ocr module: 2537 theory and methods what is sociology? “sociology may be defined as the study of...
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OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
What Is Sociology?What Is Sociology?
“Sociology may be defined as the study of society - the web of human interactions and relationships”: Ginsberg (“The Study of Society”, 1939)
“Sociology is the objective study of human behaviour in so far as it is affected by the fact people live in groups”: Sugarman (“Sociology”, 1968)
“Sociology is the study of individuals in a social setting…Sociologists study the interrelationships between individuals, organisations, cultures and societies”: Ritzer (“Sociology”, 1979)
“Sociology is the study of individuals in groups in a systematic way, which grew out of the search for understanding associated with the industrial and scientific revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries”: Lawson and Garrod (“The Complete A-Z Sociology Handbook”, 1996)
“Sociology is the study of human social life, groups and societies. It is a dazzling and compelling enterprise, having as its subject matter our own behaviour as social beings. The scope of sociology is extremely wide, ranging from the analysis of passing encounters between individuals in the street up to the investigation of world-wide social processes”: Giddens (“Sociology”, 1989)
“The purpose of Sociology is the scientific study of human society through the investigation of people’s social behaviour”: Giner (“Sociology”, 1972)
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
Identify some of the things sociologists study
Identify some of the ways sociologists study social life
Two major themesTwo major themes
Examples
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
Sociologists study social behaviour - people and their patterns of behaviour. The focus is on the way people form relationships and how these relationships, considered in their totality, are represented by the concept of a “society”.
The focus of attention is group behaviour – how the groups people join or are born into (family, work, education and so forth) affect their development and behaviour.
The definitions included words like “scientific”, “systematic” and “objective” - ideas that tell us something about how sociologists study behaviour and the kinds of knowledge they are trying to produce to explain such behaviour.
Sociologists create knowledge that is factual, rather than simply based on opinion. Systematic ways of studying social behaviour are used - sociologists test their ideas about social behaviour using evidence drawn from their observations.
Two major themesTwo major themes
Identify some of the things sociologists study
Identify some of the ways sociologists study social life
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
This being the case, we need to look a little more closely at the concepts of social groups in order to understand how the relationships we form shape our behaviour…
“Sociology is a social science concerned with the study of social relationships and the various ways these relationships are patterned in terms of our membership of social groups”.
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
A “social group” is a collection of individuals who interact – both formally and informally – with each other.
A Family Group
People who are related by birth, marriage, etc.
A Friendship Group
Includes people who hang around together because they like each other
An Educational Group
Might include people studying together in the same school / college or class.
A Work Group
Might include people who do the same type of job.
A Peer Group
Includes people of roughly the same age
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and MethodsSocial Groups…Social Groups…
SocietySociety
InstitutionsInstitutions
Small GroupsSmall Groups
IndividualsIndividuals
The largest group to which we usually belong…
Institutions are stable patterns of group behaviour that persist over long periods of time
Groups, such as families, peer and friendship groups, etc.
Action
Our relationships are based on (or structured by) both formal and informal rules. “Society” therefore, represents a totality of relationships that imposes rules upon our behaviour.
Structure
The main types of institutional groups in our society are:
Family and Kinship, Government, Work and cultural institutions such as the media, education, and religion.
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
One of the main things sociologists investigate are “social structures”
That is, the way our individual lives are built around social relationships and the rules we have developed to govern such relationships.
Sociologists argue that our individual choices of behaviour are shaped by the relationships we form (or have imposed on us).
In the following screens, therefore, we need to investigate some of the ways our behaviour is constrained, formally and informally, by social structures…
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
Identify some of the ways your behaviour is influenced by:Identify some of the ways your behaviour is influenced by:
SocietySociety The MediaThe Media
• Language…• Laws
• Lifestyle• Advertising
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
Identify some of the ways your behaviour is influenced by:Identify some of the ways your behaviour is influenced by:
SchoolSchool Your FamilyYour Family
• Respect for authority• What you are taught
• Right and wrong behaviour• Language
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
Identify some of the ways your behaviour is influenced by:Identify some of the ways your behaviour is influenced by:
Your PeersYour Peers Your FriendsYour Friends
• Fashion• Gender behaviour
• Self-perception
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
This being the case, the next step is to examine these ideas, beginning with the concept of culture…culture…
If Sociology is the study of social relationships and the way in which our lives are structured by rules, it follows that the initial answer to the question
“What is Sociology?”
is that it is the study of Social OrderSocial Order…
In other words, Sociology explains how order is:
CreatedCreated
MaintainedMaintained
ReproducedReproduced
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
The End?The End?
The next Presentation examines
Culture and IdentityCulture and Identity
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
Sociology 11
Sociology 11
Mr. Bausback
Class Notes
Chapter 1&2
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
““Theory!Theory!””
A word to strike fear into the hearts of
Sociology teachers and students alike…
It’s going to be complicated –
I’ll never understand it…
It’s complicated – how can I teach it so
they’ll grasp it?
However, as with everything in life, theory is
as complicated as you want to make it.
And as with most things, if you understand the basics, it’s much easier to grasp the
harder bits…
And besides – (sociological) theory is ImportantImportant.
If we grasp the theory behind something, everything else is much easier to understand…
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
“How is our identity shaped by culture?”
““Theory”Theory”
A suggested explanation for something…
A systematic and general attempt to
explain something…
“Why do people get married?”
“Why do people commit
crimes?
“How does the media affect us?” “Why do kids play
truant from school?”
“Why do some people believe in
God?”
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
““Theory”Theory”
…is something we use all the time in our
everyday life
“Why do I feel unwell?”
“Why are my friends behaving
oddly?”
“Why do I have to go to school?”
We all use theory to construct explanations about the social world in which we live…
Which, in a way, is what Sociologists also try to do…
In a slightly different way, of course…
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
Sociological TheorySociological TheoryComes in a variety of shapes
and sizes…
High-Level TheoriesHigh-Level Theories
Mid-Range TheoriesMid-Range Theories
Low-Level TheoriesLow-Level Theories
Focus on trying to explain how and why society is ordered
Focus on trying to explain some general aspect of
social behaviour
Focus on trying to explain a specific aspect of social
behaviour.
Why do I always fall asleep in
Psychology lessons?
Why do girls achieve higher
educational qualifications than boys?
FunctionalismFunctionalism…
Marxism…Marxism…
Interactionism…Interactionism…
Feminism…Feminism…
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods If you understand the basic principles of High-level theories you will find it
easier to understand other types of theory.
High level theories are usually known by their more-common
label of “Sociological Sociological PerspectivesPerspectives”
A “perspective”, for our current purposes, is simply
a way of looking at and understanding the social
world.
Different sociologists, working within different perspectives, construct different theories about the nature of that world…
This is because Mid-range and Low-level
theories are often based on the
principles underpinning High-
level theories.
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
Sociological Perspectives…Sociological Perspectives…The following slides are designed to help you understand the basic themes / principles of a range of sociological perspectives
They do this by using analogies…
In other words, they help you to decide “what society is like” (from different sociological perspectives) by asking you to compare “society” to something familiar…
Part of your task in the following screens, therefore, is to use a variety
of different analogies to develop a picture of how the concept of “society”
is seen and explained by different sociological perspectives…
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods Functionalism…Functionalism…
“Society Is Like”: A Human Body
Characteristics of human body… Characteristics of society…
Each part of the body works in harmony with all other parts
Each part of society works in harmony with all other parts
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods Marxism…Marxism…
“Society Is Like”: A League Table
Characteristics of league table… Characteristics of society…
A league is characterised by competition between teams
Society involves competition between social groups / classes
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
“Society Is Like”: A Play
Characteristics of a play… Characteristics of society…
A play has actors who play their individual roles
Society consists of individual actors who play a variety of
roles
Interactionism…Interactionism…
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods Feminism…Feminism…
“Society Is Like”: A League Table
Characteristics of league table… Characteristics of society…
A league is characterised by competition between teams
Society involves competition between men and women
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods Post-Modernism…Post-Modernism…
“Society Is Like”: A Theme Park
Characteristics of theme park… Characteristics of society…
A theme park has numerous different rides
Society is characterised by a multiplicity of choices (work,
education, leisure, etc.)
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
“...THE SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF HUMAN SOCIETY ”SYSTEMATIC
SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE THAT FOCUSES ATTENTION ON PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR
HUMAN SOCIETYGROUP BEHAVIOR IS PRIMARY FOCUS;
HOW GROUPS INFLUENCE INDIVIDUALS AND VICE VERSA
AT THE “HEART OF SOCIOLOGY”THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
WHICH OFFERS A UNIQUE VIEW OF SOCIETY
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
EDUCATION AND LIBERAL ARTSWELL-ROUNDED AS A PERSON
SOCIAL EXPECTATIONS
MORE APPRECIATION FOR DIVERSITYTHE GLOBAL VILLAGE
DOMESTIC SOCIAL MARGINALITY
ENHANCED LIFE CHANCESMICRO AND MACRO UNDERSTANDING
INCREASE SOCIAL POTENTIALS
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and MethodsOTHER WAYS SOCIOLOGY ALLOWS US TO SEE ANEW
ADVANTAGES OF A SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVESOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL MARGINALITY
ALLOWS US TO NOTICE DIVERSITY IN AMERICA
SOCIOLOGY DRAWS ATTENTION TO SOCIAL CRISIS
IMPORTANCE OF THESE ITEMSTHEY ALLOW US TO SEE THE CONNECTION
BETWEEN MICRO AND MACRO SOCIAL ELEMENTS
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and MethodsGLOBAL LINKAGESOCIOLOGY OFFERS STUDENTS THE
OPPORTUNITY TO UNDERSTAND THE GLOBAL VILLAGEALL SOCIETIES ARE INCREASINGLY CONNECTED
THROUGH TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMICS
INTERDEPENDENCY OF NATIONS
MANY SOCIAL PROBLEMS FACED BY AMERICANS ARE MORE SERIOUS ELSEWHERE
MORE AWARENESS
UNDERSTANDING GLOBAL ISSUES AND THE WORLD AROUND AMERICA ALLOWS STUDENTS TO BETTER UNDERSTAND THEMSELVES
FEWER ETHNOCENTRIC TENDENCIES
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
The Sociological Perspective
OBSERVATIONS ARE CERTAINLY IMPACTED BY THE PERSONAL
PERSPECTIVES THROUGH WHICH PEOPLE COME TO VIEW THE WORLD
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE:PETER BERGER
SEE THE GENERAL IN THE PARTICULARGENERAL SOCIAL PATTERNS IN THE BEHAVIOR
OF PARTICULAR INDIVIDUALSINDIVIDUALS ARE UNIQUE…BUT
SOCIETY’S SOCIAL FORCES SHAPE US INTO “KINDS” OF PEOPLE
CONSIDER THESE PEOPLE MORE LIKELY TO KILL
THEMSELVES
PEOPLE MORE LIKELY TO GO TO AND SUCCEED IN COLLEGE AND ENJOY A FAVORABLE QUALITY OF LIFE
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and MethodsSeeing the General in the Particular
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African Americans Whites
10.9
20.2
6.212.4
1.94.9
Males Both Sexes Females
RATE OF DEATH BY SUICIDE
By Race and Sex
U.S. Bureau of the Census
WHAT SOCIAL FORCES AREAT WORK HERE?
PER 100,000 PERSONS
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
DURKHEIM’S STUDY OF SUICIDEMORE LIKELY TO COMMIT
MALE PROTESTANTS WHO WERE WEALTHY AND UNMARRIED HAD HIGHER SUICIDE RATES
PROTESTANTISM AND INDIVDUALISM
LESS LIKELY TO COMMITMALE JEWS AND CATHOLICS WHO WERE POOR AND
MARRIEDBEING CATHOLIC AND GROUP-ORIENTATION
ONE OF THE BASIC FINDINGS: WHY?THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THESE GROUPS HAD TO
DO WITH “SOCIAL INTEGRATION”THOSE WITH STRONG SOCIAL TIES HAD LESS OF A
CHANCE OF COMMITING SUICIDE
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
COLLEGE BOUND?A COLLEGE DEGREE IS THE
KEY TO SUCCESS IN AMERICAWHAT IS IT ABOUT SOCIETY THAT
MAKES THESE PEOPLE MORE OR LESS LIKELY TO EXPERIENCE A COLLEGE EDUCATION?
BLACKS: 60 PERCENTHISPANICS: 66 PERCENTWHITES: 68 PERCENT
ONLY PART OF THE STORY…COLLEGE DROPOUT RATES
ARE VERY HIGH AMONGST BLACKS AND HISPANICS
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and MethodsSEEING THE STRANGE IN THE FAMILIARPETER BERGER:
“THINGS AREN’T ALWAYS WHAT THEY SEEM”
SOCIOLOGY ASKS STUDENTS TO:GIVE UP FAMILIAR ASSUMPTIONSKNOW THAT SOCIETY INFLUENCES
PEOPLE BY GUIDING THOUGHTS AND BEHAVIORS
ANY DOUBTS??? TO WHAT REAL EXTENT DID YOUR OWN
“FREE WILL” ENTER INTO YOUR DECISION TO ATTEND COLLEGE?
WHAT ABOUT EXTERNAL SOCIAL FORCES?
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and MethodsEXTERNAL FORCES SIT RIGHT ON TOP OF US!!!
SOCIETY COMMUNITY
ORGANIZATIONS
GROUPS
AND NORMS
DYADS
NORMSNORMS
& NORMS
SOCIETY& NORMS NORMS
SOCIALEXPECTATIONS
REWARDS &PUNISHMENTS
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and MethodsSOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATIONC. WRIGHT MILLS’ SOCIOLOGICAL
IMAGINATIONSOCIETY IS OFTEN RESPONSIBLE FOR MANY
OF OUR PROBLEMS WE NEED TO LEARN TO SEPARATE THINGS
THAT HAVE TO DO WITHPERSONAL TROUBLES, OR BIOGRAPHYSOCIAL ISSUES, OR HISTORY
EXAMPLES:WOMEN’S OPPORTUNITIES AT THE TURN OF
THE CENTURY AND THESE DAYSLIFESTYLES OF THOSE WE LABEL DISABLED
IN THE 1950’S AND NOW
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
THINK IN TERMS OF LAWS,VALUES, NORMS, TRADITIONS,SOCIAL EXPECATIONS, ROLES,STATUSES, AND BELIEFSYSTEMS.
THINK IN TERMS OF FAMILY,THE ECONOMY, RELIGION, THELEGAL SYSTEM, AND SCHOOL
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods STUDENTS SHOULD BE ABLETO SEE THE CONNECTION BETWEEN BIOGRAPHY ANDHISTORY!
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
THE DISCIPLINE’S ORIGINSTHE DISCIPLINE’S ORIGINSSOCIOLOGY SPRANG FROM THREE SEPARATE,
YET INTERDEPENDENT REVOLUTIONSTHE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
A BELIEF IN SCIENCE BEGAN TO REPLACE TRADITIONAL FORMS OF AUTHORITY
THE ECONOMIC REVOLUTIONINDUSTRIALISM AND CAPITALISM WERE
CHANGING ECONOMIC PATTERNS
THE POLITICAL REVOLUTIONMORE DEMOCRATIC VALUES AND
STANDARDS WERE BEING ADOPTED
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
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PE
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AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857)POSITIVISM; LAW OF THREE
STAGES; THE “TWIN PILLARS”
KARL MARX (1818-1883)CLASS CONFLICT/STRUGGLE
HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903)SOCIAL DARWINISM
EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917)GROUP FORCES; SOCIAL
SOLIDARITY
W.E.B. DU BOIS (1868-1963)PLIGHT OF AFRICAN AMERICANS
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and MethodsWOMEN IN SOCIOLOGYHARRIET MARTINEAU (1802-1876)
TRANSLATED THE WORKS OF AUGUSTE COMTE
FOCUSED ON ISSUES SURROUNDINGWOMEN’S RIGHTSSLAVERYTHE WORKPLACE AND FACTORY LAWS
JANE ADDAMS (1860-1933)SOCIAL WORKERDEVELOPED PLAN TO HELP IMMIGRANTS
NEW TO CITY LIFE IN AMERICAHULL HOUSE IN CHICAGONOBEL PEACE PRIZE WINNER, 1931
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
SOCIAL PARADIGMSSOCIAL PARADIGMSSOCIAL PARADIGMSSOCIAL PARADIGMSTHEORY: A STATEMENT OF HOW AND WHY
FACTS ARE RELATED
PARADIGM: A SET OF FUNDAMENTAL ASSUMPTIONS THAT GUIDES THINKING
PEOPLE HOLD DIFFERING OPINIONS ABOUT THEIR SOCIAL WORLD
WE ALL COME FROM DIFFERENT SOCIALEXPERIENCES AND THEYBIAS OUR ASSUMPTIONS
UP WITH
PEOPLE
DOWN WITHPEOPLE
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and MethodsSTRUCTURAL -FUNCTIONALISMTHE BASICS
A MACRO-ORIENTED (LARGE-SCALE) PARADIGM
VIEWS SOCIETY AS A COMPLEX SYSTEM WITH MANY INTERDEPENDENT PARTS
THE PARTS WORK TOGETHER TO PROMOTE SOCIAL STABILITY AND ORDER
MAJOR CHANGES TO THE SYSTEM’S PARTS IS NOT REQUIRED OR DESIRED; SYSTEM SEEKS TO MAINTAIN IT EQUILIBRIUM
KEY ELEMENTS:SOCIAL STRUCTURE
REFERS TO RELATIVELY STABLE PATTERNS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR FOUIND IN SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
SOCIAL FUNCTION
REFERS TO THE CONSEQUENCES OF SOCIAL PATTERNS FOR SOCIETY
THE WORK OF ROBERT K. MERTON ON SOCIAL FUNCTION
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
THE BASICS:A MACRO-ORIENTED PARADIGM
VIEWS SOCIETY AS A STRUCTURED SYSTEM BASED ON INEQUALITY
SOCIAL CONFLICT BETWEEN GROUPS OVER SCARCE RESOURCES IS THE NORM
KEY ELEMENTS:SOCIETY IS STRUCTURED IN WAYS TO
BENEFIT A FEW AT THE EXPENSE OF THE MAJORITY
FACTORS SUCH AS RACE, SEX, CLASS, AND AGE ARE LINKED TO SOCIAL INEQUALITY
DOMINANT GROUP VS. MINORITY GROUP RELATIONS
INCOMPATIBLE INTERESTS AND MAJOR DIFFERENCES
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
THE CONFLICT PARADIGM
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and Methods
THE BASICS:THE VIEW THAT SOCIETY IS THE PRODUCT
OF EVERYDAY INTERACTIONS
PRINCIPLES:SOCIETY IS A COMPLEX MOSAIC OF
UNDERSTANDING THAT EMERGES FROM THE VERY PROCESS OF INTERACTING
GOFFMAN’S DRAMATURGICAL ANALSYIS
THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF REALITY
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
SYMBOLIC INTERACTION IS A MICRO-ORIENTED PARADIGM,WHICH MEANS IT IS EFFECTIVELY USED WHEN ATTEMPTING TO UNDERSTAND SMALLER-SCALE SOCIAL PHENOMENA
OCR Module: 2537
Theory and MethodsTheory and MethodsBURGER AND LUCKMANN’S IDEASBURGER AND LUCKMANN’S IDEAS
THINK OF LANGUAGE AS A CONSTANT PROCESS THAT INVOLVESEXTERNALIZATION
CREATION OF INSTITUTIONS AND RULES THAT GOVERN INTERACTION
OBJECTIFICATIONPEOPLE BEGIN TO SEE SUCH ARRANGEMENTS AS DO
NOT HAVE A HUMAN CONNECTION - REIFICATION
INTERNALIZATIONWE INTERNALIZE A SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED
REALITY AS WE LEARN TO ADAPT TO SOCIETY ON OUR WAY TO BECOMING A “NORMAL HUMAN”
EXAMPLE: THE PROCESS BY WHICH A TECHNICAL COLLEGE IS TRANSFORMED INTO A COMPREHENSIVE COMMUNITY COLLEGE