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Of cabbages and knights: trade andtrade treaties with the infidel on thenorthern frontier, 1200–1390Rasa Mažeika aa Director Lithuanian Museum and Archives, 2185 StavebankRoad, Mississauga, Ont. L5C 1T3, Canada

To cite this article: Rasa Mažeika (1994) Of cabbages and knights: trade and trade treaties withthe infidel on the northern frontier, 1200–1390, Journal of Medieval History, 20:1, 63-76, DOI:10.1016/0304-4181(93)00740-F

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ELSEVIER

Medeval

l3istoI-y Journal of Medieval Hlstory 20 (1994) 63-76

Of cabbages and knights* trade and trade treaties with the infidel on the northern frontier, 1200-1390

Rasa Maielka

Dwector Llthuaman Museum and Archwes, 2185 Stavebank Road Mlrswauga, Ont L5C lT.3. Canada

Abstract

Llthuama. the pagan frontier of medieval Europe, was the object of Crusades orgamzed by the nnhtary monastic Teutomc Order Yet, because this warfare had to be financed partly by tlade which depended on routes through pagan-held territory, the Llthudmans sometlmes became the Crusaders’ business partners m an economic relatIonshIp supported by papal prlvdeges and papal prohlbltlons directed at the Order’s economic rivals Trestles were made which offered the protection of a limited peace to merchants from Llthuama and the Order’s lands m Llvoma and Prussia, yet at the same time allowed the warriors of both sides to continue fighting

Thts paper summarizes the evidence for trade and trade-related trestles between the pagdn Lithuamdns and then enemies the Teutonic Kmghts New theories are presented conccrmng (I) pemtentlal fines m the B&c area for Church-prohIbIted trade, (11) papal attitudes towards trade with Baltic pagans, (m) a dlmmlshment of trade after 1358 durmg a period of mtenslhed attacks which may have contributed to the Llthuaman ruler’s acceptance of baptism m 1387 The footnotes Include extensive quotes from the sources and cxtenslve bibliography on new work m the area of mecheval Llthuaman hlstory

On the northern frontier of Europe, m the late Middle Ages, a now almost

forgotten crusade attracted many more Chrlstlan kmghts than any contemporary

ventures m the Holy Land (W Paravlcml has counted 450 from England and

France alone) ’ They came to the campaigns of the warrior monks of the Teutonic

-- RA?A MAZEIILA IS Dlrector of the Llthuaman Museum and Archlves of Canada ’ W IParavlcml. Die Pwussenreuen des Europarschen Adels (Slgmarmgen. 198Y-), cited by N Housley, The Later Crurades (Oxford, 1991) 342

0104-4181 /Y4/$07 00 0 1994 - Elsevler Science B V All rights reserved SSD1’ 030~-3181(93)00750-F

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63 R Muzelka i Jourrd oj Mediet al Htstor y 20 (I YY-I) h Z- 76

Order against the still-pagan peoples on the east shore of the Baltic Sea

Prussians, Estonians Latvians and Lithuanians ’

These campdigns were often equdted to Pdlestmldn crusddes m terms of papal

mdulgences.’ and m contemporary hterature ’ The Lithuanians were even some-

times referred to as ‘Saracens’ m Western source\, ds when 40 English knights

asked Innocent VI m 1349 for remlsslon of sms becduse they were financmg a

fortress in terra Sar?acenorrlm vtdeltcet regts de Letto ’

To paraphrase Rlley-Smlth.6 Lithuania was the cheap ‘package tour’ crusade,

even m the thirteenth century for those who could not afford the Holy Ldnd, and

m the fourteenth century for almost everyone ’ Recent works by Norman

Housley. Christopher Tyermdn dnd Vera Matuzova stre$s the populdrity ok the

Baltic Crusades’ Everyone who wds anyone went - Marshal Bouclcaut, Gml-

laume de Mdchaut, bhnd Kmg John of Bohemia, Kmg Henry IV of Engldnd - dnd

Chaucer’s perfect Knight

Ful otte &me he hadde the bard blgonnt.

Aboven alle nxlons In Pruce,

In Lettow hddde he rey\ed and m Ruce ”

’ Good recent treatments of tlus crusade m Enghah Eric Chrlstlansen, The Northern Crusade (London

dnd Mmneapohs 1YXO) Housleq The Later Ctuxzder 332-75 Jonathan Riley-Smith The C’rusadey A Short HIytor\ (London 1987) 161-5 112-15 K M Setton R L Wolff and H E Hdzdrd Hlstor, of the Cruwdep (Madison WI, 197.5) vol 3 545-85, M Gledroyc Oxford Sluvornc Paper5 n s 18

(1YSS) l-30 S C Rowell Luhuumu Axendmg A Payun empwr wthm Eart-Centrul Europe 12YS-1345 (CambrIdge 1993)

‘Among mdnv examples PrUB vol I, bh 1 no 15 , 21 Xl. 146, 168, Codex Dtpl Pruy I no 7 p

64, VMPL I no IO 26 37 41 77 126 142 LUB I no 5 92 141 D~plomatanum Daru~m II bk ‘1

(Kopenhagen, 1976-77) no 27

’ P Dembowskl Reflets che\dlere3que\ du Nord-Est dam I oeuvre de Jean Frolssdrt ’ m Hommages Jerz, Ktoczowskr (Lubhn 19X6)

‘English hmghts’ supphcdtlon PrUB IV, no 357 other examples of I_lthuanidnq = Sdrdcens Conrad

of Mdzovla s prlwlegc to Teutomc Order VMPL no 146 letter of Emperor Otto IV LUB 1 no 75

’ Rllev-Smith The Cruwde, 211

’ Recent general tiorhs on Baltic crusades E Gudd\lLms, Krvfluub Xural Ptrbalfq~Ir w Lletuvu XIII amzurIe (Vllnlus 19X9) lbld Lletuvor hrlki~lonkbes prlemlmo polltIne probltmd L~ctulo~ frtorqos metraittr lYX7 metal (198X) 1-1~21 S Rowe11 Pagans, peace ,md the Pope 1321-1314 Llthudmd m

the centre of European dlplomdcv Archlvum Hlctonue Pontrfictue 38 (1990) 63-98, A Nlkitntdltls

‘1323 Lletuvoa pahaubo\ w Vokleclg ordmu lr JI,I relksme, LtetuLor TSR h!ohsly AXudemtIor darbur JerrIu A (1986. bh 2) 61-71 R Mufrlhcr The context of Pope John XXII > letters to Grdunrnu~,’ m

Gedlmmo lathy Lwtutrr w Ior Xam~vna~ (Vllmus, 1994) M Hellmann ‘Die Paprte und Lltauen, m

La CriWanizzazione della Lltuarua (Vdhdn, 1989) 27-62 M MdLCdrrOnt I Pap1 e gh mlzl m Gl/ !)~!zL de1 Cn~tumrwm~ m L/Lonru-Lettonru (Vdtlcdn 19x9) 31-80 H Bnihdn Lcs crolsade\

contre Its pdiens de Lltudmc et de Prus\e ldeologle et rLdhte ’ In Lu Crowade Rerrlrtrc et ftctmns Acte, du Colloque d Amwn~ 1987 (Goppmgen 19XY) 31-50

’ Housley Later Ctusudes 37-38, C Tkermdn Englund und the cruxzdec (Chlcdgo 1988) ?SY-76 V Mdtuzovd Angldl Prusl]o]e ()IIII-YIVd) [The Enghsh m Pruwa 13-llth cent ] Lfetutoc IrtorrIoc metrus”trA (1YXY) S-15

“Chaucer prologue Canterbut’\ Tdle\ (I 51-55) The Complefe Poctrb und Prow of Geoffreb Chaucer, ed J Fisher (Nem ‘York 1977) IO

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R Maietka I Journal of Medieval Htstorv 20 (1994) 63-76 65

Foreign guests had to be entertained at grand banquets with a board of honour,

entertainment, even take-home shoulder badges,“’ which must have served the

same function as the shirts emblazoned with an exotic placename brought home

by the modern tourist All this cost money, and captured Lithuanian horses and

women would hardly cover the bill Moreover, the Teutonic Order was lord of a

large secular state comprlsmg modern-day Prussia, Estonia and Latvia, with cities

prominent m the Hanseatlc League ” Even as Lithuanians and Teutonic Knights

locked m fierce combat, both sides seem to have remained aware of the economic

benefits of protecting trade and trade routes This led to agreements, some secret

and some official, which gave the protection of peace to merchants from

Lithuania, Llvoma and Prussia, yet at the same time dllowed the warriors of both

sides to continue fighting

Here the historian 1s afforded a fascinating glimpse mto a medieval world-view

which could mamtam an officially uncompromlsmg hostility towards infidels while

at the same time dealing with them as partners m the more practical plane of

economic activity This IS well-known for the Arab world and for Spain ”

However, it 1s neglected m the study of the Northern Crusade. perhaps because it

does not fit with the modern mythologlzmg of the Teuton as relentless Juggernaut,

unable to compromise. or the pagan as a savage (Llbelt sometimes d noble one)

who knows nothing of clvlhzed economy

Lithuanian trade with other lands begins many mlllenma before the birth of

Christ, Christian trade goods are common archaeological artifacts well before the

first written sources of Lithuanian history appear (after 1200), and medieval

Lithuanians had a thriving trade partnership with the Hansa city of Rlga ” Trade

in a crusade context, however, even before the arrival of the Teutonic Order m

the Baltic area m 1230, IS documented first m papal prohlbltlons

I’ Marlan MaIowlst, The Problem of the Inequdhtv of Economic Development m Europe m the Later Middle Ages, Economtc Htstory Revtew 2nd ser XIX (1966) 25 The Teutomc Ordel’s wealth H Samsonowlcz, ‘Der Deutsche Orden als Wlrtschaftsmacht des Ost- seeraumes ’ m Zur Wtrtschaftsentwtcklung des Deutschen Ordens tm Mtttelalter (Quellen und Studlen

zur Geschlchte des Deutschen Ordens, Marburg 1989) vol 38. 106-7

” Robert Lopez, Medteval Trade tn the Medtterranean World (New York dnd London 1955). M L de

Mas Latrle, Trattes de purx et de commerce et documents dtvers concernant le., relattons des chretrens avec les arabes (Pans. 1866). A Samarral, Medieval Commerce and Diplomacy Islam and Europe, 850-1300 ’ Canadran Journal of Htstorv 15 (1980) 1-21, D Abulafia Italv S&y and the Medtterranean (London, 1987) no VIII 218, no XIV, 240 no XV, pdsslm E Zacharladou Trade and Crusade Venetuzn Crete and the Emtrates of Menteshe and Avdm (Venice 1983) 3-12

” On ancient trade V Pashuto Obrazovame Lttovskogo Gosudarstva (Moscow 1969). 271, Ltetucos gvventoly prekvbmrat rystat I-XIZZu. ed M Mlchelbertas (Vllmus, lY72). Ltetutbos archeologqos bruo2at. ed K Jablonskls (Vdmus. 1961), R Volkalte-Kuhhausklene Lletuvlal IX-Xlla (Vdnlus

1970) 206-7, 273 On trade with Rlga. mam sources Rtgtsche Schuldbuch ed H Hddebrand (St

Petert>burg, 1872). cf E von Lehe. Die Schuldbucher von Lube& Rlga und Hamburg, m Stadtewesen und Burgertum als gexhrchtshche Krafte. td A von Brandt and W Koppe (Lubech

1953) NapIersky, no 25 3X 39

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66 R Mafelka I Journal of Medzetaal Hlstor\ 20 (1994) 63-76

These should be viewed (as 1s not done m the present Baltic literature) m the

context of Church pohcy on trade with the infidel, which was not generally

prohibited per se, but only m aspects which posed a mlhtary security risk I’ Canon

24 of the Third Lateran Council m 1179 had set the standard, stating

Ragmg greed has taken possewon of the souls of certam men to such an extent that they, although

glorymg m the name of Christians, brmg to the Saracens arms iron and ship timber, and become

equal or even greater than them m evil deeds, smce they supply them [I e Saracens] wth weapons and

necessltles for attackmg Chrlstldns I’

Such were to be excommunicated and enslaved, their ill-gotten gains confiscated

This was repeated by Pope Innocent III when he proclaimed d crusade m 1213.‘”

and again by the Fourth Lateran Council, which m Canon 71 excommunicated

also those who sold military expertise l7

Thus, at the beginning of the thirteenth century, only clearly military wares

were prohibited Commerce with the infidel was being presented as a military

security risk, and not primarily as a rehglous problem

The first prohlbltlon agamst trade with the pagans of the North follows soon

after, and IS accompanied by military rather than rehglous Justlficatlons Pope

Honorms III wrote m 1218 to Christian, mlsslonary bishop of Prussia,

We hdve heard, that the pagans of Prussia have neither iron, nor weapons nor salt except those which

nelghbourmg Chrlstlans supply [Since] we do not desire that the, make war against us with our own weapons we order that you admonish and exhort the Christians hvmg around that region not to

sell the aforementioned thmgs to those pagans ”

This document was often cited m Soviet hlstorlography as estabhshmg a ‘papal

economic blockade’ of Prussia and even Lithuania (oddly. it 1s non-Catholics who

I’ On probhlbldted trade M Purcell, Papal Crusadmg Pollcv (Lerden 1975) 179-N J Brunddge

‘Holy War and the Medieval Lawyers,’ m The Holy War (Colombus, 1976), 99-140, E Synan The

Popes’ other sheep, m The Rehgtous Roles of the Papacy Ideals and Realities 11X-1300 (Toronto,

1989). 405-7 There 1s d text of Clement III m Gregory IX’s Decretdls which forblds any trade at all

with the Moslems m time of war Decretahum Collectrones ed A Themer (Rome 1836), J

Trenchs-Odend ‘Les Alexandnm’, Islam et Chrttler du Mzdl ed E Prlvdt (Toulouse 1983) 170-93 cap XI XII But this 1s a temporary measure and was reduced bv Innocent III to restrlctlons on wdr

goods and materials to build ships 0 Hageneder and A Haldacher, Die Register Innocent III (Graz-Koln 1964). vol 1 no 536 (RV4 f 137v), PL 214 p 493, no 539 Cf PL 216 p 820, no 28

I’ Concrlrorum Oecumemcorum Decreta, ed J Alberglo et al , 3rd edn (Bologna 1973) 223 “Agdinst Damletta PL vol 216, no 28

I’ COnStZfUfIOneS Concdu Quart1 Laferanenszs ed A GdrLid y Garcia (Vatican, lY81) Conbtltutlo 71 115

” PrUB I. no 25 p 18, Cod Dlpl Prus I no 10 Cum lgitur s&cut dudlvlmus, pagan1 de Pruscla net

ferrum net arma net sal habeant msl que a vlcmls comparant chrIstlams. nolentes ut drmls nostrls contra nos mdtent, fratermtatl tue per apostohca scripta mandamus, quantmus chrlstlanos reglonem

clrcumpositam habitantes ne predlcta pagams vendant elsdem moneas et mducd5

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R Ma&ha I Journal of Medrelal H~torv 20 (1994) 61-76 67

usually attribute the greatest power to popes, exhlbltmg quite d medieval need for

a truly worthy enemy’) I’) Western historians do not share this view, but ignore a

clea1 proof thdt ilhclt trade wds going on dnd in fact benefittmg the Church

In 1233 Bishop Christian was taken prisoner by the people he was trying to

convert “) When the Teutomc Knights received his pleas for help, they promptly

seized the chdnce to grab the bishop’s lands dnd made no attempt to ransom an

unwelcome competitor for the souls and serf ldbour of the Bdltic pagans ” After 6

years the bishop’s relatives stood as hostdges for him dnd he wds freed

A\ we learn trom d letter of Gregory IX m 1240, Bishop ChrIstian then wrote

to the Pope complammg he hddn’t the 80 mdrks ranrom which he owed to the

pdgdns before they would release his reldtive He asked for permission to use “the

money. which those who dare to dehver n-on, salt dnd other necessltles to ald the

pagans of Prussia” have promised to pay ds penitentldl fines” Here is d

previously unnoticed hmt of a developed system for penitentId fine5 which

dllowed the pursuing of trdde with Baltic pdgdns (One d%umes that the bishop

wds planning to redeem his relative with money he wds fairly sure of and not Just

owed m theory ) There may well have been other documents, now lost,

documenting such fines, neither supphcdtlon registers nor registers of income

were being kept at the Curla at this date” Wlthm iwo decade\, ds we shdll see.

the ‘Teutonic Order hdd tdken steps to ensure that its pdgdn trade even m time of

wdr would not be subject to excommunication dnd fines

Fine\ were not the only annoyance for those who engaged m llhclt trade In

1248, Innocent IV acknowledges the complamt of the Bishop of Osel (now Sdare

m Estomd), who was on bad terms with the Teutonic Order ”

“l Pn\huto Obrazoiamr 275, J Jurgmls Ltetubty karar TU kr\ auoiuu~ (Vllnw 1963) 73

“‘On Bishop Chwtldn F Bldnke Die Entscheldung\lahrc der Preuhsenmlwon ’ Zelfxhrtft fLtr

Ktrthengetchuhre J7 (1928). 18-40 reprmted m H Beumann Hczdenmwron und Kreuzzugsgedarthe

m tic r Deutwhen Ostpolttth dey Mlttelalter, (Bad Homburg 1963) 389-116. S M Szdchcrshd

‘Vdldemx II s expedltlon to Pruwa and the mw,Ion of blahop Christian MedLt\sal \tundtrzar~ta 12 (198X) 9

” PrUB I bh I no 133 -‘PrUB I bk 1 no 133 p 100 quod pecumam quam 1111 qul ferrum, WI et aha nece\wxd m subsldmm paganorum Pruwe Lontra mhlbltlonem no\tram temere detulerunt ewhlblturo\ w pro humsmod excew sdtlsfactlonem promlttunt

” Reglwa 5upphcatlones dre preserved trom 1312, Collectore., from 117-1 and Intrortu~ from 1270 L Bovl~ 4 >wte\ of the Vatican Archlrec (Toronto 1971), 1.5 2 165 16X See statlstlch prowded b\ Trenchq Odend De Alexdndrnus ’ Annuarro de estudLos medwtales 10 ( 19X0) 773-315 on dwegdrd

tar prohIbItIons m Lekant of Zacharladou Trade and Cruhude 133 Records of pemtentlal fme\ tor

trade wth Saracens Dw Emnahmen der Aposohschen hummer unter Benedtht XII ed E Goller

(P‘tderborn lY20) 141 137, 138 153 164 175. 177, 17Y 181 181 193, L Mohler Dw Emnahmen

der Aportoh~citen Kammer unter Klemens VI (Paderborn, 1931) 33Y 336 351 366

“On the quarrel of O\el with the Teutomc Order set LUB I no 5X6 p 75tl-5

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68 R Maiezka I Journal of Medzeval Hzstorv 20 (1994) 63-76

some who hve m Llvoma, unmmdful of their own sdlvatlon. presume to furnish to the pagans

weapons, Iron. timbers horses and provlslons, as well as other thzngs bv means of whzch they attack Chrzstzans [net non et aha, quzbus Chrzstzanos zmpugnant] ”

The bishop is enJoined to excommunicate such merchants and whoever encoun-

ters them 1s allowed to seize their goods *’ (Of course, the inhabitants of the

island of Osel were particularly well-placed geographically for such holy piracy,

presumably directed against the Teutonic Order m its trade with pagans )

By mid-century, it seemed Baltic paganism was about to disappear the

Prussians were thoroughly subjugated after a fierce revolt and Lithuanian kmg

Mmdaugas had actually accepted baptism, becoming an ally of the Teutonic

Order In 1253 he issued the first survlvmg Lithuanian trade privilege (if it 1s

genuine) allowing German merchants ‘free and peaceful’ passage and stay m his

lands 27 However, only a handful of Mmdaugas’ SubJects converted, and many

were m revolt (Mmdaugas was m fact later assassinated and Lithuania stayed

pagan) Hence a letter by Innocent IV m 1253 to Dommlcans who are preaching a

crusade against Lithuania, urging them to raise funds for the construction of the

castle of Memelburg by the Teutonic Order to block a river route “by which”,

writes the Pope, “ weapons, clothing and salt, and many things necessary to life

are supplied by ship to the pagans of those parts to the per11 of the Christian

faithful “*’ Controllmg the mouth of Lithuania’s mam river would allow the

Teutonic Order to control trade routes mto Lithuania and Russia and block rival

Rlga’s sea access to these routes

Once it became clear that an alliance with Mmdaugas did not mean the

submlsslon of all the Baltic pagans, the Teutonic Order began to make provisions

for protection of trade wlthm a framework of contmumg war A 2-year truce was

made m 1257 with the Samogltlans, a tribe loosely federated with the Lithuanians

According to the Llvoman Rhymed Chronicle, our only source for this treaty, It

allowed Germans to travel m Samogltla safely and Samogltlans to ‘trade freely’ m

the Order’s lands 29

” LUB I, no 201. p 260 Ad audlentlam slqmdem nostram te referente pervemt. quod nonnulh de

Llvomae partlbus, proprlae salutes Immemores, pagams. ChrlStldIlde fide1 mlmlcls, arma, ferrum,

hgnamma. equos et vlctuaha, net non et aha, qmbus Chrlsttanos impugnant deferre praesumunt ” Ibid auctorltate duxlmus statuendum. ut qmcunque Chrlstlanorum ahquos praedlcta deferentes de

cetera elsdem mvenermt, els hceat dlos capere, ac bona eorum sme poena restltutloms m ea

capientmm usus cedant ” LUB I, no 243, Varakauskas, Lletuvos zr Lzvonzlos santvkzaz 247-8 argues that authentlclty of this

IS supported by Lrvoman Rhymed Chromcle hnes 3451-608

‘* LUB I, no 257, PrUB I, no 275 dlctl fratres slcut eorum msmuatlone perceplmus mxta flumen

sltum mter Llvomam et Prusclam, per quod (Memele vulgarlter appelatum) arma, vestes et sd ac

multa vote necessarla pagams dlarum partmm m dlscrlmen chrlstlfidehum navlglo ferebantur, quoddam

castrum cum gravlsslmls laborlbus et expenses de novo construere mceperunt

*’ Llvoman Rhymed Chromcle hnes 4527-675 Dte Lzvlandzsche Rezmchronzk, ed L Meyer (Pader- born, 1876)

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R Maietka I Journal of Medreval Hworv 20 (1993) 63-76 69

Probably not comadentally, 1257 1s also the date of a privilege by Pope

Alexander IV acceding to the Teutonic Kmghts request, on the excuse of

poverty, to be allowed to sell their wares and buy others m all places and lands

where they would travel 3” Now generally accepted, this document was dlsmlssed

as a forgery by older scholarship 31 Perhaps its dating at the time when the Order

first begins to publicly negotiate concerning pagan trade (1 e m the Samogltlan

treaty) 1s another point m favour of authenticity-the Order now needed an

official indulgence for pagan trade

A few years later, m 1263. Pope Urban IV reissues this privilege, with the

hmltatlon that it should not become a basis for regular business (negotmm) 32

Ignoring this clause, wlthm 50 years the Teutomc Kmghts were assurmg a papal

legate that they had unlimited trade pnvlleges 33 Like the ‘poverty’ cited m the

1257 privilege, the image of the Teutonic Kmghts as not regular traders but

simply expedltlonarles buying provlslons on the road or selling off surplus goods IS

a polite fiction The Order’s territory included whole cltles, such as Toru6, based

on commerce, and its wars could not be financed by petty trade (Although trade

could be petty indeed, according to their enemies’ complamt to a papal legate, the

Teutonic Knights

contr,wy to kmghtly honour engage m all sorts of commerce hke hucksters of the lowest commercial

class selling fruits cabbages, radishes, onions and other slmllar things “)

Trade with pagans which did not benefit the Order could still be condemned m

1262, during a second uprlsmg by the Old Prussians agamst the Teutonic Order,

the bishop of Lmkopmg m Sweden 1s ordered to excommumcate those who are

provldmg “the same pagans, who are fightmg the Teutomc Order”, with “arms,

iron, timber and other things prohibited by the Lateran council, and through this

the attack can be pressed more strongly” (per quae lmpugnatro humsmodl posszt valldlus exercerl) 3s

“‘PrUB I, pt 2, no 22

” Considered d forgery by C Sattler, ‘Handelsrechnungen,’ Hansrsche Geschlchtsblatter, 3 (1824). 63, Z Ivnnskls Lletuvos prekyba su prusarr (Kauna?, 1934). 51, Gebhard, m Handbuch der Deutschen Geschlchte, ed R Holtzmann (1930). vol 1, 485 Authenticity argued by K Forstreuter ‘Altesten Handelsrechnungen des Deutchen Ordens,’ Hansrsche Geschlchtsblatter 74 (1956) 13-27 and Auf den Spuren des Deutschen Ordens m Rom ’ Zeztschrrftfur Ostforschung. 7 (1956) 99, cf B Jahmg

‘Zur Wlrtschaftsfuhrung des Deutschen Ordens m Preussen, m Wtrtschaftsentwzcklung des Deutschen Ordens rm Mtttelalter (Marburg, 1989) 116

” PrUB I, pt 2, no 210 p 161 and no 22 p 16 concedlmus, ut m ommbus low et terns, ubl vlderltls expedlre, merces vestras vendere ac emere ahenas per ydoneas ad hoc de ordme vestro personas hbere valeatls dummodo Id causa negotlandl not fiat ” Zeugenverhor, p 205 (see note 37 below)

Q Zeugenverhor, p 157 (47) Item pomtur, quod dicta maglster et fratres cum mdltes reputarl et esse vehnt , contra mlhtarem decentlam mercatlones omnes, ammo tanquam penestlcl whsslmum genus

mercatloms exercent poma, caules, raphanum, cepe et aha his slmlhs vendentes

“LUB I no 371 p 473. PrUB I, bk 2, no 171, p 139

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After the papal privilege ot 1263. there were no more papal prohlb1tlons of

trade with Baltic pagans the whole topic becomes off-llmlts, ds 1t were. for the

only unsubjugdted pagan\ left are the Llthuamans, who are necessary to the

Teutonic Order both as enemies and as economic partner5 (By contrast, in the

1350s trade ot Tdrtu and R1ga with the cchlsmatlc Ru?slan\ was condemned

strongly by Clement VI and Innocent VI )7f’

Interestingly, the Teutonic Knights publicly de&red their papal trade

prlvlleges to be hmltless (conveniently forgetting the hm1t1ng rqot~~z cldu\e of

1263) and yet followed contemporary opinion by denying they trdded 1n the ?ey

prohbztu (weapons, iron horse\. provlslons 1n time of war) About 1312, when

the Order was being accused before a papal legate ot selling arm5 to the

Llthuamans, they replied thdt they ‘did not dnd do not sell iron, weapons, food,

drink or other types of prohibited merchandise dt the said time” although. the

Knights added, their Order had the privilege “to buy dnd \ell any type ot

merchandise”” Their accusers, the citizens of Rigd, were the one5 who.

“against canonical sanctions ‘, sold “weapons, iron, edibles and prov151ons of

food dnd drink dnd other types of merchandise ’ to “infidels mdking wdr on

Christians iv

Note the lmpllcatlon thdt provision of food and drink 15 culpdble when 1t

involves “mfidels” xtually waging war on Christidns This 1s consistent with the

many thirteenth-century papal indulgences allowing trdde 1n food during times of

peace ” Accordmg to the Rigdns, the Teutonic Kmghts took advdntdge of th15

tor the sahe of ~drrvmg on trade thev otten hdce mdde dnd are mahmg a ape4 PL~CC dnd truce with

the pagans those brothers excludmg the ntorewd citizens [of R~ga] and dnv other Chrl\tldn

merchants make separate commercl,ll denIs with the\e pagan, to the gra\e detrlmcnt of the whole

land of Llvomd “’

” VMPL no 700 p 530 ,md no 765 p 572

‘_ Zrccgrnrrrhor, p 105 (277) Item quod predIctI preceptor et tratre\ non bendldcrunt nccquc

cendunt per re \el aho\ tcrrum xmLt esculentd potultntd et dhd genera metxlum prohlbltd per

d]Ltum tempw (2X0) Item quod predIctIs preceptor] et tratrlhw lIcIturn est prlvlleglorum eorum

ordml mdultorum emere et vcndere quehbet genera mewurn pro eorum necessltatlbus et utlhtdtlbw ct profcctlhus et hcmt ldrn wnt L anm et plus

” lbld p X4-5 (275) Item pomt et probdre IntendIt dlctus procurator quad me\ Rlgemes

mfidehbus guerram faclentlbus chrlstldmr de partlbus 1111s portant et portdkerunt ad terra\ dlctorum pdganorum drma terrum mtrces et dha vlctuaha ewdenta, potulentd et dhd merclum genera et

el5dem mhdehbus \endunt et bendlderunt contra CdnomcdS \ancclones m dampnum et preludlclum chrlstldmtdti~ et fratrum predictorurn In Enghsh on the qudrrcl between Rlga and Teutonic Order N Houslev, T!w ,4rrgnorl Pupuc~ and the Cruradey (Oxtord 19X6), 367-71

” For example Berger Ler reptres d Innocent /C no 3731 p 564 cladem clwbus ut pretntl\

Sdrracenis preter equal et mules drmd ferrum et hgnamma victuaha tempore pdcl\ terrc possmt et

kendere auctorltdte nostrd hcentlam largww “’ Zeugrnberhor. p 157, Appendlx II 46 Item pomt quod ldcm mdglster et trdtres mercandl grdtla

p&cm et treugdm ape~~&s cum pdgdma scpms fdcmnt et fewrunt ltd wdehcet, quod Ip\l pdgdnl cum

merclbus WI\ dd ahquem certum locum m dlsttxtu lpsorum maglrtrl et fratrum vemunt et lhldem lpbl tratre\ excluala wlbu\ dntedlctl5 et qmbuqddm dhl~ chrl\tlCml\ mercdtlone~ smguidre\ ‘urn 1psS pdganlb

exerctnt m grave preludlcmm totlw pdtrle Lnwmenals

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R Maferka I Journal of Medreval Hlstorv 20 (1994) 63-76 71

Here 1s a peace made for the sake of trade rather than trade to take advantage of

a peace, and the Rlgans seem much more horrified at their own exclusion than at

a trading truce m wartime

Many such truces must have been made without any survlvmg documentation

We do know that m the fourteenth century, at least five officldl treaties which

dealt with trade were signed The first, the Peace of Vllmus m 1323;” does not

completely belong to our topic of trade trestles with pdgdns, since at that time the

Lithuanian ruler Gedlmmas had mdde vague promises of conversion (he later

reneged) Yet many historians feel that these promises were made simply to

facilitate the treaty, which opened roads blockaded by the Order”

No mention of conversion mars the practicality of the treaty signed m 1338 by

Gedimmas and the Llvoman branch of the Teutonic Order” (We see a certain

progression, as these treaties are less and less hidden ) A zone of peace wd\

established along four major ldnd and river routes German merchants were free

to iravel all over the Lithuanian and Russian lands ruled by Gedlmmas In the

Teutonic Order’s territory, the zone of peace extended only a short distance past

the banks of the Ddugava River each merchant was safe “as far as he could cast d

spear” ” Here 1s a very colourful illustration of an island of peace and profit m a

battlefield!

The oaths sworn to ratify this treaty of 1338 show how completely crusddmg

ideology could be laid aside for the sake of economic interchange We are told

that the Rlgans. the Teutonic Knights and the princes of Rus cities subject to

” GL. 65-75 and PrUB II p 301 no 418 (German treaty), contemporaty Latm transldtlon Ptd\mh

MPV III no 168 p 226 [wrong ddte] dnd LUB II p 150 no 6Y3 ” PrUB II no 418, p 301-2 alle weghe m lande unde m watere open unde vrl wesen stolen eneme

Jewelthen menschen to homende unde to varende Unde en gewehcht Lopman van beyden syden de

mdch open dllerleyge copenscap, de eme velhch 1s

FOI Gedlmmas’ rejection of baptism see the report of the envov5 of pdpdl leg&es \ent by John

XXII LUB VI no 3073, vol 477-83. NapIershy, p 44-8 Cf R Maielka The role of pdgdn

Llthudmd in Roman Cathohc and Greeh Orthodox rehglous dlplomdcv m East-Central Europe

(Dlssertatlon, Fordham Umv 1987) 85-96 S Rowe11 Llthuama Awendmg (CambrIdge lYY3) ch 7

Nlhzentaltls, Gedwmna~ 33-6

” HC’B no 628 p 275-7, Naplershv Russ -Lw Urhunden no 83 Pdsuta dnd Stdl GL no 1X Cf

undated treaty on merchant relations between Rlga and Lithuanian-ruled Polotsh (HUB II, no 611

Naplc rshy no 71) L K Goetz, Deutsch-Russlsche Handelsvertrage des Mtttelalters (Hamburg

1916) 336 dates this to 1338 and links it to Gedlmmas treaty cited abobe Cf undated treaty of

protectlon for merchants of both sides made bq Rlga the Llvoman Teutomc Kmghts and the prmce

of Smolensh who acknowledge\ Gedlmmas overlordship HUB II, no 632, LUB II, no 796, Goetz 33Y dates this to c 1340

I4 HUB II, 628 [5] seal over vdn beyden svden der Dune benedder der Eweste nedderwdrt vehgh

wesen eneme Jewehken kopmanne also Verne, alse he myt ener keygen werpen magh Trdnslatlon of

heygen seems problematical smce both the editors of HUB m the glossary which thev provide m

vol 111 (p 557) and MLttelmederdeutwhes Worterbuch, ed K Schdler dnd A Lubben (Bremen

1875-81) vol 2, 438 give only the treaty of 1338 as an example of the use of kevgen trdnsldted a5 ‘sped1 If this 15 d umque usage the meaning cdn be debated For merchants tramed and armed ds warrmrs LUB I no 123 p 160

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72 R Maierha I Journal oj Medlevul Hutorv 20 (199-l) 6.1-76

Lithuania swore by klssmg a cross, and the Lithuanians “have also done their holy

[rites]““5 - an amazingly respectful phrase for rituals which all Christians were

supposed to consider as homage to demons!

Very interesting also 1s the specific mention of merchants who might be

“Christian or heathen” (cnsten eder heyden), and the separate mention of

Lithuanian and Russian merchants subject to the Lithuanian ruler I6 Therefore,

Lithuanian trade did not involve merely expeditions coming from elsewhere to

trade with primitive natlves, nor were Llthuaman goods sold only by Germans or

Russians who resided m Lithuanian-ruled territory (although these were

important) ” Rather, some Lithuanian pagans appear to have been professional

travelhng merchants

Judging by the provlslons of this treaty, direct trade with Lithuanians and their

Russian subjects (for Lithuanian rule m the fourteenth century extended to just

west of Moscow) was important to the Teutonic Order But probably far more

lucrative was long-distance trade with Hungary for its silver and copper and with

present-day Ukraine for the Oriental luxury products which arrived there via the

Black Sea 4X

Unfortunately for the Order, its enemy Poland lay athwart Its routes to the

south and east, and this led to constant quarrels over Polish tariffs levied on the

Order’s merchants 49 Only m 1252, when the Teutonic Knights had temporarily

secured the conversion and friendship of the Lithuanian king, did a Pohsh duke

open roads to German merchants and try to hmlt tolls TO As Poland m the

succeeding years became stronger and its kings more powerful, they pursued

more vigorously their hlstorlcal quarrel with the Teutonic Order which had seized

Polish-inhabited lands of Chelmno (Kulm), Toruii and Gdansk soon after arrlvmg

m the Baltic area

In the 1350s the Polish kmg Caslmlr the Great imposed heavy tolls,” and did

not protect the merchants of the Order’s town of Toruri from robbery and

harrassment ” Naturally, the Teutonic Order sought alternate routes Sometlme

around 1354, secret arrangements were made with the Lithuanian princes to allow

” HUB II, 277. de oc ere hdhgh hlrup hebben ghedan On Llthuamans usmg both pagan and ChrIstIan

oath-takmg see S Rowell, ‘A pagan’s word Llthuaman dlplomatlc procedure, Journal of Medieval Hutory, 18 (1992), 145-60

” HUB II, p 276 [3] Vortmer seal de Dune vrlgh wesen eneme Jewehken hopmanne, he sy crlsten

eder heyden, p 276 clauses 7, 8, Y 10, 11

” See W Semkowlcz Hanul, ndmlestmk wderiskl (1382-1387) ’ Ateneum Wdenskre VII l-2 (1930) l-20 on Germans m Vdmus

“For these routes, S Weymann, Cla I drag handlowe w Polsce pastowskzel (Poznan, 1938), loo-4

and appended map, H Samsonowlcz, Szlak baltycho-czarnomorskl w XII-XVII w m Baltmm Studza

z dzlelow pohtykz gospodarkr I kulturv, ed Z Nowak (Torun 1992). 285-90 ‘” PrUB I, bk 1 no 127, 141, 260 “‘PrUB I. bh 1. no 260

‘I PrUB V bh 2. no 951, p 544 1s a hst of tolls

“IbId no 909-10. p 515-16

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R Maielka I Journal of Medieval Hmorv 20 (1994) 63-76 73

merchants going from Prussia to Ukrame to travel through Lithuania, and thus

avoid Poland We hear of this from the outraged reaction of the Teutonic Order’s

economic rivals The merchants of Wrociaw (Breslau), which was at that time part

of Bohemia, complamed to their kmg that they wanted the same prlvllege 57 Soon

after, the kmg of Poland complamed to the Pope that the Teutomc Order was

supplymg the Lithuanians with arms and provlslons, had blocked the route to

Poland, and had opened up roads to Lithuania (even building bridges to facilitate

travel) While the text of this complamt 1s lost, it 1s summarized m registers of

admomtlons sent m response by Innocent VI to the Order m 13.516~’

Noteworthy 1s the mention m one papal letter of merchants from lands other

than Prussia who had been accustomed to go through Poland and were now being

diver ted to Lithuamd by the Teutonic Order’s blockades 5s The Order was even

forcing other Christians to take then busmess to the infidel’

Also interesting 1s the attitude of the Pope There 1s nothing m his letters to

indicate that trade agreements with the infidels were to be condemned Teutonic

Knights are blamed for ‘favourmg’ the pagans they should be fightmg, but the

reproach 1s worded m military terms, as aggression against Poland they are

helping the infidel attack Poland by supplymg drms, and causing Poland economic

damage by depriving it of toll income As we have seen, trade agreements with

the infidel were not m fact prohibited, and so the condemnation makes luck of

trade agreements with a Christian nelghbour an act of war

As m the hearings of 1312, the Order did not deny the charges m this letter, but

simply proferred counter-charges that the Pope’s mformant, the Polish kmg, was

the one who favoured the Lithuanians and alhed with them mlhtarlly ” Both sides

obviously found the Lithuanians mdlspensable

We know that the Lithuanians actively encouraged the Order’s merchants

because of dn undated safe-conduct letter issued by Lithuanian princes Kestutls

and Lmbartas to merchants of Torux5 travelhng to Ukraine 57 Here was a portable

51 Breslauer Urkundenbuch ed Georg Korn (Bresldu [Wrociaw], 1870) no 189 p 172 ” VMPL no 169 p 577-S reg Bullarwn Polonrae, ed I Sulhowska Kuras and S Kuras (Rome,

1985) co1 2, no 801. Innocent VI (13.5-6-7) Lettres secretes et runales. ed P Gasnault and N Gotterl (Rome 1976), no 2390 p 192 ” VMPL no 769 p 577-X lpsos mfideles et eorum exercltum contra Regem eundem (1 e of Poland) veatrls favorlbus roborantes, els m drmls et gentlbus ahlsque necessarus occulta subsicha prestitistls passus et ltmerd dpermstis eisdem, pontes fabrlcastis msohtos dc mercatorum et ahorum qm de vestris et etlam &ems pdrtibus per Regnum prechctum (1 e Poland) ad Tdrtarorum et

Russ~r pdrtes transire consueverant, hactenus lter et transiturn ex quo eldem Regl (Caslmlr) et regmcohs multa provemebant utlhtates et commoda per terras chctorum mfidehum dlvertlstls ” As we see from the summary of the Order s complamt in a papal letter to Poland m 1357 VMPL no 776 p 581

” Drrvrue pamtatnzkt russkago pwna I lazyha, ed I Sreznevsku (St Petersburg. 1882 Leipzig, 1973). 191, 1-i Pdszhlewlcz Jaglellonow~e a Moskwa (Warsaw, 1933), 398 Ot hmazia ot Kestutla 1 ot kmazia ot Llborta u Torun h mestychem Shto leste pros111 nd5 a bvchom vas pustih do Luchschka t’rgovat

cherez Berestie d kto pcndet s 5em gramotom cherez Dorogychm cheres Melmk I cheres Berestle do Luchska torgovat 1s Toruma laz hmaz Kestutel ne vehu Ich zalmdtl

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71 R Ma:erka I Journal of MedIet ul Hutorv 70 (199411) 63-76

peace to protect the Teutomc Order’s merchants m lands the Order was

attackmg

In 1367. Grand Prmce Alglrdas dnd his brother Kestutls, represented by

Alglrdas’ son Vlddlmlr and two lmportdnt Llthuaman nobles, slgned a treaty with

the Llvomdn Mdster of the Teutonic Order dehneatmg d zone of peace on the

Llvoman-Llthuaman border into which bdndlts (latruncull) from both sides were

not to go, while Germdn or Lithuanian armies could mdrch (dnd presumably meet

m battle) ix This was posqlbly meant to protect merchants as R Vdrdkauskas

suggests, although he 1s simply wrong m asserting that the treaty guarantees safety

of merchants, this is not mentloned dt all”

The bounddrles mentloned in the treaty (lf the place names were correctly

transcribed from a now mlspldced manuscript)h” suggest thdt the peace zone

encompdcses d mlhtdry rdther than trade route

pnx mclpuit db Ixkullt et protcndltur Dunam aacendendo uaque ad rlvum Egelamen et ulterlus de

hoc rlvulo usque dd Vldentskc. [the pedte begm\ from Uxhull and stretches along the DaugnvdDvmd R to Eglalne R (upstream ot Ewest R ) and to Vldentske [gtnerallv Identmed bv hlstorlans as

Vldemshlal”]) h’

Videmikidi, now d little villdge southeast of Utena. was certainly never a

commercial destmdtion. but it still has the remams of a medieval fort,” and IS

mentioned twice by the Teutonic Order’s chronicler, Hermdnn de Wartberg, ds a

pldce dttdcked by the Llvomdn Teutonic Kmghts in 1373 and 1375 His account of

these attacks m both cases delineates d circle of locahtles. mcludmg ‘Vldemske’,

south ot Utena as the objects ot raid\ by the Llvoman Master of the Order”

Hence the treat] of 1367, dlthough it dedls with part of the same geogrdphicdl

dred ds the trade treaty of 1338, mdy have protected d warpath more thdn d

trade route, especldlly becduse the boundary it establishes ends dt the fort of

Vldemiklal, dnd does not mention the much larger settlement ot Wllkomlr

[modern Ukmerge] shghtly to the west, which 1s on ‘1 direct river route along the

Sventojl to the lmportdnt commercial town of KdUnaS (Alternatively. we might

” LUB II no 1041 LOI 771 cl Rlgan letter to Credlmlnd\ d&mg him to control lu/~urzcul~ Ndpmrsk} no 53

“” Pubhshed text m LUB II wa\ tahen from M Dogul Codrt Dq~lonztrtrcu~ Regm Polomae et Magrzr Ducum L&utarrurr (Vmuus 1759) vol V 7X no 56 Doglel dot\ not IdentIty manuscript or

provenance but I DdmtouIcz ed \karhrec Dlplornafo,c daelorr LI~MV (Vmuus 1860) vol I, 217

no 437 noted m his register of thk5 document thdt It had been m LlthUdnld but vvd\ tdhen to the ImptrIal Publ~ Llbrdrv m St Petersburg m 1808 Present locanon 1s unknown

“’ LUB II no 1031 p 777 For Vldcntshe =VldenGhnu Vdrdhdubha\, Smmklar 333 R Bdturd LIcturu tuuty holole prley Auh,o Ofdy (Vllmua lY75) 797 prle<

I’_ Lfpflct IV Emrklopedqa (Boston 1965) vol XXX111 5OY

I” SRP II I03 Terre Vdstate sunt hae Tdurage [Taurldgnial dcc to SRP eds ] mde dIstrIctus in Vlttena

[Utena], Antzelve (Zelva ‘1 Vldem\ke terrd Jenhrethd\ [ ‘1 Sllmke Loumene [Ldumenal],

Gedereythe [Gledrnlflal] , SRP II 105 ad tends has Letwmorum pervcnerunt scihcet Taurdge,

Vtten, Bdlnlhe [Bdlnmhdi] N&she [ ‘1 Se\solen [Se<uolidl] Vldenlshe Gederevten

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R Mafetha 1 Jourrtul of Medtebal Htstorv .?O (1994) k-76 7s

expect the boundary of this agreement to end. like that of the treaty of 1338, at

Nemenbne, dn important town on a mam river 50 km south of VldemSklal )

Therefore, there is no clear evidence of trdde-reldted dgreements between the

Teutonic Order and the Lithuanians from 1356 until a treaty signed m 1387, when

Llthudma was direddy officially Christian (see below) Argumg from silence 15

perilous for Lithuanian history, since so many documents have been lost

However, It 1s odd that a supphcatlon m 1363 by the Teutonic Order to Pope

Urban V &king for renewal of important privileges (such as the cru\dde

indulgence) does not mention renewal of the trade prlvllege of 1263 (although this

may hdve been among the unspecified alla yrndegla mentioned)” Six major

pedcr &e&es with the Llthuaman rulers Kestutls and Jogaild (In 1379 1380 dnd

13%) do not mention trdde, although several devote much space to hunting

privileges “’

Perhdpq the Teutonic Knights were simply keeping trade agreements more

secret becduse of the papal rebuke m 1356, but they hdd never shown much

regard for papal admonishments m the past More hkely, trade dnd merchant

travel decreased during an era of much-intensified attacks on Llthuama c

1360--1377,hh which may have been prompted by negotiations for Lithudmdn

baptl\m m 13% m which the Emperor supposed protector of the Order. had

played d maJor role” If the Lithuanians had not Tcuttled the negotlatlons, the

rcdson tor the Bdkic Crusade would hdve dlsdppedred - perhdps the Teutonic

Order, alarmed, decided on dn all-out effort to conquer Llthudmd before the

prize Elipped from its grasp

During thl5 period the Order’s trade relations with Poland improved In 1373

for six months and m 1376 without hmltatlon\ merchdnts from the Order’s city of

Toruri were dllowed passage through Poland toll-free 6x Alterndtives to trade

routes through Lithudmd were being drrdnged

Lithuanidn princes were also seeking other economic spheres. through repeated

attempt\ to conquer Moscow (1368 1370, 1372) dnd the edrhest \urvlvmg

Llthudnlan-Muscovite treaty protecting merchants m 1371 ”

In 1386, the ruler of Lithuamd, Jogdild, dccepted bdptism dnd also became the

kmg of Poland (Wladyslaw V) As we might expect, trdde treatle5 resume A

“’ PrUB \‘I bh 1 no 205 p 1 IX-20

” Cod Dtpl Pttc, III no I34 p 187 (also m CEV no l)? A Prochd&a, Rozelm Jdglelly 13x0 111 27 h ~rarrulrtrh Htsforrc-_n~ 13 (IYOY) 565, LUB III no 1157 1157 11X-1, 1185 11% “I Z Ibm\l\l\ Llenrro\ Isrorrltr (Rome 1978 reprinted Vkuu\ 1991) 255 counted 66 ewpedltlons from Pruasld and 30 from Llkoma in the Order’s chromcles Ct Chrl\tlan\en Norrherrt Crusade

157-X, Houqle) Later Crusades 343

‘- On these negottdtlom Mdielha ‘The Reidtlons of Grand Prmce Algudas ulth Eastern And Western Chrlstldm, m La Crt~ftarnz-_aztone della Lttuanta (Vdtlcan 1989) 66-77 Gledrovc The drrlvdl of

Chrlstwut\ m LlthUdnld Oxford 31arorztc Pupers n \ ?? (1989) 32-46 ‘“Cod Drpl Prrts III 112-13 HUB IV no 151 and 51Y

h” Pdiuta, Obruzoramc 775 DuXhoLrtve 1 dogovontve grunton ~&thtXh I udelnthlt kntuzet XW-XVI 1 cl L B Cherepmn (hloww lY50) no 6

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76 R Maietka I Journal of Medtebal Hlrtorv 20 (1994) 63-76

Llvoman-Lithuanian agreement of access to Rlga for merchants from Polotsk and

Vilnius was made m 1387 “’ The Order then became involved m attempts to

depose Jogalla, and the treaty of friendship with the Order signed by his mam

rival Vytautas m 1398 guarantees freedom of trade, ds did major peace treaties

signed by Jogalla m the next decades”

The last Teutonic Order treaty of peace and trade with pagans was concluded m

1390 with the still-pagan Samogltlans, as part of an alliance against the now-

Christian Llthuamans” Trade contacts with the Llthuamans continued to grow,

despite a contmumg state of war until 1422 73 Still, the situation had normalized

mto agreements between two Christian states to hmlt the destructiveness of then

wars

More interesting for the student of human nature 1s the era when the

Lithuanians were infidels, the object of crusades, and yet became the crusaders’

clients and busmess partners m an economic relationship supported by papal

privileges (and papal prohlbltlons directed at the Order’s economic rivals)

It is quite possible that the trade relations of the Lithuanians and the Teutonic

Order helped to finance their war In the zones of peace, free trade reigned, but

there was no quarter given m the pohtlcal battle (we are reminded of the collapse

of enthuslastlc hopes for pohtlcal unity m the wake of Europe’s economic union)

Economic agreements can, it seems, serve to aid rather than end wars

CEV, Coder Ep~tolarcs Vltoldl, ed A Prochdska (Monumenta medu aevt hlstoncu res gestas Polomae rllustrantiu Acad Llterarum Cracovlemsls 1882) co1 VI pdrs 1 reprmted Panstwowe Wyd

Naukowe Warsaw, 1965

Cod Dtpl Pruy , Codex Dzplomatlcus Prussuxs ed J Volgt (Komgsberg, 1836-61)

GL, Gedlmmo IaGkal ed V PaSutd and I &al (Vdmus 1966)

HUB, Hunstsches Urhundenbuch II. ed K Hohlbdum (The Hague, 1879)

LUB I, Luj- E$t- und Kurlandlsches Urkundenbuch Abtellung I, vol I (Reval, 1853, repr Aalen

1967)

MPV Monumenta Polomae Vatlcana 3 vols (Crdcow, 1913-13) NapIershy Russlrch-Llvlanduche Urhunden ed K E Naplerskv (St Petersburg 1X68)

PL Patrologta Latma ed J-P Mlgne (ParIs, 1857-1912)

PrUB I, Preusslsches Urkundenbuch, vol 1 (Komgsberg, 1938, reprmted Adlen 1962)

SRP, Scrtptores Rerum Prusszcarum II (Lelpzlg 1863 repr Frankfurt dm Mam 1965) VMPL, Vetera Monumenta Polomae et Ltthuamae I ed A Themer (Rome 1860 repr Osnabruck,

1969)

Zeugenverhor Day Zeugenverhor des Frunclscus de Mohano (1311), ed A Serdphim (Komgsberg 1912)

“‘LUB III, no 1235. p 499

” LUB IV no 1413, 1415 1478, 1479, CEV no 285 HUB V no 346-50 267

” CEV no 67, p 23 In 1390 Wladyslaw-Jogalla hmg of Poland dnd Llthuama had closed the road

from Cracow to Torun S Lewlckl, Stud]a nad HtstorJq Handlu w Polsce II Przvwtlele Handlowe (Lvov dnd Warsaw 1910) 102, Marlan Maiowlst The Baltic and the Bldck Sea m medieval trade, Balm and Scandanavzan Counrrles III (1) (1937), 30 This made an &tern&e route through Samogltla

necessary Cf prlvdeges granted in the same year to merchdnts from Llthudnid by Hansd towns Strdlsund and Anklam (m Pomerama) and bv the local duke HUB no 1018, 1021 1022 1044

“CEVno 391, 820. HUB VIII no 104, 128 J Ochmanskl ed Vztoldzana no 183, 1X4, 195, 197 198

Ivmshls. Lletuvos Prehvbu su Prcisazs 52-71

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