

2) Intimacy = warmth, sharing feelings & confidences

3) Commitment = dedication to putting this relationship first in one’s life in spite of difficulties and costs

Triangular theory of love (Sternberg 1988) cont’d

Different types of love:

a) Romantic love – high on passion & intimacy, low on commitment

b) Infatuation – high on passion, not developed into intimacy or commitment

c) Complete love – involves all three: passion, intimacy & commitment

Liking & friendship are characterized by intimacy but not by passion & commitment

How do you keep a relationship alive?a) Both partners must see it as rewarding and

equitableb) Both must feel that , over the long run, they are

getting something out of the relationship – not just giving

c) Communication must be open, ongoing & mutually validating

d) Have five times more positive interactions than negative ones

e) Know how to deal with conflictf) Each must take responsibility for their own identity,

self-esteem & commitment to the relationship.

Find 10 participants of different ages, genders and cultures and ask them “What constitutes love?”

Is there a difference between the different groups? (due__________)

Biological origin of attractionAll animals including humans behave similarly when

attracted!

Overwhelming sense of love is actually a chemical process hardwired into our brain:a) adrenalin:

* makes your heart race, palms sweaty, mouth dry

* Stress hormone results in high energy, less need for sleep & food = more focused on potential mateb) serotonin:

* low levels of serotonin in new lovers equivalent to those with OCDc) blood flow in the brain:

* brain’s reward system was activated by the picture of their beloved

* more passionate love = more rewards

Biological origin of attraction cont’dRole of hormones in bonding and attachment behavior

a) Oxytocin * released (both men & women) during touching and

sex* tends to deepen and intensify feelings of

attachment* also released during childbirth

b) Vasopressin* released during sex* plays role in males’ attachment

Biological origin of attraction cont’dEvolutionary explanations

a) jealousy* related to menstrual cycle

oestrogen low = more sexual jealousyoestrogen high = more emotional jealousy

b) pathogen stress (parasites population is exposed to)* increases = polygyny increases (males have more

than one partner)* increases = more unmarried men* increases = physical attractiveness more important

to women

Consider this:Some sociobiologists argue that monogamy is not a natural human behavior. Unfaithfulness may be beneficial to bothSexes. The male increases his chances of passing on his

genes; the female has the opportunity to have a betterCombination of genes, while still having the current loyal

partner to raise the child.Does the argument that this is a natural and logical

behavior mean that it is moral?Why or why not?

Cognitive origin of attractionPerception and social cognition

a) attraction-similarity model (Morry 2007)similar to us = more attractive (Markey, et al. 2007)

(we even assume others who are similar will like US)similar to us = validation of opinions and boosts self-esteemself-esteem and choosing a partner (Kiesler & Baral

1970)attraction can foster similarity (Davis & Rusbult

201)

b) Reciprocity:relationships depend on perception of rewards and

costs. * self-enhancement – partner makes one feel good * self-verification – seek feedback that matches

and supports self concepts

Sociocultural origin of attraction

• Similarity in a partner• Live close to one another

• So probably have same social and cultural norms• Positive interaction

Why?-compare ourselves to others-connectedness & attachment-familiar is better than unfamiliar

Mere exposure effect (Zajonc 1971)exposure increases sense of trust.

Sociocultural origin of attraction cont’d

• Role of culture• Cultural norms influence relationships

• Most theory & research reflect U.S. culture• Passionate love is largely a western phenomenon

(Goodwin 1995)• Statement regarding reason for high U.S. divorce

rates: “The reason for this difference is quite clear. You Americans marry the person you love; we love the person we marry.”

• Unarranged marriages = diminished love after five years

• Arranged marriages = increased love after five years.

Sociocultural origin of attraction cont’d

• Role of culture cont’d• Romantic love less valued in more traditional

cultures with strong, extended family ties• Traditional societies view marriage as a union of

two FAMLIES• Individualistic countries rated love as essential to

marriage.• Individualistic countries divorce rates highly

correlated disappearance of love warranted dissolution of marriage

• Buss (91994) cross-cultural study – 37 countries• Many similarities in mate selection• Differences in importance of personal

preferences

Be empatheticBased on research regarding the role of cultural norms on

relationships, what do you think would be the difficulties of having a cross-cultural relationship?

How do you think these difficulties could be overcome?

Sociocultural origin of attraction cont’d

• Maintaining relationships• Role of communication

• Attribution style• Happy relationships – positively biased

toward partner• + behaviors = dispositional• - behaviors = situational

• Unhealthy relationships• Stable & global attribution• “you always…” “you never…”

Sociocultural origin of attraction cont’d

• Maintaining relationships• Role of communication

• Negative communication causes marital dissatisfaction

• May eventually lead to end of relationship• Plays integral role in maintenance of

relationships• Social penetration theory

• Closeness develops through self-disclosure

Sociocultural origin of attraction cont’d

• Maintaining relationships: communication• Self-disclosure

sharing facts, emotions, feelings & inner thoughts about one’s life

* leads to attraction more liked

* establishing & maintaining relationships* women more than men* women more to women than men will to men* women respond to negative feelings with

understanding and acceptance and share* men take as complaint and try to fix

Sociocultural origin of attraction cont’d

• Maintaining relationships, communication:• Overlapping speech

• HIM: “I think that it might be fun to go fishing all summer”

• HER: “uh-huh”• SHE MEANS “I hear you:• HE HEARS “I agree

Why do relationships change or end?• Social exchange theory

• Cost-benefit analysis• Equity Theory

• Perception of equality • Patterns of accommodation• Constructive accommodations

• Discussing openly & honestly• Forgiving

Destructive accommodations silent treatment recounting past failures

physical avoidanceIdealization & attachment

positive = less conflict

Why do relationships change or end?• Social exchange theory

• Fatal-attraction theory• Something started as a benefit becomes a cost

• Person who travels• begins as positive (interesting…)• breaks up relationship (never home)

• Falling out of love…• No change in feelings•

HOMEWORK

• Examine two explanations of the origins of attraction (for example,

biological, psychological or sociocultural)

Why do relationships change or end? Cont’d• Trends:

• Women terminate relationships more than men• Marriages in which partners are younger than

average tend to be unstable• Relationship between divorce and early parenthood• Marriages between couples from lower economic

groups and lower educational levels tend to be more unstable

• Marriages tend to be more unstable between people who had divorced parents or who had a greater

• Carry out a little more research on communication styles between the genders. Then produce a short skit

in which you demonstrate a constructive and destructive communication pattern for the same situation.

As a group:

Human relationships: Violence

• Aggression: any sequence of behavior in which the goal is to dominate or harm another individual

• Violence: an aggressive act in which the actor or perpetrator abuses individuals directly or indirectly

• Forms include: verbal, physical, psychological, etc.• Can be random OR ongoing & routine• If it is relatively rare in an environment it is a “low base-rate

behavior” (schools)• Can be hard to detect due to long periods between actions

Human relationships: Violence cont’d

• Biological LOA views of violence• Evolutionary psychologists

• Hormones• Testosterone

• Aggression• Positive correlation of high testosterone &

antisocial behavior in males of low socio-economic status

• Related to dominance & status-seeking• Has “permissive” effect

* Serotonin * low levels

high irritability and aggressionfrustrated & impulsive

“fast-track anger”

Human relationships: Violence cont’d

• Biological LOA views of violence• Evolutionary psychologists

• Hormones * Serotonin

Environmental:childhood physical abuse = fewer serotonin

receptors, = less serotonin activity

* frontal-lobe abnormalitieslesions = aggression and violent behavior

* look up Raine, et al (1997) and localized brain areas

Human relationships: Violence cont’d

• Cognitive LOA views of violence• Antisocial behavior & aggression linked to deficits in

cognitive functioning• Cognitive schemas

• Self-schema• Social schema• “inner working models”

• All affect interpretation of situations and judgment regarding motives as well as responses

Human relationships: Violence cont’d

• Cognitive LOA views of violence cont’d• Involved in aggressive and violent acts

• Abuse, social rejection, violence by peers• Negative views of self & others• Socially biased information processing

• Anger management training• Identify triggers & early signs

• Social learning theory• Cultivation theory

• Media violence• Scripts for domestic violence

• Direct instruction• Modelling• rewards

Human relationships: Violence cont’d

• Cognitive LOA views of violence cont’d• Review Baumeister & Bushman (1998)

• Narcissists

Answer the questions:1. What are some of the ethical considerations to take into account with this study?

2. What conclusions can you draw from the study?

Human relationships: Violence cont’d

• Sociocultural LOA views of violence cont’d• Power differences• Social norms• Deindividuation theory: An individual’s loss of personal

responsibility as the group “assumes” responsibility for the behavior• Football hooliganism• Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment

• Social Identity Theory • Collective behavior

• Self-categorization theory• Police/rioters

Human relationships: Violence cont’d

• Bullying: repeated exposure over time to negative actions of one or more people

• (read pgs 293-301)

• Who are the key researchers on bullying and its effects?• Explain the different roles in the bullying cycle.• Make up a list of school norms in order to prevent or reduce

bullying in your school community. Phrase things as: Teachers should … All of us should… Students should not… None of us should…

• Why do you think particular groups have more problems with bullying?

Exam Question:Explain short-term and long-term effects that violence can have on individuals.

Discuss how violence can be reduced.(both parts must be answered)

Note: “Explain” means that you should give a detailed account of the issue (effects of violence on individuals)

including causes and reasons. Here, you could include the case of bullying.

“Discuss” means that you should offer a balanced review of possible ways to reduce violence and your arguments should be supported by evidence. Here, you could discuss effectiveness of

anti-bullying measures

What are the roots of violence & terrorism?

The power of the situation can help us understand violence & terrorism, but a broader understanding requires multiple perspectives that go beyond the

boundaries of traditional psychology

A) Social Psychology of Aggression & Violence cont’d

2) Fuel for Terrorism

a) Poverty, powerlessness, hopelessness, ethnic hatred, hunger,

b) Dependence on resources that are rapidly being deleted

c) Young flee homelands which fills slums with restless, jobless young men who are easily recruited.

a) Support efforts to find common goals

b) Refuse to adopt the terrorists’ devaluing of human life

3) What we can do

A) Social Psychology of Aggression & Violence cont’d

4) Perspectives on Terrorism

a) Understanding terrorism does not mean condoning or accepting it, this may involve a cultural perspective.

b) Identify goals of mutual benefit and persuade antagonistic groups to pursue these goals.

c) Terrorism does not always involve international conflict

d) Apply multiple perspective to identify, understand & rectify the problems

Presentation on studies:

Learning to be Depressed

Crowding the Behavioral Sink

1) Identify main goal of study2) Discuss aspect of psychology addressed 3) What was learned from this study?4) How can this apply to our lives?5) Any other topics to explore in this area.