Aerial Observer

Unit 0 – Introduction

Objectives:

During this unit the cadre will:

1. Introduce instructors and students

2. Discuss administrative concerns

3. Review course objectives

4. Describe the nature of the Aerial Observer mission

5. Discuss mission limitations

I. Introduction

II. Purpose of course

The purpose of the course is to provide students with skills applicable to successful

operation as an Aerial Observer. This material is intended to supplement the

Interagency Aviation Training modules required for Fixed-Wing Flight Manager –

Special Use.

III. Course Objectives

Upon successful completion of the course, students will be able to;

Describe procedures for safe and efficient flight operation

Describe procedures for reporting incident location, size and behavior to

dispatch and ground resources

Understand the limits of the aerial observer mission with regard to other

incident aircraft

IV. The Aerial Observer Mission

The purpose of the aerial observer is to locate and relay incident information to fire

management and dispatch. In addition to detecting, mapping and sizing up new

fires, the AOBS may provide ground resources with intelligence on fuels and fire

behavior and describe access routes into and out of the incident areas for

responding units.

V. Mission Limitations

As described in the Interagency Standards for Fire and Fire Aviation Operations

Chapter 16, only qualified Aerial Supervisors (ATGS, ASM, HLCO and Lead/ATCO) are

authorized to coordinate airspace operations and give directions to aviation assets.

Flights with a “Recon, Detection or Patrol” designation should communicate with

tactical aircraft only to announce location and altitude and to relay their departure

direction and altitude from the incident.

Aerial Observer

Unit 1 – Navigation and GPS

Objectives:

Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Understand common Latitude/Longitude formats

Understand common maps in use and their role in flight following and

incident plotting

Understand the basic features of a Sectional Chart

Become familiar with GPS units and mapping software in use on local units

I. Latitude/Longitude and Datum

Several latitude/longitude formats are in use, with the two most common being

degrees minutes, seconds (DD° MM’ SS”) and degrees, decimal minutes (DD°

MM.MM’). A datum provides the reference point from which geodetic

measurements are made. The 1927 North American Datum (NAD 27) is still widely

used on many maps and by some ground units, however the Region 6 light aircraft

contract requires the use of GPS units displaying degrees, decimal minutes using the

World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84) datum. Confirm with dispatch the format

used in your area. A degree is equivalent to 60 minutes, and a minute equals 60

seconds. A minute of latitude is essentially equivalent to a nautical mile, as is a

minute of longitude at the equator. Since meridian lines converge as they approach

the poles, the greatest distance a minute of arc can transcribe is a nautical mile.

Therefore, we can say that if you’re within a minute of a given location, you’re

within a mile. A nautical mile is about 6076 feet (exactly 1852 meters by

international agreement), so a tenth of a minute is about 600 feet, and a hundredth

around 60 feet. Similarly, a second is around 100 feet, and a tenth of a second is just

about 10 feet. Many GPS displays offer readings to three and four decimal places.

But can we say with any degree of confidence that we can mark a location on the

ground from a thousand feet overhead, moving at a hundred knots with an accuracy

of a thousandth of a minute, or just 6 feet? Reporting coordinates beyond a couple

of decimal places is probably superfluous.

II. Maps

Aerial Observers may use a variety of maps. These include:

Forest Maps

Fireman’s Maps

Atlases and Gazetteers

A. Forest Maps

Forest maps are often readily available and depict jurisdictional boundaries, prominent

landmarks including major roads, and often display legal descriptions and

latitude/longitude – often in 7.5 minute increments. Terrain depiction is often limited.

B. Fireman’s Maps

Fireman’s maps often depict terrain with contour lines and forest roads in great detail.

They also include useful information to firefighters including water sources, helicopter

landing areas, potential incident base locations etc. While detailed, they can be difficult

to read in flight, and the maps can be large and unwieldy. Selecting and folding maps to

show areas of interest prior to flight will help with management in the cockpit.

C. Atlases and Gazetteers

Atlases and Gazetteers allow a large number of maps to be carried conveniently in book

form. Some are commercially produced, while many units produce forest atlases for

local use. Commercial products vary in depiction of natural and man-made features, but

are often useful in gaining a “big picture” view of the landscape. Most show

latitude/longitude ticks on or near the margins allowing for easy flight following.

III. Sectional Charts

While probably not your primary map, sectional charts provide useful data regarding

airports and special use airspace. Sectional charts can be dense with symbols, but

for your purposes, understanding a few basics will get you a long way.

A. Title page

The title of the sectional chart is at the top, and its coverage area is indicated by

the shaded portion of the map of the continental U.S. The effective dates of the

chart are also prominently displayed. Information changes periodically – radio

frequencies, airport data etc., so having up-to-date charts ensures having the

best information.

B. Legend

The reverse of the title page contains the legend. With a little time spent

studying the legend page, you’ll gain a pretty good understanding of the symbols

depicted. For further study, the FAA produces an Aeronautical Chart User’s

Guide, which explains sectional and other charts in great detail.

C. Latitude/Longitude depiction

Latitude and longitude is shown on sectional charts in a 30 by 30 minute grid.

Small tick marks show each minute of latitude or longitude, and somewhat larger

tick marks show each 10 minutes. Here’s a sample below:

Fig. 1Latitude and Longitude shown on a sectional chart

Here we see the intersection of 44 degrees North latitude by 120 degrees West

longitude. Latitude increases from south to north, and longitude increases from

east to west.

D. Magnetic declination

Magnetic declination (called magnetic variation by aviators) is shown with a

dashed magenta line. Aircraft use magnetic headings, so if you’re dealing with

lookouts or ground personnel using a true north reference, knowing the local

declination facilitates making the conversion. The chart segment shown in Fig. 1

shows a 15° 30’ east declination.

E. Special Use Airspace

Several types of special use airspace are shown on sectional charts that have

implications for flight safety. A few of those are shown in Fig. 2 below:

Fig. 2Some airspace depictions

Shifting southwest from our previous image, we see some notable airspace

depictions on the sectional. A couple of Military Operations Areas are shown

enclosed within the hatched magenta border – Juniper North and Low, and

Juniper South and Low. MOA altitudes and times of use are shown in a table in

the margins of the sectional chart printed in magenta, like the MOAs themselves.

A couple of thin gray lines cross the area. These are military training routes –

one of which is labeled IR342. Altitude and time of use data are not shown on

the sectional chart. This information is published elsewhere, and your dispatch

office can help you determine if any potential conflicts may exist. Also note that

while the route is shown as a thin line, actual route heights and widths vary

considerably between route segments – at times becoming several miles wide.

The pale blue line in the upper left of the image is a so called “victor” airway,

extending between navigational aids. This one – labeled V269 – extends

between the Deschutes and Wildhorse VORs. Victor airways are well-used

routes that exist from 1200’ AGL up to 18000’ MSL. While their importance has

diminished somewhat with the advent of GPS, which allows point to point travel

without following specific airways, traffic along victor airways is likely to be

heavier than that found elsewhere.

F. Restricted/Prohibited areas

These areas are indicated by a hatched blue line on the sectional, as shown in

Fig. 3. These areas exist over areas of significant hazard, or over areas of vital

national security interest. Restricted areas require permission from the

controlling entity to enter – information that may be found in the sectional

margin, shown in blue. Prohibited areas are just that – stay out or risk the ire of

those with bigger and more dangerous airplanes than the one you’re in.

Fig. 3 Restricted Airspace

G. Airport Information

The ability to identify airport information can aid in the planning of fuel stops

and identify alternate airports to use during periods of inclement weather or

during an in-flight emergency. Here are a few examples:

Fig. 4Christmas Valley airport

Christmas Valley is an airport with a single runway, does not have fuel or other

services such as a mechanic, and is an uncontrolled field, which is to say that it

does not have a control tower. Uncontrolled airports are shown in magenta.

The runway is shown within the magenta circle oriented as it is on site – in this

case running east-west. The star atop the magenta circle indicates that the

airport has a rotating beacon that helps identify the airport location at night, or

during periods of low visibility. Civil airport beacons alternately flash a green and

white light. The airport name is shown, along with the three-character

designator of the field, 62S. Below the airport name, the field elevation is shown

in bold italic type, 4317 feet above sea level. The asterisk and letter “L” indicate

the presence of runway lighting. The two-digit number 52 indicates the length of

the runway in hundreds of feet, 5200 feet in this case. For airports with more

than one runway, this number describes the usable length of the longest

runway. Since Christmas Valley is an uncontrolled field, pilots are expected to

announce their intentions over the radio, and maintain their own traffic

separation. The bold italic number 122.8 indicates the radio frequency in use at

Christmas Valley, called a Unicom frequency. Many larger airports also have a

Unicom frequency used for getting airport advisory information, ordering fuel

etc. In this case the magenta circle with the letter “C” inscribed indicates that

122.8 is also the CTAF, or Common Traffic Advisory Frequency used by pilots to

announce intentions.

Here’s a somewhat bigger airport:

Fig. 5Ogilvie Field

Like Christmas Valley, Ogilvie Field is uncontrolled, but with a few differences.

Perhaps the most significant difference is the availability of fuel, as shown by the

square tick marks around the perimeter of the magenta airport symbol. There is

also an Automated Weather Observing System, or AWOS on the field, which

continuously broadcasts weather observations. Some AWOS stations have

different features, and the number 3 suffix in this case shows that this AWOS

reports visibility and ceiling height information in addition to basic weather

observations. You can hear the broadcast by tuning one of the airplane VHF-AM

radios to 118.375. Ogilvie Field also has two runways, and the depiction RP27

indicates that runway 27 has a right-hand traffic pattern. Runways are

numbered according to their orientation to magnetic north, so runway 27 is

oriented 270 degrees relative to magnetic north. Approaching from the other

direction, the runway is oriented 90 degrees, and is numbered 9.

Here’s a depiction of a controlled field:

Fig. 6Pendleton

Controlled airports like Pendleton are shown in blue. Its control tower frequency

is 119.7, with the star next to the frequency indicating that this is a part-time

tower. When the tower is closed, the “C” within the blue circle shows that 119.7

remains the CTAF frequency, and pilots are expected to self-announce intentions

on this frequency just as though it were an uncontrolled field. Pendleton also

has an automatic weather station on the airport, in this case an Automated

Surface Observing System operating on 118.325. There is also a Unicom

frequency for the airport of 122.95.

Many controlled airports also broadcast airport and weather information

continuously through an Automatic Terminal Information Service, or ATIS

frequency. Unlike an AWOS or ASOS, the ATIS broadcast is a recording created

by the controllers on the field, and is usually updated hourly, unless airport

conditions change dramatically before the next scheduled update. In addition to

weather data, an ATIS broadcast also includes airport information such as the

runways and instrument approach systems in use, and relevant Notices to

Airmen, or NOTAMS.

IV. GPS and Mapping Software

You may find a variety of GPS units and mapping software in use on your home unit,

with a great deal of variability in sophistication and features. Panel mounted units in

the airplane are required by contract to use the degrees and decimal minutes

format, with the WGS 84 datum. Hand-held units may be configured differently.

Confirm with dispatch the format and datum used in your area. It’s not a bad idea

to state format and datum when communicating with ground units. A GPS unit can

be set to a different coordinate system fairly easily, but you might find it convenient

to keep a conversion table handy to switch between degrees, minutes, seconds to

degrees, decimal minutes. A conversion table is given below:

1 .02 16 .27 31 .52 46 .772 .03 17 .28 32 .53 47 .783 .05 18 .30 33 .55 48 .804 .07 19 .32 34 .57 49 .825 .08 20 .33 35 .58 50 .836 .10 21 .35 36 .60 51 .857 .12 22 .37 37 .62 52 .878 .13 23 .38 38 .63 53 .889 .15 24 .40 39 .65 54 .9010

.17 25 .42 40 .67 55 .92

11

.18 26 .43 41 .68 56 .93

12

.20 27 .45 42 .70 57 .95

13

.22 28 .47 43 .72 58 .97

14

.23 29 .48 44 .73 59 .98

15

.25 30 .50 45 .75 60 1.0

Fig. 7Conversion from seconds (left columns) to decimal minutes (right columns)

Aerial Observer

Unit 2 – Airspace/Deconfliction/Flight Following/FTA/TFRs

Objectives:

Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Understand Special Use Airspace and other potential airspace hazards

Understand local airspace deconfliction procedures

Understand flight following methods

Learn the significance of the Fire Traffic Area

Understand Temporary Flight Restrictions

I. Airspace

The airspace in which we operate may contain numerous hazards, seen and unseen,

that have potentially significant impact on our operations. This unit describes some

of the airspace-related hazards and attempts at mitigation. Topics addressed

include:

Local Aviation Hazard Maps

Military Operations Areas

Military Training Routes

Unit boundary issues

A. Aviation Hazard Maps

Aviation Hazard Maps should be available for your unit, and are often prominently

displayed at air bases and dispatch offices. As the manager of you flight, you should

become familiar with local hazards. Hazard maps are a useful aid, but are unlikely to

account for all potential dangers within your area. Use the maps as a basis for

understanding local hazards, but keep your eyes open in flight!

B. Military Operations Areas

Military Operations Areas may overlie you patrol area. These areas are depicted on

Sectional Charts with a hatched magenta border. In the margin of the sectional chart,

also printed in magenta, is a table describing the MOAs depicted on the sectional, along

with times and altitudes of use, and contact information of the controlling entity.

C. Military Training Routes

Military Training Routes are depicted on sectional charts with faint gray lines. However,

route widths and altitudes of use wary widely, and are not depicted on the chart. Your

dispatch office should be able to help you determine which routes are likely to be in use

on a given day. This does not relieve the flight crew of the responsibility to see and

avoid other traffic!

D. Unit Boundaries

Incidents near unit boundaries dictate special caution since responding aircraft that may

be out of communication with one another could be rapidly converging.

Communication between dispatch offices and between airborne units and dispatch

should head off most conflicts, but poorly reported incidents of uncertain location, and

flight crews crossing unit borders unannounced can contribute to added danger. Your

neighboring units may appreciate your assistance, but communication with your home

and adjacent dispatch offices is essential.

II. Deconfliction

Deconfliction refers to the identification and attempted mitigation of airspace

hazards. Many dispatch offices expend considerable effort in providing deconfliction

information to air crews – make the most of it! Deconfliction extends to activities

such as:

Agency fire and resource flights

Military activity

Special events – fly-ins, air shows etc.

Local attractions – sightseeing, hang glider/paraglider activity etc.

III. Flight Following

Keeping dispatch informed of the location and status of airborne resources is the

purpose of flight following. You can aid your dispatch office and other interested

parties by being aware of the following:

Dispatch procedures

Flight Following frequencies

Automated Flight Following

Use of transponder code 1255

A. Dispatch Procedures

Chapter 20 of the National Interagency Mobilization Guide provides direction on the role

of dispatch regarding flight following, including the use of Automated Flight Following.

Your dispatch office may employ minor variations, but flight crews should be prepared to

report duration of fuel on board, number of souls on board and confirm AFF activation

upon launch, and report any deviations from the planned route while airborne.

B. Flight Following Frequencies

Confirm your primary flight following frequency, and any secondary frequencies in use

with dispatch before departure. You may be asked to report status on a local simplex or

repeater frequency, on a local flight following frequency, or use the National Flight

Following frequency of 168.650 RX/TX tone 110.9.

C. Automated Flight Following

Automated Flight Following is a system of resource tracking using a communication link

between an on-board transmitter, satellite relay and downlink to ground-based stations.

The system allows flight following in near-real time, reporting aircraft identifier, altitude,

speed and heading. After launch, observers should confirm with dispatch that AFF is

operational. Occasionally the system may fail, and you may need to reset the transmitter

by recycling the power switch or circuit breaker. If recycling AFF fails to fix the problem,

be prepared to check in with dispatch by radio every 15 minutes, reporting position,

heading and altitude.

D. Transponder code 1255

The transponder is an on-board transceiver that allows Air Traffic Control to identify

specific aircraft with a user selected four digit code. While the standard code for aircraft

operating under Visual Flight Rules is 1200 (unless otherwise specified by ATC), firefighting

aircraft are asked to use a transponder code of 1255. According to the Interagency

Standards for Fire and Fire Aviation Operations:

All firefighting aircraft are required to have operative transponders and will use a transponder code of 1255 when engaged in, or travelling to, firefighting operations (excluding ferry flights), unless given a discrete code by Air Traffic Control (ATC).

IV. Fire Traffic Area

The Fire Traffic Area is a concept used by the land management agencies to define

the airspace surrounding an incident, and allow for the management of air traffic

within. Its dimensions are based upon that used by the FAA to define Class D

airspace – that existing around a controlled airport— that is, a radius of 5 miles from

the incident center, and extending upward to 2500 feet above ground level. One

important distinction is that while Class D airspace only requires positive

communication with the controlling entity for entry, the FTA requires a clearance to

enter. The controlling entity for an FTA is an aerial supervisor if one is present, or an

aircraft already at scene. Initial contact should be made no closer to the incident

than 12 nm, and in the absence of a clearance to enter arriving aircraft should

approach no closer than 7 nm from the incident. The likelihood of detection aircraft

routinely entering operating FTAs is remote, but observers should be prepared to

communicate with other incident aircraft. Bear in mind that while FTAs are regularly

used by agency aircraft, civil or military aircraft are likely to be unaware of the FTA or

its significance. Be prepared to see and avoid other air traffic.

Fig. 8The Fire Traffic Area

V. Temporary Flight Restrictions

In order to provide a safe operating environment for incident aircraft, Temporary

Flight Restrictions may be requested by emergency management agencies and

imposed by the FAA. TFR dimensions wary widely. The basic TFR extends in a 5 nm

radius from the incident, and extends upward to 2000 feet above the highest aircraft

operating on the incident, although the TFR may be a large polygon. The Notice to

Airmen that describes the TFR will include its dimensions. Like the Fire Traffic Area,

entry is controlled by the aerial supervisor on scene, or by Air Traffic Control. Unlike

the FTA, however, these restrictions are imposed upon all aircraft and are regulatory

in nature. Conditions for the imposition of TFRs can be found in FAR 91.137, and in

the Interagency Aerial Supervision Guide, Chapter 4. While detection aircraft might

not routinely operate within a TFR, numerous TFRs may exist during periods of high

fire activity within a patrol area. Keeping clear of TFRs contributes to safety, and is

the responsibility of all flight crews. Your dispatch office can help you locate TFR

boundaries, and online sources – such as www.tfr.faa.gov – can provide maps and

descriptions of active TFRs.

Fig. 9A TFR overlaid onto a sectional chart from www.tfr.faa.gov

Aerial Observer

Unit 3 – Detection Methods/Incident Reporting/Size-up

Objectives:

Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Understand local protocol for incident reporting

Describe location and fire behavior using standard terminology

I. Patrol Routes

Some units have established patrol routes with specific checkpoints. Other units

patrol specific areas in response to lightning or human-caused risk. Regardless of

the methods employed, confirm planned routes with dispatch and plan to

thoroughly cover areas of greatest concern.

II. Identifying Smokes

While most smokes are readily discernable, some are very difficult to spot. Often,

other phenomena – dust, clouds etc. – can be confused for smoke. Maneuvering

directly overhead and spotting burning material on the ground provides the best

confirmation, but smoke drift may make this difficult. It might take several passes for

positive identification. Bear in mind that as long as the fire burns, smoke is being

produced in some quantity. Smoke often has a bluish color. Scraps of cloud – “water

dogs” – dissipate and evaporate, and often appear silvery especially with the sun

behind you. Dust dissipates over time, and generally resembles its source material in

color. Smoke associated with human activity indicated by the presence of vehicles,

tents or structures may be benign, but may be an escaped campfire, debris burn, or

the result of an activity such as welding. Close scrutiny is warranted.

Variations in sun angle can make faint smokes easier to spot. Smokes can be

illuminated with the sun behind you, or be silhouetted when between you and the

sun. Making broad circles around your area of interest will often give you a glimpse

of smoke not readily visible when viewed from a single angle.

III. Incident Reporting Protocol

Many units use a standardized incident reporting/size-up format – often in the form

of an incident reporting form. Become familiar with the method in use on your unit.

The idea is to convey accurate information quickly. In the absence of a specific local

format, an incident reporting checklist, such as that found in the Incident Response

Pocket Guide can help convey relevant information.

IV. Describing Location and Fire Behavior

Fire managers and dispatchers rely on timely, accurate information provided by

aerial observers to make decisions regarding the degree and type of incident

response. Following local protocol with regard to location reporting (correct

latitude/longitude format, legal descriptions, landmarks etc.) aids this process. To

the extent possible, fire behavior should be reported using standard terminology –

creeping, running, spotting, torching etc.

V. Coordination with Lookouts and Ground Units

Aerial observers can help pinpoint those fires obscured from clear view by lookouts

or responding ground units. Often, a lookout can provide a heading from their

location to the incident. Bear in mind, though, that while lookout fire finders are

oriented to true north, aircraft use magnetic headings. Magnetic declination (called

variation by aviators) is given on various map types, and is always shown on

sectional charts by a dashed magenta line. Become familiar with the declination in

your area, and you should be able to readily convert between true and magnetic

north. In the western U.S., where an east declination exists, the mnemonic “east is

least” can help you convert from true to magnetic headings. For example, in an area

of 15 ° declination, given a true heading of 270 °, subtract 15 from 270 to give a

magnetic heading of 255 °.

Assisting ground units find small fires can save a great deal of time and frustration.

A useful method is to fly a line from personnel on the ground to the fire, reporting a

heading and calling the ground personnel as the airplane passes over the fire. Make

sure to specify if you’re using true or magnetic headings. Reading the heading from

the directional gyro in the instrument panel will provide a more accurate heading

than trying to use the magnetic compass. Your pilot can help you with this. It may

be difficult for ground personnel to tell when the airplane is directly over the fire. If

this is the case, flying a line perpendicular to the direction of travel of people on the

ground, and announcing when over the fire can give a better sense of the incident

location.

Aerial Observer

Unit 4 – Radio Introduction

Objectives:

Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Become familiar with AM and FM radios in use

Understand appropriate use of frequencies

Understand importance of sterile cockpit procedures during critical phases of

flight

Understand lost communication procedures

I. Radio set-up and Programming

The success of the aerial observer mission hinges upon effective communication

inside and outside the airplane. To this end, you should become familiar with the

following equipment:

The audio control panel and intercom

The VHF-FM radios

The VHF-AM radios

A. The audio control panel and intercom

Audio control panels vary in configuration between aircraft, but will have some or all of

the following features: The ability to select or deselect various radios, control their

volume, activate or disable voice activation of the intercom and control its sensitivity,

provide a volume control for the intercom and a master volume for all radios. In aircraft

without voice-operated intercoms, a push-to-talk switch is required. A push-to-talk

switch is also likely necessary to transmit on the FM and AM radios. This may be a yoke

mounted switch, be an in-line plug in switch or may be mounted to the instrument

panel with a 9-pin cannon plug or may plug into the microphone jack of the headset.

Taking time to become familiar with your airplane’s configuration may save substantial

frustration when aloft. The image below shows a typical audio control panel:

Fig. 10Aircraft Audio Control

The user can select the radios to listen to with the white toggles, and the radio to

transmit on with the rotary knob.

B. VHF-FM Radios

The radios used to communicate with dispatch and ground units are VHF-FM units.

They may be panel mounted or come as part of a removable radio kit. Once configured,

selecting the appropriate frequency is a simple matter, but it will be to your great

benefit to become familiar with entering new frequencies, selecting, deselecting and

changing repeater access tones, toggling between wide and narrow band functions and

selecting guard frequencies.

Fig. 11A typical VHF-FM radio

C. VHF-AM Radios

Air to air communications are conducted on the panel mounted AM radios (also called

“victor” radios). Their use is selected by the audio panel. Brief with your pilot to

determine which radio is best for your use. Channel selection is usually straightforward.

Keeping it tuned to the Air/Air frequency for your unit helps maintain situational

awareness of other aircraft activity. Other incidents along or near your patrol route may

use other Air/Air frequencies. Knowing these frequencies is essential if you need to

transition through or operate near TFRs and FTAs. Knowing the Air/Air frequency of

adjoining units will allow you to coordinate activity when operating near jurisdictional

boundaries.

Fig. 12A VHF-AM Nav/Com radio

The image above shows a typical aircraft “victor” radio. It’s actually two radios; a

navigation receiver and a communications transceiver. Two frequencies can be tuned,

with the active and standby frequency selected by toggling the white arrow button.

Tuning is done with the round rotary knobs – the large outer one tunes Megahertz,

while the small inner knob tunes Kilohertz or those digits after the decimal point.

II. Frequencies

Your mission will require the use of several frequencies on a routine basis, as well as

a few others you should be familiar with. These include:

Direct frequencies

Repeater frequencies

Air/Ground

Air/Air

Flight following

Air Guard

A. Direct frequencies use a single receive/transmit frequency, and may or may not have an

associated sub-audible tone allowing for selective reception.

B. Radio repeaters are often used to provide coverage to specific geographic areas.

Repeaters use two frequencies – receiving on one and transmitting on another. Many

repeaters are activated by a sub-audible tone. Some repeater systems use the same

frequency pair for multiple repeaters with each repeater activated by a discrete tone;

while some systems activate each repeater with its own receive/transmit frequency

pair. Since repeater frequencies operate with two separate frequencies, and may also

have both receive and transmit tones, care must be taken in radio programming to

assure activating the desired repeater.

C. While initial contact with ground units may be made on repeater frequency, extended

conversations, such as directing a ground unit into an incident should take place on the

locally designated Air/Ground frequency.

D. Contact between aircraft takes place on the Air/Air frequency using the VHF-AM radios

in the airplane. Monitoring the local Air/Air frequency is a good practice, and is

essential during periods of high activity.

E. Flight following with dispatch may take place on a locally dedicated flight following

frequency, on a repeater frequency, with the appropriate repeater selected depending

on location, or on the National Flight Following frequency. Conversations on dedicated

flight following frequencies should be limited to position and status reporting, with

incident reporting and size-up and traffic with ground units limited to local frequencies

as appropriate.

F. The Air Guard frequency (168.625 MHz, Tx tone 110.9) has been established by the

USDA/USDI as a continuously monitored emergency frequency. Authorized uses

include: In-flight aircraft emergencies, emergency communications between aircraft, or

between aircraft and ground units, or for the initial call, recall or redirection of aircraft

when other means fail. It should be selected and monitored in those FM radios that

offer a “guard” setting.

III. Sterile Cockpit in the Terminal Area

Chapter 16 of the Interagency Standards for Fire and Fire Aviation Operations states

the following with regard to sterile cockpit procedures:

Sterile cockpit rules apply within a 5-mile radius of the airport. The flight

crew will perform no radio or cockpit communication during that time that

is not directly related to safe flight of the aircraft from taxi to 5 miles out

and from 5 miles out until clearing the active runway. This would consist of

reading checklists, communication with Air Traffic Control, Flight Service

Stations, Unicom, or other aircraft with the intent of ensuring separation or

complying with ATC requirements. Communications by passengers or air

crew members can be accomplished when the audio panels can be isolated

and do not interfere with flight operations of the flight crew.

Safe operations require coordination with your pilot. Limit radio use when in the

airport area, and confirm with your pilot that you are free to use the radios without

interfering with flight operations. If your audio configuration allows, monitoring the

VHF-AM used by your pilot – perhaps at a lower volume – will help you maintain

situational awareness with regard to other air traffic, and help you be aware of

those times your pilot has radio traffic with Air Traffic Control or other aircraft.

IV. Communications Failure

The National Interagency Mobilization Guide, Chapter 20 states:

If radio contact cannot be established the pilot will abort the mission and

return to the airport.

If radio communication can’t be established on any of your frequencies,

terminate the mission and return to the airport. The mission may also be

terminated if your radio capability is degraded to the point that effective

communication becomes difficult. Contact dispatch as soon as practical.

Aerial Observer

Unit 5 – Mission Preparation

Objectives:

Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Understand steps required for thorough mission preparation

Understand pilot and dispatch briefing elements

Understand flight hour, duty day and daylight limitations

I. Elements of Mission Preparation

Adequate attention to mission preparation sets the stage for a successful mission.

You’ll want to make sure that you have the necessary items in your kit, that your

electronic gadgets work and have adequate batteries, aircraft and pilot cards are

checked and up to date, you’ve been briefed on your mission, you have received a

passenger safety briefing from your pilot, that you will be within flight hour and duty

day limitations, and can complete your mission within daylight hours.

II. Detection Kit Contents

Kit contents are likely to vary, but here are some items to consider:

Aerial Observer Daily Checklist

Local Atlas

Kneeboard

Air/Air & Air/Ground Frequency Sheets

NAT & Technisonic Radio Programming Instructions

Regional Aviation Frequency Guide

Aerial Detection Fire Size-up Forms

Note Paper

Pens/Pencils

Local Radio Channel Plan

Airsickness Bags

Area Maps

Batteries/Cables/Connectors for electronic devices in use

III. Aircraft and Pilot Cards

Aircraft and pilot cards need to be current, both pilot and aircraft approved for reconnaissance missions and aircraft cards need to be issued for the specific airplane in use.

Figure 13Pilot Qualification Card

IV. Pilot and Dispatch Briefings

Thorough briefings are critical to safety and mission success. Information should be

exchanged through the following:

Pre-flight dispatch briefing

Passenger safety briefing

Post-flight after action review

A. Pre-flight dispatch briefing

Your briefing with dispatch should include routes of flight and areas of interest,

frequencies including repeaters, ground contacts, flight following and check-in

procedures and other air traffic. It may be useful to review lightning data and download

or print appropriate maps. If your pilot can attend, so much the better – otherwise,

you’ll have to repeat much of the same information.

B. Passenger safety briefing

Prior to flight, be sure to get a safety briefing from your pilot. This should include:

Operation of doors and emergency exits

Use and operation of seat belts

Positioning and locking seats

Location of 1st aid and survival equipment

Location and operation of fire extinguisher

Location of electrical and fuel shut-off

Emergency procedures

C. Post-flight after action review

You may find it useful to conduct an after action review with your pilot, or dispatch or

both regarding mission efficiency and effectiveness. Look for opportunities to conduct a

safer, smoother operation.

V. Use of Daily Checklist

Your unit may provide a checklist of observer duties. A sample is included below:

Aerial Observer Daily Checklist

Preflight:

Check in with aircraft desk Ensure observer kit is complete Obtain briefing on current incidents, applicable TFRs and status of Special Use Airspace Review daily weather forecast Obtain a copy of lightning map Plan patrol route with coordinator

Brief pilot on mission, including other aircraft activity Obtain pilot briefing on aircraft procedures, radio operation and radio kit installation if

applicable Review timekeeping procedures for your airplane. Note Hobbs meter and/or clock time.

During Flight

Record take-off time Maintain sterile cockpit while in airport vicinity Confirm transponder is on and squawking 1255 Upon initial contact with dispatch, report aircraft identifier, number on board and fuel

duration in hours, confirm AFF operation or initiate 15 min. check-in Configure radios to monitor Air to Air and Air Guard frequencies Look for smokes! If crossing jurisdictional boundaries, notify dispatch offices and switch to appropriate

A/A frequency

Inbound for landing

Inform dispatch you are landing Maintain sterile cockpit while in airport vicinity

Post Flight

Note time of engine shut-down Notify dispatch of status At day’s end, complete daily diary, ABS or AMD 23 as applicable

VI. Flight Hour and Duty Day Limitations

You will be responsible for monitoring your pilot’s flight hours and duty day. During

most situations the Phase 1 limitations apply. Periods of high activity may dictate

the implementation of more restrictive Phase 2 or 3 guidelines. Your dispatch office

can advise you when the more rigorous limitations are indicated. The basic Phase 1

limitations are described below:

The basic requirements of phase 1 apply generally to all Forest Service aviation missions. Phases 2 and 3 (sec. 11.27b and 11.27c) must be implemented during extended periods of high levels of flight mission activity.

1. All flight crewmembers flying Forest Service missions are limited to the following tours of duty, and all work-related time must count toward these limitations:

a. Duty includes flight time, ground duty of any kind, and standby or alert status at any location. This restriction does not include “on-call'' status outside of any required rest or off-duty periods.

b. Flight time must not exceed a total of 8 hours per duty day.

c. Assigned duty of any kind must not exceed 14 hours in any 24-hour period.

d. Flight crewmembers accumulating 36 hours of flight time in any 6 consecutive days or less are required to have the following day off. Maximum cumulative flight hours must not exceed 42 hours in any 6 consecutive days.

e. Within any 24-hour period, flight crewmembers shall have a minimum of 10 consecutive uninterrupted hours off duty immediately prior to the beginning of the next duty day.

f. During any 14-consecutive-day period, flight crewmembers shall be off duty for two 24-hour periods from the time of last duty. The 24-hour off-duty periods need not be consecutive.

2. Two-pilot crews flying point-to-point missions (airport to airport) are limited to 10 hours flight time in any duty day. Pilots flying two-pilot crew missions, who may be assigned to fly other types of Forest Service missions during the same duty period, are limited to the flight hour limitations in the preceding paragraphs 1a through 1f of this section.

3. The contracting officer or representative may waive the "consecutive" limitation in the preceding paragraph 1e in this section to enable pilots flying infrared or aerial spray projects two shorter off-duty rest periods, provided they accumulate 12 hours of rest or more in any 24-hour period. One of the rest periods must include at least 8 hours of

uninterrupted rest. Do not grant a waiver of the "consecutive" limitation in paragraph 1e more than three times in any 14-duty-day cycle.

A full description of the three phases of flight hour and duty day limitations can be

found in the Interagency Standards for Fire and Fire Aviation Operations, Chapter

16.

VII. Sunrise/Sunset

Your flights will be limited to the ½ hour prior to sunrise until the ½ hour after

sunset. Dispatch can provide you with these times, or you can find a sunrise/sunset

table for your area from the U.S. Naval Observatory at

http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs. Some people may use the term “civil twilight”

to describe legal flight hours, and while for most places in mid-latitudes civil twilight

is within a couple of minutes of ½ hour before and after sunrise and sunset, the

terms are not synonymous (civil twilight occurs when the sun is within six degrees of

the horizon).

VIII. Aerial Observer Operating Plan

Your unit may have an Aerial Observer Operating Plan, either as a stand-alone

document, or as part of the unit’s aviation plan. Become familiar with its contents.

Aerial Observer

Unit 6 – Aviation Weather and Mountain Flying

Objectives:

Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Recognize weather-related flight hazards

Understand potential risks in mountain flying

I. Weather Hazards to Flight

Numerous weather phenomena may create hazardous flying conditions. These

include, but are not limited to:

Thunderstorms

Mountain Waves

High Density Altitude

Reduced Visibility

A. Thunderstorms

Most of your fires are likely to be caused by lightning. The thunderstorms responsible

may still be active when you arrive. Since thunderstorms and light airplanes don’t mix

very well, approach active storms with caution. Strong up and down drafts, hail and

reduced visibility all have adverse implications for flight safety. While small, isolated

cells might allow operation in relatively close proximity, bear in mind that conditions

that favor the formation of single storms often allow the formation of many – storms

which may grow and merge rapidly. Aviation weather experts recommend remaining as

far as 20 miles from the biggest storms. Less obvious are so-called embedded

thunderstorms those that overlie a lower cloud layer. When flying beneath clouds, look

for signs of convective activity above; rain and hail shafts, lightning and mammatus

clouds are sign of storms above the lower clouds.

B. Mountain Waves

Wind blowing over large obstacles under stable atmospheric conditions can also

produce up and down drafts sufficient to exceed the climb capability of small aircraft.

While the amplitude of mountain waves are dependent on a number of factors including

the height and shape of obstacles, the degree of atmospheric stability and wind speed,

the conditions for mountain wave formation are most favorable when winds of 20-25

knots blow perpendicular to an obstacle such as a mountain range. If sufficient

atmospheric moisture is present, cap clouds or lenticular clouds may be present over

ridges, and may also propagate further downwind. In dry conditions however, these

tell-tale indicators will be absent.

C. Density Altitude

The density of air is dependent upon temperature, pressure and to a lesser degree,

humidity. Pressure decreases with increase in altitude, and temperatures higher than

that standard at a given altitude reduce air density still further. As air density decreases,

airfoils – wings and propellers – become less effective. Normally aspirated, that is non-

supercharged engines produce less power. The effect is that hot weather degrades

overall aircraft performance. Most aircraft used in detection work can operate safely in

a wide range of conditions, but performance on hot days when operating from high

elevation airports may be marginal. Some compromise in operating limitations may

have to be made such as reducing fuel load (and by implication, flight duration) or

limiting operations to cooler times of day.

D. Reduced Visibility

Smoke, blowing dust, precipitation and clouds can reduce visibility substantially. While

you may operate legally in most airspace with a visibility of three miles, or in some

places as little as a mile, operating in mountain terrain, perhaps in the presence of other

aircraft in such conditions would be unwise. Let common sense carry the day – don’t fly

where you can’t see!

II. Flying in Mountain Terrain

When flying in the mountains, always leave yourself a way out! Avoid the

temptation to dip below ridges in narrow canyons where turning room is limited, or

approach rising terrain without an escape route. Don’t let mission focus sucker you

into unsafe situations! If conditions, for whatever reasons are less than ideal or give

you pause, do something else!

Aerial Observer

Unit 7 – Aerial Hazards and Risk Management

Objectives:

Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Understand risk mitigation through planning, hazard recognition and crew

coordination

I. Flight Planning

Some flight planning elements to consider are:

Weather Minima

Visibility

Wind

Flight routes and Alternate Airports

Fuel Management

A. Weather Minima

Adverse weather may cause you to alter or terminate your mission. The presence of

storms along your flight route, high winds, turbulence or diminished visibility may

prevent launch, or result in a diversion while airborne. If either you or your pilot has

reservations about starting or continuing a flight, be prepared to wait out poor

conditions or divert to an alternate airport. The aviation managers on your unit will

generally support any decision to terminate a flight based on marginal conditions.

B. Flight Routes and Alternate Airports

Your safety can be enhanced by becoming familiar with airports along your flight route.

Study of your local sectional chart can pay off here. Knowing likely fuel sources, or

airports that can allow you to sit out a spell of bad weather is not just a good idea, but

reflects the thoroughness of your preparation as a flight manager. Many units use local

pilots with an intimate understanding of the patrol area, but adequate preparation

becomes all the more important when flying with non-local pilots. Be thorough in your

sectional chart study. A farmer’s little dirt airstrip might look like Chicago O’Hare if

you’ve got smoke in the cockpit!

C. Fuel Management

Aircraft fuel gauges are notoriously unreliable. Airplane fuel tanks are broad and flat,

and gauging the depth of fuel within, especially while maneuvering can be difficult. A

more reliable measure of fuel burn is duration, or time aloft. For daytime flight under

Visual Flight Rules, pilots are required to carry enough fuel to fly for at least 30 minutes

beyond that necessary to fly to the first point of intended landing. You will be asked to

state fuel duration upon your initial contact with dispatch. Comparing fuel duration

against your take off time will help you track fuel remaining. Despite potentially dire

consequences, fuel exhaustion accidents are far more common than they should be.

Don’t let it happen to you!

II. Crew Coordination

You and your pilot share responsibility for the safe and efficient conduct of the

mission. As the flight manager, as well as the observer, you are a mission

crewmember, not just a passenger. This means not only conducting the aerial

observer mission, but remaining aware of the overall flight environment. Keep an

ear cocked for relevant radio traffic, both from agency units and other aviators.

Scan for smokes, but keep an eye out for other air traffic. Devote a little time to a

quick scan of the cockpit as well. While you can’t be expected to be an expert on

cockpit instrumentation, some obvious anomalies are probably worthy of your

attention. A popped circuit breaker or an instrument needle creeping into the red is

worth pointing out. Be aware of your pilot’s comfort level with the mission. Most

pilots want to do a good job, but be sensitive to signs of unease with potentially

hazardous aspects of the mission. If you sense reluctance to operate close to a

menacing thunderstorm, or if the direct route to your destination airport is obscured

by rain and hail, be prepared to do something else. If you feel the need to alter or

terminate the mission, speak up. Don’t let unspoken expectations paint you into a

corner. Offering prudent mission alternatives is part of your duty as flight manager.

III. TCAS

An increasing number of aircraft are equipped with a Traffic Collision Avoidance

System. This device displays the relative position of other transponder equipped

aircraft. Bear in mind that many aircraft may not have transponders, or they may be

inoperable. Nonetheless, TCAS offers a great tool to maintain situational awareness.

The range of coverage is adjustable, and the display shows relative altitudes of other

aircraft in hundreds of feet. A typical TCAS display is shown below:

Fig. 14A typical TCAS display

IV. Hazard Awareness

In addition to watching for hazards that affect your flight, be aware of those hazards

that may impact arriving aircraft or ground units. You probably have the best, if not

the first look at a new fire, so gather what information you can that might help

responding units. A tower or power line may not be a danger to you at your

altitude, but could definitely affect helicopter operations. Routes into the fire area,

fuel type changes or barriers ahead of the fire, or indicators of adverse weather that

could impact fire behavior – thunderstorm outflow, shifting winds etc. – are

examples of information useful, if not critical to firefighters. Reporting accurate,

timely information helps lead to better fire management decisions.

Aerial Observer

Unit 8 – SAFECOM System

Objectives:

Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Understand the intent and use of the SAFECOM system

I. SAFECOM System

The Aviation Safety Communiqué System (SAFECOM) provides a voluntary reporting

system for aviation hazards. Its sole purpose is accident prevention, and is not

intended to be punitive in nature. SAFECOM reporting offers a means to identify

hazards and trends that may result in an aviation mishap.

II. SAFECOM Reporting Protocol

A SAFECOM is intended to report “any condition, observation, act, maintenance

problem, or circumstance with personnel or the aircraft that has the potential to

cause an aviation-related mishap.” This includes incidents resulting in injury or

aircraft damage, but also includes incidents such as airspace intrusions, in-flight

electrical or mechanical problems, communications difficulties and the like.

SAFECOM submission is easy, and can be done on-line at www.safecom.gov.

Instructions are explicit, and a series of drop-down menus will guide you through the

process. Your incident may seem trivial by itself, but when considered with similar

incidents from other units may indicate a larger trend. If you encounter a situation

where you are unclear as to whether a SAFECOM is warranted, your local aviation

personnel can offer guidance.

Aerial Observer

Unit 9 -- Documentation

Objectives:

Upon completion of this unit, students will be able to:

Understand flight time recording, pay documents, contract daily diary and

general record keeping on the local unit

I. Aircraft Timekeeping

Providing the best value to the using agencies and fair compensation to contractors

depends on accurate timekeeping. Become familiar with the terms of aircraft use

whether using an agency or contract airplane. You may be asked to use one of the

agency timekeeping systems such as AMS or ABS. Standby time will likely be

recorded in clock hours, and flight time in either clock hours or time recorded on a

Hobbs meter (Hobbs is a proprietary name, and there are other meters in use, but

all are generally referred to as Hobbs).

Fig. 15Hobbs meter

II. Daily Diary

You may be asked to prepare a daily diary of your operations. This may be in the

form of a prepared document like the NFES 1088 Aircraft Contract Daily Diary, or

some other format. The diary allows recording of duty day and flight operations,

contract or maintenance issues or other relevant details.

III. Introduction ABS/

IV. Cost Summary

You may also be asked to prepare a cost summary, especially when working multiple

incidents on several units in order to correctly allocate payment.

Updated 17 Jan 12