Chapter 5

Occasionalism Revived: AI- Ghazali 's

Critique on Emanationism

Introduction

Al-Ghazali was the first Islamic philosopher who successfully refuted Islamic

Neoplatonic thought by his sheer logic. He is considered as the main member of ash'arite

school. However, he challenged some of the basic tenets of ash'arite school. He inaugurated a

radical shift in Islamic theology by his philosophy ofOccasionalism. He played a great role in

synthesizing Sufism with the Islamic laws.

Al-Ghazali firmly believed that the uplifetment of human being is only

possible by a spiritual upliftement of his soul. This vitality can be achieved only through

shedding mental and physical weakness. This can be achieved by the employment of human

mind in the right guidance of divine introspection. He believed in tazkiya nafs (self

purification).The main argument ofhis theory is based on the concept of dualism. It states that

mind and matter are different entities since their essences cannot affect each other. Al-Ghazali

believed that created substance cannot be taken as the efficient cause of events. But God is the

progenitcr of the whole cause. Ghazali claims that efficient causation occurs because of Gods

interventcon of making a cycle of events occur.

The scholastic philosophy developed in the middle of ninth century with its

orthodm, and semi orthodox forms can be referred to as Occasionalism. As the main

proponent of occasionalism, al-Ghazali upholds God's effect as inscrutable in any happenings.

He is only bound to his nature. So the immensity of Gods acceptance in the spatio-temporal

occurrence is taken in the strict sense as unitary. 362

The great genius of Ghazali lies in his immense contributions in varied field

stretching from jurisprudence to philosophy. His writings mark his inner clarity and certitude

that he attained through a painful period of spiritual crisis. Ghazali was the main proponent of

the Asharite School of atomism. He argued that atoms are only the everlasting things in

existence, and all the other things in this world is accidental.

362 Fakhry, Majid, op.cit, p. 20

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Henry Corbin quotes Ghazali: "True knowledge is the knowledge through

which the known object is utterly disclosed (to the spirit), in such a manner that no doubt can

exist with regard to it, and no error can tarnish it. It is this level at which the heart cannot

admit or even conceive of doubt. Any knowledge which has not attained this level of certitude

is incomplete and suspectible to error."363

It was Ghazali's great contribution that made Sufism an inseparable part of

Orthodox Islam. Ghazali's blending of spiritualism with philosophical quest materialized

spiritual doctrines to everyday queries in an emphatic manner. So Ghazali's dialectics

enabled faith to become an intelligible entity with a rational tinge. At the same time, his

writings initiated a great movement in Islamic mysticism. 364 Ghazali's thoughts were directly

influenced by the ash'arite' emphasis on the omnipotence of God. Ghazali's whole endeavour

is devoted to the revival oflslamic polity in all aspects. His great concern for the well being of

Islamic society compelled him to classify and set limits of each science in a precise manner.

Al-Ghazali: Life and Works

Abu-Hamid-Al-Ghazali was born in a poor family at Tus in Khorasan, Persia

around 1058 AD, and died in 111 A.D. Some writers claimed that his father was a spinner of

wool and died when Ghazali was young. Then, he and his brother were given up to the foster

care of a Sufi friend of the family. They went Gurgan to join a Madrassa, where he studied

Fiqh Uurisprudence of Islam). Frank Griffe! quotes al-ghazali: "we acquired knowledge for

reasons other than the sake of God; but knowledge refuses to be anything else than the sake of

God."365 The atmosphere in which Ghazali was brought up had an Islamic fervor, which,

in turn had a deep impact on the unique personality of Ghazali in the later years.

After some years of study there in Gurgan, Al-Ghazali returned to Tus. When

he was almost 23, he traveled to Nishapur where he became a student ofthe famous Islamic

scholar and greatest theologian Jwyani Imam AI Haramyn. Ghazali was deeply ingrained by

363 Corbin, Henry. (1962), op. cit, p. 183 364 Boer, De. T.J, (1903), op. cit, p.l56. 365 Griffe!, Frank. (2009), Al-Ghazali 's Philosophical Theology, New York: Oxford University Press, p. 27.

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his philosophical teaching. He stayed there as his student until his master's death. Famous

scholar Jules Janssens traces that it was in this period Ghazali became a great adept of

Avicenna which is reverberated in his work The Intention of Philosophers. 366

Later on, Al-Ghazali's outstanding intelligence attracted Nizam Al-Mulk Tusi,

the powerful vizier of the Turkish Sultan. Consequently, he named Al-ghazali as Professor of

law and theology in Al-Nizamiya, a prominent Sunni institution in Baghdad, in AD 1091. In

this period, al-Ghazali went through spiritual crisis and, as a result, he gave up the job to

escape from the environment which had created restlessness in his mind.

He came to realize that the main cause of his crisis was nothing but his cracing

for unnecessary material possessions. He wanted to have deliverance from the wrong path

before his life ends. He dedicated his life to the supreme power. He was craving for salvation,

which can be realized only through ascetic practices. This realization led him to the complete

aloofness from his professional and family life. Al-Ghazali left Baghdad in 1095 in the pretext

of going for Hajj so that people would not be able to keep in touch with him and affect his

ascetic life. He changed his direction and visited Damascus and Jerusalem after a short visit to

Medina and Mecca in 1096. Then, he went Tus and spent several years of secluded life.

After several years, Al-Ghazali did return to teaching and spent a short period

in his old school Nizamiyyah of Baghdad. Later, he returned to his hometown and established

a school to continue his teaching and learning. He was forced to teach in Nizamiyyha school

ofNishapur by Nizamul Mulk's Son, but he retired from the job in 1109 and died in 1111.367

Al-Ghazali is known to the world more through his writings. Even though his

writings are unparalleled in the world, many of them left unpublished and are still found in

rare manuscripts. Muslim writers claim that there are ninety nine works. However,

366 Ibid, p.30. 367

Dhanani, Alnoor. (2005), Medieval Science. Technology and Medicine: an encyclopedia, New York: Routledge, , p. 194.

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Brockelmann in his 'History of Arabic Literature' listed sixty-nine works which are

available. 368 His writings covered broad areas of knowledge such as theology, philosophy,

eschatology, Mysticism, ethics, and Law. He is considered as the greatest writer among all the

Muslim scholars. Samuel. M. Zwemer quotes Ismael Ibn Mohammed Al Hadrami:

"Muhammad, the son of Abdullah was the Prince of all Prophets; Mohammed the son ofldris

Al-Shafi' was the prince oflmams; But, Mohammed, the son of Mohammed Al-Ghazali was

the Prince of Writers."369 Ghazali's writings bring in a new tum in Islamic thought and it

leaves a wide ranging visible but less attentive effect in the modem western philosophical

arena which is meticulously traceable in philosophers like Descartes, David Hume etc. While

showing the resemblance between al-Ghazali's Revivification of Science and Religion and

Descartes' Discourse on Method, George Henry Lewes says, "it bears so remarkable a

resemblance to the Discours sur la methode of Descartes, that had any translation of it existed

in the days of Descartes, everyone would have cried out against the plagiarism."370

Ghazali's writings left deep impact on later Jewish scholar Maimonides and the

great Christian scholar StThomas Aquinas, (1225-1274) who studied Arabic Philosophical

works and acknowledged his indebtedness to them.371 Even though Ghazali and Aquinas have

something in common, they hold different methods and belie£ Whereas Ghazali refutes the

logical scheme of Aristotle by asserting that it has the base of irrationality, Aquinas

incorporated Greek, Latin and Islamic philosophical thought into his writings to uphold the

theological scheme.

Some of his major philosophical works launch vehement attack on the

interpretation of Islamic thought which had been moulded in Neoplatonic Aristotelian logical

scheme by his predecessors al-Farabi and ibr:-Sina. It was Al-Ghazali's works that gave the

strength for Sunnis in defending and reinvigourating their ideas. It was in this context that

368 Zwemer, Samuel. M. (2008), A Moslem Seeker After God: Showing Jslanz at its Best in the Life and

Teaching ofGhazali Mystic and Theologian of the Elel enth Century New York: Fleming H. Revel Company, p.l71 369 Ibid, p. 171 370

Henry, George Lewes. ( 1857), The Biographical History of Philosophy: From its origin in Greece Down to the Present Day, New York: D Appleton, p.363. 371 Bray Brooke, Marcus. (2009), Beacons of the Light: 100 Holy People who Have Shaped the History of Humanity, UK: John Hunt, p.237.

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Ismailism emerged as a force in the land of Persia and was gaining more and more strength.

So, Ghazali had to refute their ideas in order to defend the notions of Sunnis.

In his earlier career Al-Ghazali produced a work called Al-Maqasid- Al­

Falasifa (Aims of Philosophers) which shows his in-depth knowledge and firm grasp in the

methods and problems of Peripatetic philosophy. This work was a systematic interpretation of

Aristotelianism to the later Christian Scholastic philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas

(673/1274) Albert, the Great (d. 679/1280), and Roger Bacon (d.694/1294) through a Latin

translation by the Spanish philosopher and translator Dominicus Gundisalvus. This book is

basically assumed as a summery and introductory work on Incoherence of Philosophers.372

Some scholars considered that the Aims of Philosophers is an adapted Arabic translation of

Ibn-Sina's Persian work, Philosophy of 'Ala' al Dawla. However, towards the end of Aims of

Philosophers, al-Ghazali promises that he is going to refute some philosophic concepts in the

book entitled the Incoherence of Philosophers. But the scholars who deny the link between

Aims and Incoherence argue that this statement added in the end of Aims is done only after

completion of Incoherence. 373

1) The Incoherence of Philosophers

Al-Ghazali attacked philosophers in his several works especially in

Thahafathul Falastfa (Incoherence of Philosophers). In his endeavor to defend religion from

the the onslaught of philosophers, al-Ghazali was successful in placing his argument in a

proper way which is highly reverberated in the Islamic world. The impact of thehafathul

falasifa in the Islamic philosophical arena is understandable from the opinion of Solomon

Munk; 'it was a "fatal blow" to Arabian philosophy in the East. And it has not recovered in

full form until it revived for a while in Spain. ' 374

The book, Incoherence of Philosophers, consists of twenty points in which Al­

Ghazali refutes all the ideas infiltrated to Islamic thought through Neoplatonic Aristotelian

372 Hanif, N. (2002), Biographical2ncyclopedia of Sufis: Central Asia and Middle East, New Delhi:

Sarup and Sons, p.l41. 373

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2007) Al-Ghazali, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/al-ghazali/ 374

Field ,Claud. (2008), Al-Ghazali, The Alchemy of Happiness, URL: http/: www.forgotton.org, p.3.

134

tenets. He exposes the contradiction engaged in philosophers' theory on various metaphysical

and ontological matters and he tried to establish the official orthodox tenets of religion.

Ghazali perceives that the differences between theologians are only in some areas which are

not challenging the fundamental tenets of Islam, whereas philosophers attack very basic

principles oflslam. Further, he exhorts the theologians to unite against the philosophers and to

consider them as a common enemy oflslam. 375

Al-Ghazali criticizes Islamic philosophers' superiority complex and infallibility

over others because of their greater intelligence and insight. He ridicules Islamic philosophers

ibn Sine. and al-Farabi for exaggerating the intellectual contributions of Greek masters

especially in physics, mathematics, logic, metaphysics and sciences. According to Ghazali,

this exaggeration is something that gave them the confidence to challenge the basic tenet of

Islam. hlamic philosophers argued that their extraordinary intelligence can discover hidden

things by deductive method. But al-Ghazali terms them as heretics, since they are not

accepting the religious truth uncritically. Ghazali feels they have accepted falsehood

uncritical! y.

In the conclusion of the book, al-Ghazali puts forward three inevitable reasons

to brand philosophers with infidelity, namely: "(i), the problem of eternity ofthe world, where

they maintained that all the substances are eternal. (ii), their assertion that divine knowledge

does not encompass individual objects (iii) their denial of the resurrection of bodies."376Al­

Ghazali views that all these three theories are blatant violation of basic tenets of Islam.

Believing in philosophers' perception on these three problems is considered to be

blasphemo•Js. 377 Furthermore, Ghazali concludes by looking into other problems as well (eg.

philosopher's vision of Divine attributes and their doctrine ofUnity ect.)

375 Ghazali. Tahafut Al-Falasifa, (incoherence of the philosophers), translated by Sabih Ahmad Kamali, p. 8 376 Ibid, p.249 377 Ibid, p.249

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2) The Deliverance from Error

The work was written towards the end of his life. Islamic Scholars considered

this work as an echo ofGhazali's journey in his short life span. It is one of the most important

works in the world literature because of its composite intellectual vibrancy. The book was

found in 1842 and got translated into French by Auguste Schmolders. The book itself is

having two titles; the first one is Al-Munqidh min al-Dalal wa al-Mufsih 'an al-ahwal (The

Deliverance from error and the Revealer of the Mystical States of the Soul), the second is is

Al-Munqidh min al-Dalal wa al-Muwassil ila Dhi al-'izza wa al-Jalal (The Deliverance from

error and the Deliverer to the Possessor of Power and Glory).378 Some scholars take the work

as an autobiographical work of al-Ghazali. However, there was no such kind of writing in

Islamic literature at that point of time. Islam's prohibited boasting one's own achievements

and abilities in strict measures. Al-Ghazali did not mention much fascinating information

about himself in the book. 379

The book begins with al-Ghazali's replay to his brother who raised a question

pertaining to 'the aims and inmost nature of sciences and the perplexing depth of the religious

system.' He points out that he is a man who has thirst for knowledge and spirit for enquiring

everything. He states that this habit is God given nature not from his own choice. In this book,

Al-Ghazali upholds the view that there is a form of human apprehension superior to the

rational apprehension namely that of prophet's knowledge which is directly from the God

through revelation. Here, Ghazali analyses every systems and prefers Sufism as the last

permanent solution.

The work gives an account of al-Ghazali' s explanations on the limits and bases

of reason. He proceeds to cross the boundary of reason to accomplish spiritual salvation and

to fmd the way to definitive certitude. In his review, he underlined both the limitation of

Kalam and significance of Sufism.

378 Al-Ghazali. (200 I) Deliverance from Error and Mystical Union with Almighty, translated by Muhammad Abulaylah, introduction and notes by McLean, George F. p. 22. 379 Ibid, p.21.

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3) The Revival ofReligious Sciences (Ihya uloom uddeen)

This is also one of the major works of Ghazali which covers mostly area of

Islamic religious sciences, Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence), Kalam (Islamic Theology) and

Sufism. The work is considered as the magnum opus of Muslim spirituality and its position. It

holds second position after Quran in the matrix of most read text. The Revival of Religious

Sciences comprises of four major parts: part one deals with knowledge and norms of Worship

such as ritual purity, offering prayer, pilgrimage, fasting etc. The second part is all about

norms of daily life such as the manners related to marriage, earning, eating etc. Part three

deals with the ways to perdition and part four is on the ways to salvation.

Al-Ghazali: Critique on Causality

Ghazali's main motive of writing Tahafut (Collapse of philosophers) is taken

to be extremely religious. The main reason for apprehension related with the author is the way

the free thinkers had taken a stand to repudiate Islamic beliefs and started neglecting the ritual

basis of worship as unworthy of their intellectual attainments. This, Ghazali knew, was

because of the adulation they had for Greek philosophers from Socrates to Aristotle.

Ghazali's main contention is the problem of causality in relation to the divine

power. In the sixteenth question ofthe Tahafut, he questions the claim of the philosophers of

the idea of separate intelligences which make the movement of spheres through a distinct

path. Ghazali argues that this sort of knowledge makes a conclusion that all earthly

contingent events have their own original knowledge. This implies that every series of causes

and effects terminates in the particular heavenly movements. 380 The radical charge which

Ghazali pose against Aristotelian philosophers is that they maintain a deterministic world

view. This prevents the possibility of the passage of heterogeneous entity into the natural

process of the supernatural and extraordinary. In his defense of his eternalist thesis, Ghazali

asserts that world was cr~ated in a particular point oftime through an eternal decree of God.

38° Fakhry, Majid, (1958), op. cit, p.58. 137

A mathematical argument is put forward to shatter the arguments of

Neoplatonists. In the logical sense, world came into prominence with an array of revolution

which heaven had already gone through. So this can obviously serve as a basis of

mathematical computation. For example, the sphere of the sun completes a single revolution

in a year. Saturn completes it in thirty years. Then, when a finite ratio is taken, it would easily

contradict the assumption that these revolutions are infinite and occur in infmite time. 381 Al­

Ghazali contests ibn Sina's argument that God is not prior to the world in essence, but He is in

the creaticn oftime. Ghazali supports creation oftime very strongly. 382

To illustrate his argument, Ghazali takes the example of placing a piece of

cotton in fire. Usually it is taken as God's custom to allow the cotton to burn when it comes

into cont1ct with fire. But, Ghazali explains that, this does not direct that fire cause the cotton

to burn. It is God who is actually responsible for making the cotton burned when it is brought

into the presence of fire. Thus, it is God's prerogative to make it burns or not. So the fact that,

God m:Jkes this cause to happen has nothing to do with the nature of the fire or the nature of

the cotton, or even the relation between fire and cotton.383

Ghazalian thought is deeply rooted in principles of Qur'an. But he cannot be

taken as an orthodox thinker in all the aspec~s. His greatest achievement is amalgamating

spirituality with a very rational tinge. Al-Ghazali suggests the branches of natural science as

impmtant tools to understand Quran. Ghazali poses a question on the immense diversities of

the Holy book and gives a fitting reply that spiritualism is a macrocosm of everything.

In Tahafut a! Falasifa, he continues with his vehement attack against the

Islamic Neoplatonists. In this work of enduring interest, Ghazali refutes 20 philosophical

doctrines which could be considered as an epitome of Neoplatonism. The problem that

381 M~jid Fakhry, (2004), op. cit, p.70. 382 Ibi rl, p 72. 383 Harding Karen, Causality then and now: Al-Ghazali and Quantum Theory, p.l69.

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Ghazali saw in the doctrine of al-Frabi and ibn Sina is that they forced God to produce the

world through a sense of necessity by the process of emanation. 384

By refutation, Ghazali is not completely negating Aristotelian philosophy. He

is actually making room for an epistemological claim of revelation. Ghazali accuses that a

group of philosophers is vehemently against the idea of revelation. Ghazali declares that

ethics is a central theme in his writings. He upholds mysticism by saying that its ultimate end

is the vision of God. This is what he regards in the knowledge of revelation. Ghazali locates

ethics in the premises of knowledge which leads to happiness. He considers ethics as a part of

a religious science. He distinguishes this from other sciences especially jurisprudence which is

taken to be connected with the external worldly affairs of man. The non- religious sciences are

divided into commendable such as medicine and mathematics. The science of fundamental

principles is divided into four parts.

Ghazali had to emulate philosophy in order to counter the dominant

philosophical set up which existed at that particular point of time. But the tremendous impact

he had in deconstructing it is very noteworthy. Even though he went against philosophy in

Tahafut, it was a polemical stuff against it, the amount of surprise lies in the ideas he

challenged. 385

Ghazali contests Neoplatonic notion of necessity. The connection, according to

him is connection based on prior power of God. The connection between cause and effect is

not something which is ought to be attached to natural order. It is entitled to the creator, who

owns it and who can suspend it at any time. 386 The validity of causal relationship, according to

Ghazali, rests on two suppositions. The first can be taken as the a priori principles of

causality. The second supposition is the exhaustive knowledge of the series of causes

operating in that sequence. Ghazali had a deep insight into the nature of scholarship during his

time. Ghazali's project was actually to restore the original meaning ofboth science and action.

384 Ghazalian Synthesis, P4. Accessed on 12, may, 2010, http://www.cis-ca.org/voices/g/Ghazali­Muzaffar.pdf 385 Halevi, Leor. (2002) 'The Theologians Doubts', Journal ofThe History of!deas:63, pp. 19-33 386 Riker Stephen. (1996), 'AI- Ghazali on Necessary Causality', Monist: 79, p.317.

139

The power of God, according to Ghazali, is an absolute entity compared to all possibilities.

Since there is no limit to the range of possibilities, the scope is indefmable. Ghazali asserts

that the intellect cannot postulate a necessary bond between the existence of the possible and

the consciousness of existence, since God has the capacity to create the inexistence of the

possible. 387

Ghazali maintains a unique conception of the Will. According to him, Will is

an object, an entity and an inner force that originates movement or action. He takes Will as the

faculty responsible for implementing intentions of mind. In much of the contemporary

philosophy, Will as an agent has lost its validity. Ghazali already makes quite clear that he is

rejecting two different versions of causal necessity. He affirms that the inanimate things have

no causal action. They reside with resides with God whose acts are voluntary. Everything

happens through his direct interference.

Karen Harding cited in his article "Causality: Then and Now," the great link

between Ghazalian modus operandi and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. He tries to

explain Ghazalian thesis by taking the possibility of electron. The main intriguing part of

electron is that it is a particle that evades a particular position in a matter. It is actually an

observer who determines its position. Without this interaction, the electron does not have a

position. Instead it has the potential to behave in a number of different positions. This idea of

potentials is crucial to quantum theory. When we analyze the structure of the atom, protons

and neutrons reside in the nucleus of the atom. Electrons are found outside this nucleus. The

unpredictability of its position is very much there. Thus the electron has the possibility to be

found anywhere in the universe. This can really be taken as the approval of the whole

methodology ofGhazali's efficient cause in his corpus of argument.388

For Ghazali, the almighty is a living personality, but the sense of image in

personal terms is entirely different in his diction. The best way of coming close to him should

be to adopt a method in which he should be devoid of any attributes of any creatures he has

put forth. This is entirely a spiritual contemplation which needs a pure amalgamation of the

387 Fakhry, Majid. (1958), op. cit, p. 63, 388Harding, Karen. (1993), Causality Then and Now: Al-Ghazali and Quantum theory

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only one almighty in all means. Ghazali's affirmation is a dialogic process of God's will. In

simple terms God's command over knowledge is beyond the tumults of the ordinary human

insight and his ability to perceive things. 389

Ghazali's underlying argument on Occasionalism states that any relations

between natural temporal events can be taken as non causal. This implies that these relations

are limited to the observed notion of the cause and effect. If Occasionalism is viewed in a

wider sense, a lot of similarities can be put forth between Ghazali and western philosopher

Spinoza. Occasionalism takes God as sole progenitor of any creation. According to Spinoza,

God is the essence of the substance. Thought and extensions are attributes of God. Thus God

is the essence of the thinking subject (the mind) and the extended substance (body). For

Spinoza, God is infinite being which consists of infinite attributes, which expresses God's

eternal and infinite essence. 390

For Spinoza, perfection is same as reality. He hints that more perfect a thing

more real it is, as the perfection of God. God is infinitely perfect and infmitely real. Carrying

on with this thesis, he tells that more perfect a thing the more active it is and least passive.

Perfection and imperfection are modes of thought. The mind is more perfect when it knows

God.391

AI Ghazali on God

Al-Ghazali attributes the following essence to God. He affirms that he is the

existence mawjud, the eternal, qadim, the everlasting, abadi, the one, the vahid and the visible,

mari. The first of the three directly shows the exuberant essence of God. His existence is

everlasting. 392 The fourth attribute explains the oneness of God. The fifth one attributes that

God can basically be perceived by vision. He reiterates that there is no illogical view

389 Boer, De. T.J. (1903), op. cit, p.163. 390 Benedict Spinoza. "Ethics" in Spinoza Selections, ed. by John Wild, New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1930, p.103. 391 Ibid, p. 284. 392Elkaisy-Friemuth, Maha. (2006) God and Humans in Islamic 17wught: 'Abd-al Jannar ibn Sina and Ghazali, Routledge, p 122. ·

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concerning to the belief that God is visible. 393 However, al-Ghazali wanted to safe guard the

unity of God over and against the Mutazilite and Neoplatonic attack.394

Qur'an declares God as unique, and has given myriad of attributes to him. This

can be taken as the real point of Ghazali as well. It is taken that there are three grades for the

knowledge of God: Taqlid (imitation), deduction and intuition (!lim al Mukashafa).For

Ghazali, thought cannot be the means of reaching the infmite.395 Ghazali talks about the

notion of ilham. He feels intuition is the symbolic idea or impression from the unseen world

packed directly from the images in the store houses of memory within the range of

experience. Then, he talks about the inherent difficulties in acquiring the knowledge of God.

He explains that mysteries and wonders of the world is an evidence of God, but we come in

contact with it when our Aql or sense is immature.396

Ghazali takes up the concept of Fana or self annihilation as the true pathway to

reach God. It is a state which a Sufi is able to obtain in the highest stage of spiritual life. Fana

also constitutes Ibn Sina's concept which relates to the relationship between soul and the body

and soul and the divine world. In Maqsad al-asna (The Ninety nine Beautiful Names), he

explains the method by which these attributes are related to the God.

Al-Ghazali reiterates that we need to explain his concept in differe:1t levels of

existence. He brings out three levels of existence, the first one being the thing in reality. The

next instills the existence in human minds. He sums it up about its existence in the language.

According to him, if a thing exists in perceptible reality then our mind will have a mirror

image of it. The verbal explanations of our mind are different when considered the thing in

reality. Thus, Ghazali shows the inadequacy of language to give an identical explanation in

words to what we have seen in reality or in mind. 397

393 Ibid, p.l23 394Shehadi, Fadlou. (1964) Ghazali 's Unique Unknowable God: A philosophical Critical Analysis of Some of The Problems Raised by Ghazali 's View of God as Utterly Unique and Unknowable. E.J Brill, p. 78 395 Umaruddin, M., (1962), The Ethical Philosophy of Al-Ghazali, Muslim University, p.316 396 Ibid, p.317 397 Elkaisy-Friemuth , Maha. (2006) op. cit, p.l24.

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Similarly, Ghazali also answers the question on the issue of divine knowledge.

He reiterates that as everything has three stages of existence, the attributes of God also have

three stages He describes it precisely as the eternal knowledge in God, divine knowledge

inspired in human intellect and at the third level their existence in the language. He asserts

that Qur'an uses figurative language intentionally in order to present God in human attributes.

Eventually, al-Ghazali gives a Sufi understanding of thought in Maqsad. So, he presents a

new philosophy of mystical philosophy which Ibn Sina started but was unable to complete.398

In his Incoherence, al-Ghazali argues that the possibility of a break in God's

habit can lead us to the connection between cause and effects not necessarily. According to

ash' arites, a prophetical miracle depends upon those people, who witness it as a miracle. 399

According to the ash'arites a true prophet must announce and describe the miracles that God

performs. He must issue a dawa that God will perform a miracle and a challenge (thaddin).

Earlier, Prophet Muhammad issued a challenge to his adversaries to produce a single sura like

those contained in the Quran. Thus, in order for the miracle to be valid, God must perform it

exactly the way the prophet describes it. 400

In Mishkat, Ghazali comes to his final decision about the attributes of God. He

explains that though God has many attributes in eternity, we really can't know his attributes in

the right term. This can be done by relating him to his creation. He also declarers that

Qur'anic attributes do not reveal who God is. Instead of giving attributes to him, the followers

can know him in relation to the world. 401

Explaining his concept of fana, al-Ghazali presents the understanding of the

nature of God and of human knowledge. However, his description on God is scattered, and

one should read most of his works in order to have a fair understanding. However, with the

398 Ibid, p. 125. 399 Griffe! Frank. (2009), Al-Ghazali 's Philosophical Theology, New York:Oxford University Press, , p.I95. 400 Ibid, p.I95. 401 Elkaisy-Friemuth, Maha. (2006), op. cit, p.I25.

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simile of the water clock, Ghazali portrays the idea that God designs the universe as an

apparatus, builds it, and supplies it with what we would call a constant supply of energy. 402

To conclude, Ghazali's view on God is purely ash'arite despite some

modification and elaboration. For the ash'arites, God is an agent and not a cause. An agent

does not create or act because of any necessity. He does not create by "nature" (bittab).This

idea of agent constitutes ash'arites main proof for God's existence. In his Tahafut, Ghazali

strives hard to show the philosophers are confused as they cannot distinguish "agent" and

cause.403 In his work Deliverance from Error, al-Ghazali says that he tried his level best to

have a genuine understanding of the various sects and religious movements. He feels he was

puzzled when he found that men appear to become Jews or Christians or Muslims just because

of the environmental influences. 404

Ghazali expresses Gods utter uniqueness or difference by heralding that there

can be no specific class to which the Almighty can belong. Sole creator is above all. 405 His

uniqueness is expressed further by saying that God is simply declared to be unlike anything.

His attributes are unlike those of any creatures. One must be made clear that this difference

(mukhalafah) is an utter or absolute difference. Oone must deny the similarity between God

and other things absolutely (aslan).He also adds that God's knowledge is absolutely unlike

that of his creatures.406

For Avicenna, prophetic insight is brought in by extraordinary character traits

of those who become prophets. On the other hand, Ghazali interprets the mystical union with

God. He explains that when the ultimate journey to the Almighty is reached, God intervenes

402 Griffe!, Frank. (2009), op. cit, p.242. 403 Marmura, Michael E., The Conflict Over The World's Pre-Entry In The Thahafuts ofGhazali and Ibn­Rushd, p. 14. 404 W. Montgomery Watt, Muslim Intellectual, pp. 47-48 405 Fadlou, Shehadi. (1964), Ghazali 's Unique Unknowable God: A Philosophical Critical Analysis of Some of The Problems Raised by Ghazali's View of God as Utterly Unique and Unknowable.E. J Brill, p.l7. 406 Ibid, p.18.

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and closes his eyes and detach him from rest of the world with his profound memories. Those

people, according to Ghazali, can be termed as saints and this sect is God's real assets.407

407 Smith, Margaret. (16, March, 2007)'The Forerunner of Al-Ghazali', The Journal of Asiatic Society of

Great Briton And Ireland, p. 78.

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